CHAPTER 4
STRUCTURAL
GEOLOGY AND ROCK
MECHANICS
ATTITUDE OF BEDS
BEDS
- are the layers of sedimentary rocks that are distinctly different from
overlying and underlying subsequent beds of different sedimentary
rocks.
- Layers of beds are called strata.
- They are formed from sedimentary rocks being deposited on the
Earth's solid surface over a long period of time.
Attitude refers to the three dimensional orientation or positioning
of a given geological feature, such as a bed, a joint, a fold, etc.
STRIKE
is the direction of a line produced by the intersection of an
imaginary horizontal plane with an inclined bed.
When a bedding plane (or a joint plane, or a fault plane) is
cut by a horizontal plane, a line of intersection will be
obtained at the surface. This direction is known as the
strike, or the direction of the strike, or the line of the strike.
DIP
is the angle between the imaginary horizontal plane
and the inclined bed measured in a plane oriented at
90o to the strike line .
The dip direction is the direction along which the
inclination of the bedding plane occurs. The dip amount is
the angle of inclination between the bedding plane and a
horizontal plane.
Geologists use a Brunton or Silva compass to measure strike and dip. When using
the compass to determine the attitude of a plane the edge of the compass is
placed against the inclined surface and then the bulls-eye bubble is centered. In
this configuration the compass lies in a horizontal plane and its edge is parallel to
the line produced by the intersection of the imaginary horizontal plane and the
inclined surface or layer. The sighting armature points in the direction that this
line is oriented, and this direction is read directly off the compass.
FOLDS, FAULTS, AND
JOINTS
FOLDS
Folds are geologic structures
created when a set of
horizontal layers of Earth’s
crust are subjected to
compressive forces causing
these layers to bend either
upward or downward. The
bend noticed in rocks are
called folds.
PARTS OF FOLD
Limbs
Axial Planes
Axis of Fold
Hinge Line
CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF FOLDS
Anticline Syncline Monocline
A convex fold A concave fold
Is a simple fold
with the oldest with the
youngest strata
structure that
strata at the
center. It is arch- at the center. It consists of a
like, resembling a forms a "U" bend in
rainbow. The shape. The beds otherwise
beds are bent are bent horizontal rock
upwards. downwards. layers.
CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF FOLDS
Symmetrical and Asymmetrical
Symmetrical: When the axial plane divides into two equal
halves in such a way that one half is the mirror image, it is called
symmetrical fold. The axial plane is vertical.
Asymmetrical: If the compressive forces responsible for folding
are not of the same magnitude, asymmetrical folds are formed.
The axial plane is inclined.
CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF FOLDS
Overturned and Recumbent
Overturned Fold: The axial plane is inclined to such an extent
that the strata on one limb are overturned.
Recumbent Fold: In recumbent folds, the folding is so intense
that both the limbs become almost horizontal in this case the
axial plane also becomes nearly horizontal and lower limb gets
overturned.
OTHER NOTABLE FOLDS
Chevron Fold: An angular fold with straight limbs and small
hinges, often forming in response to compressive stress.
Ptygmatic Fold: Chaotic, random, and disconnected folds,
often seen in sedimentary slump folding and migmatites.
Dome: A circular fold where strata dip away from the center
in all directions, with the oldest rocks at the center.
Basin: A circular fold where strata dip toward the center in
all directions, with the youngest rocks at the center.
PTYGMATIC FOLD
CHEVRON FOLD
FAULTS
Faults are fracture in
rocks along which
movement has occurred.
They result from brittle
deformation and can be
classified based on the
direction of movement.
PARTS OF FOLD
Fault Plane
Hanging Wall
Footwall
CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF FOLDS
Normal Fault Reversed Fault Strike Slip Fault
Occurs due to
Form under Is a geological fault where
compressional the movement of tectonic
tensional forces, the
forces, the hanging plates occurs
hanging wall moves predominantly horizontally,
down relative to the wall moves up
parallel to the fault plane in
footwall “Associated relative to the
opposite directions,
with Divergent plate footwall (associated typically due to horizontal
Boundaries” with convergent shearing forces (associated
plate boundaries) with transform plate
boundaries)
JOINTS
Joints are fracture in rocks
where there is a little to no
movement. They form due to
cooling, unloading or tectonic
stress. Unlike faults, joints do
not show significant
displacement they can occur
in parallel sets and often
influence weathering, erosion,
and fluid movement in rocks.
TYPES OF JOINTS
1. Tectonic Joints- Formed by tectonic stresses and movements in
the earth crust.
2. Extension Joints- form when rocks are subjected to tensile
stress, pulling the rock apart, leading to the opening of cracks.
3. Hydraulic Joints- formed by the action of water, such as erosion
or pressure.
4. Exfoliation Joints- Formed by the peeling off of rock layers due
to pressure release.
5. Unloading Joints- Formed by the release of rocks, such as when
overlying is removed.
6. Cooling Joints- Formed by the cooling and contraction of rocks,
such as columnar joints.
Columnar jointing on Akun Island Alaska
Nearly parallel joints in the Navajo Sandstone
Why do people
choose to live
in the Ring of
Fire?
The Ring of Fire is a region
Identify a few reasons
around the Pacific Ocean with why people still choose
many active volcanoes and to live there. Share it
frequent earthquakes. with the class in the
next session.
ROCK
MECHANICS
is a discipline that uses the
principles of mechanics to
describe the behaviour of rocks.
Did You Know?
In 1963, the Rock Mechanics
Committee of the American National
Academy of Science was founded
and the term adopted the following
definition:
Rock mechanics is the theoretical and
applied science of the mechanical
behavior of rock. It is that
branch of mechanics concerned with
the response of rock to the force fields
of its physical environment.
TWO BRANCHES OF ROCK
MECHANICS:
STRUCTURAL ROCK COMMINUTION
MECHANICS
is concerned with which is concerned with
the reduction of rock to
the stability of
small fragments by the
engineering
application of external
structures in which
forces as in
the material is drilling, blasting, cutting
predominantly rock. and grinding.
WHAT IS SO SPECIAL OF
ROCK MECHANICS?
FOR NORMAL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Continuous, Homogeneous, Isotropic, Linearly Elastic
(CHILE)
Properties of the manmade materials are known and can
often be controlled.
FOR ROCKS
Discontinuous, Inhomogeneous, Anisotropic, and Non-
linearly elastic (DIANE)
Properties of the natural geomaterials are unknown and often
can not be controlled.
DISCONTINUITIES
OF ROCKS
Any significant
mechanical break or
fracture of negligible
strength in a rock
2 CLASSIFICATION OF
DISCONTINUITIES
Normal Discontinuities Artificial Discontinuities
Relatively large, smooth,
weathered and infilled
- Relatively small, rough,
1) Fault
and fresh
2) Joint
3) Bedding - No definite pattern for
4) Cleavage orientation
5) Fracture
.
INHOMOGENEITY OF ROCKS
Inhomogeneity of Rock Inhomogeneity of Rock Masses
Materials
Inhomogeneity Inhomogeneity of a
represents rock mass is primarily
property varying due to the existence of
with locations. discontinuities.
ANISOTROPY OF STRESS
ROCKS
Anisotropy is defined as Is the force per unit
variations of properties area that is placed
with respect to the on a rock.
directions concerned in
design and
analysis of rock structures.
TYPES OF STRESS
Normal Stress SHEAR STRESS
When a force
acts When a force
perpendicular acts parallel to
(or "normal") to the surface of
the surface of an an object.
object.
IMPORTANCE OF ROCK
MECHANICS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
Rocks are the most common
material which is used in the
construction of foundation. The
local geology of
an area is important when
planning a major construction. The
full knowledge of geology
increases the
strength, stability, and durability of
civil engineering projects.
WAVE THEORY
SEISMOLOGY
- Study of earthquakes and
seismic waves. - Seismologist
scientist who studies
earthquakes & seismic waves.
Sudden movement within during an earthquake.
SEISMIC
WAVES
- elastic waves generated by
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
explosions, or artificial sources
- Sudden movement within
during an earthquake. travel through and
around the Earth and
Sudden movement within during an earthquake.
can be recorded with
seismometers
TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES
Body Waves Surface Waves
Travel Travel along
through the the Earth's
Earth's surface
interior
Body Waves
1. Primary Waves (P-waves):
Richard Oldham (1897)
Compressional (longitudinal)
waves
Fastest seismic waves (6-
10.4km/sec.)
Travel through the
Can travel through solids, liquids, Sudden movement within during an earthquake.
Earth's interior
and gases
Body Waves
2. Secondary Waves (S-waves):
Richard Oldham (1897)
Shear (transverse) waves
Slower than P-waves(3.4-
7.2km/sec.)
Can only travel through Travel through the
Sudden movement within during an earthquake.
Earth's interior
solids
Surface Waves
1. Love Waves:
Augustus Edward Hough
Love (1911)
Speed 4.5km/se
Cause horizontal
Travel along the Earth's
shearing motion Sudden movement within during an earthquake.
surface
Highly destructive in
earthquakes
Surface Waves
2. Rayleigh Waves:
John William Strutt, Lord
Rayleigh (1885) - Speed
3km/sec
Cause rolling motion
Slower than Love waves but Travel along the Earth's
Sudden movement within during an earthquake.
surface
can be highly damaging
SEISMIC VELOCITY
They define the speed at which
various elastic deformations
propagate through materials.
Each wave has a distinct particle
motion, elastic deformation, and
speed of propagation
Elastic Properties
Define the physical deformation experienced in
response to an applied mechanical force
Energy from initial elastic deformations is
transferred to adjacent materials
Energy transfer continues as deformation
propagates away from the source
Seismic waves describe the speed, direction, and
location of these elastic deformations
Elastic Deformation
Elastic deformation implies that a material returns to its
original volume and shape once the applied force is
removed, conserving energy. A change in volume and/or
shape occurs when a mechanical force is applied. This is
commonly described in terms of:
STRESS STRAIN
Stress
-the internal reaction of the
body to an external force
applied over its cross-
sectional area.
Sudden movement within during an earthquake.
Main Types of
Stress
1. Normal stress- reaction
perpendicular to the
surface of object.
Sudden movement within during an earthquake.
Main Types of
Stress
2. Compressive stress -
reaction due to
compressive force. Sudden movement within during an earthquake.
Main Types of
Stress
3. Tensile stress – reaction
due to tensile force
Sudden movement within during an earthquake.
Main Types of
Stress
4. Shear stress – reaction in
the tangential surface
Sudden movement within during an earthquake.
Seismic Techniques
Seismic Hazard
Potential earthquakes in a particular area.
Seismic Survey
Determines the dynamic characteristics of ground layers using
different seismic methods.
Seismic Tomography
Uses seismic waves produced by earthquakes or explosions to create
subsurface images.
Reflective Seismology
Approximates the properties of the Earth's interior based on reflected
seismic waves.
FACTORS
INFLUENCING WAVE
VELOCITY
WAVE VELOCITY
-The distance travelled by a
periodic or cyclic motion per
unit of time (in any direction)
- The product of the wave's
wavelength (λ) and frequency
(ƒ) and is independent of its
intensity
Wavelenght(λ) Frequency(ƒ)
distance number of
between waves that
identical points pass a point
on consecutive per unit
When of time
a force
waves acts parallel to
the surface of
an object.
1. WAVE TYPE
According to Wave Theory, the
wave type may influence the
velocity of waves, P-waves and S-
waves are both moving fast
through the more rigid material and
move slow through the
more dense material. Only the P-
waves are directly proportional to
the compressibility of the material.
2. ROCK MATERIAL
According to Condie (2016), there's
an average compressional wave
velocities (at 600 MPa and 300 °C)
in variety of rocks. Note that the
order of increasing velocity is not a
simple function of
increasing metamorphic grade
3. ELASTICITY, DENSITY,
AND TEMPERATURE
Wave velocity is proportional to
elasticity and temperature, but
inversely proportional to density.
Elasticity and density are the two
basic physical properties that
govern the velocity of sound waves
through the medium. A sound
wave is an example of a
compressional wave
ELASTICITY, DENSITY, AND TEMPERATURE
ELASTICITY DENSITY TEMPERATURE
The mass per unit Degree or
The ratio of stress volume of the intensity of heat
to strain medium or present in a
substance substance or
object
4. DEPTH
Seismic wave velocities increase with
depth in the continental crust from
6.0-6.2 km/s at depths of less
than 10-6.6 km/s at 25 km depth.
Lower crustal velocities range from
6.8-7.2 km/s. In some continental
crust, there is evidence of a small
discontinuity at mid-crustal depths,
known as Conrad discontinuity, in
which wave velocity increases in
intervals.
5. POISSON’S RATIO
Poisson's ratio is P- to S- wave
velocity. Poisson's ratio rises
with density as rock
composition shifts from felsic
to mafic, as well as with
temperature, since S-wave
velocity falls faster than P-wave
velocity as temperature rises
WHAT IS THE RELEVANCE OF
UNDERSTANDING THE FACTORS THAT
AFFECTING WAVE VELOCITY IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING?
