🌊 Quantum Mechanics — The Wavefunction
🔑 Big Idea
The wavefunction ψ(x, t) encodes all information about a quantum system. Its modulus-squared
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∣ψ(x, t)∣ gives a probability density, and its complex phase encodes interference and dynamics. Unlike
classical waves, the wavefunction is not directly observable, but it governs measurement outcomes.
State |ψ⟩ → Wavefunction ψ(x,t) = ⟨x|ψ⟩
→ Probabilities |ψ|² dx
→ Dynamics from Schrödinger equation
🧾 Definition
• A wavefunction is the representation of a state ∣ψ⟩ in the position basis: $$ \psi(x,t) = \langle x|
\psi(t)\rangle. $$
• In 3D: ψ(r , t) = ⟨r∣ψ(t)⟩ .
• Normalization condition: $$ \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |\psi(x,t)|^2 dx = 1. $$
✦ Recall: Probabilities are conserved under time evolution (unitarity).
📊 Probability Interpretation
• Born Rule: The probability to find the particle between x and x + dx is $$ P(x)dx = |\psi(x,t)|^2 dx. $
$
• Expectation value of position: $$ \langle x \rangle = \int x |\psi(x,t)|^2 dx. $$
⚠ Caution: ψ itself is not a probability density, but its modulus-squared is.
⚙ Dynamics: Schrödinger Equation
For one particle in 1D:
$$ i\hbar \frac{\partial}{\partial t}\psi(x,t) = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m}\frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2}\psi(x,t) + V(x)
\psi(x,t). $$
• The kinetic term (second derivative) spreads the wavepacket.
• The potential term shapes its evolution.
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★ Shortcut: If V (x) is constant, the solution is just a free wave: ψ(x, t) ∼ ei(kx−ωt) .
🌐 Other Representations
• Momentum Space:
$$ \phi(p,t) = \langle p|\psi(t)\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi\hbar}} \int e^{-ipx/\hbar}\,\psi(x,t)\,dx. $$
Here, ∣ϕ(p)∣2 = probability density in momentum.
• General Basis: ψ(x, t) is just one representation of ∣ψ⟩ . Others (momentum, energy, spin) are
equally valid.
✅ Worked Example — Gaussian Wavepacket
Suppose at t =0:
$$ \psi(x,0) = \frac{1}{(\pi a^2)^{1/4}} e^{-x^2/(2a^2)}. $$
• Normalized Gaussian centered at x = 0 , width a .
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• Probability density: ∣ψ∣ = (πa ) 2 −1/2 −x2 /a2
e .
• Expectation values: ⟨x⟩ = 0 , ⟨x2 ⟩ = a2 /2 .
If free particle, wavepacket spreads with time; width grows as Δx(t) ∼ a2 + (ℏt/ma)2 .
🧠 Checks & Intuition
• The wavefunction’s amplitude controls probability; its phase controls interference.
• A localized ψ(x) means spread-out momentum distribution (uncertainty principle).
• Smoothness of ψ ensures finite kinetic energy.
✍ Exercises
1. Normalize ψ(x) = Ae−∣x∣ . Find A .
2. Show that for ψ(x) = eikx , momentum distribution is a delta at p = ℏk .
3. Compute ⟨x⟩ for Gaussian above.
Answers
1. A = 1/ 2 .
2. Fourier transform yields ∣ϕ(p)∣2 = δ(p − ℏk) .
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3. Symmetry → ⟨x⟩ =0.
⚠ Common Pitfalls
• Thinking ψ is an observable: only ∣ψ∣2 is measurable.
• Forgetting normalization during time evolution.
• Mixing representations: ψ(x) vs ϕ(p) .
📌 Quick Reference:
• P (x)dx = ∣ψ(x)∣2 dx
• ϕ(p) = 1 ∫ e−ipx/ℏ ψ(x)dx
2πℏ
• ΔxΔp ≥ ℏ/2
• iℏ∂t ψ = Hψ
