B.N.M.

Institute of Technology
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Semester: V Sem ECE

Scheme: 2022

Course: Digital Image Processing

Course Code: 22ECE51

Faculty: Dr. Keerti Kulkarni

 Digital Image Processing (22ECE151)

MODULE 1
Q1. Define Digital image and Digital Image Processing. What are the 3 types/levels of
computerized processes ranging from image processing to computer vision?
An image may be defined as a two-dimensional function, f(x,y), where x and y are spatial (plane)
coordinates, and the amplitude of f at any pair of coordinates (x, y) is called the intensity or gray level
of the image at that point. When x, y, and the intensity values of f are all finite and discrete quantities,
we call the image as a digital image. Digital image is composed of a finite number of elements each of
which has a particular location and value. These elements are called as pixels/image elements/picture
elements. In equation form, we write the representation of an image as a numerical array shown below

Digital image processing refers to processing digital images by means of a digital computer. Digital
images could have been acquired using imaging machines or systems which are designed to operate in
the entire Electromagnetic (EM) spectrum ranging from Radio waves to Gamma waves. Images are
captured using ultrasound, electron microscopy and also generated using computers with suitable
mathematical rules.
The 3 types/levels of computerized processes are:
Low-level processes involves primitive operations such as image preprocessing to reduce noise, contrast
enhancement and image sharpening. Herein both the inputs and outputs are images
Mid-level processing involves segmentation, description of those objects using attributes and object
recognition
Higher-level processing involves image analysis and performing cognitive operations associated with
vision.
Q2. Give examples of Fields that Use Digital Image Processing OR Explain the applications of
Digital Image Processing based on the frequency of the waves in the EM Spectrum

Figure 1a: EM Spectrum showing energy of one photon

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Figure 1b: EM Spectrum with respect to wavelength

Energy of a photon based on the frequency of the EM waves is as shown in Figure 1. Applications based
on the frequency of the signal used for capturing images are explained below.
Gamma-Ray Imaging
Gamma rays have photons with highest energy. Major uses of imaging based on gamma rays include
nuclear medicine and astronomical observations. In nuclear medicine, the approach is to inject a patient
with a radioactive isotope that emits gamma rays as it decays. Images are produced from the emissions
collected by gamma ray detectors. Images of this sort are used to locate sites of bone pathology, such as
infections or tumors.
X-Ray Imaging
Energy in X- rays is lesser than that of Gamma rays. X-rays for medical and industrial imaging are
generated using an X-ray tube, which is a vacuum tube with a cathode and anode. The cathode is heated,
causing free electrons to be released. These electrons flow at high speed to the positively charged anode.
When the electrons strike a nucleus, energy is released in the form of X-ray radiation. The energy
(penetrating power) of X-rays is controlled by a voltage applied across the anode, and by a current
applied to the filament in the cathode
Angiography is another major application in an area called contrast enhancement radiography. This
procedure is used to obtain images (called angiograms) of blood vessels. A catheter (a small, flexible,
hollow tube) is inserted, for example, into an artery or vein in the groin. The catheter is threaded into
the blood vessel and guided to the area to be studied. When the catheter reaches the site under
investigation, an X-ray contrast medium is injected through the tube. This enhances contrast of the blood
vessels and enables the radiologist to see any irregularities or blockages.
Imaging in the Ultraviolet Band
Applications of ultraviolet “light” are varied. They include lithography, industrial inspection,
microscopy, lasers, biological imaging, and astronomical observations.
Fluorescence microscopy is an excellent method for studying materials that can be made to fluoresce,
either in their natural form (primary fluorescence) or when treated with chemicals capable of fluorescing
(secondary fluorescence).

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Imaging in the Visible and Infrared Bands

The infrared band often is used in conjunction with visual imaging, Currency Notes and number plates
can be read by human beings and can be detected using IR rays.
Another major area of visual processing is remote sensing, which usually includes several bands in the
visual and infrared regions of the spectrum. Weather observation and prediction are major applications
of multispectral imaging from satellites.
Images of fingerprints are routinely processed by computer, either to enhance them or to find features
that aid in the automated search of a database for potential matches.
Imaging in the Microwave Band
The dominant application of imaging in the microwave band is radar. The unique feature of imaging
radar is its ability to collect data over virtually any region at any time, regardless of weather or ambient
lighting conditions. Some radar waves can penetrate clouds, and under certain conditions can also see
through vegetation, ice, and dry sand. In many cases, radar is the only way to explore inaccessible
regions of the Earth’s surface. Distance of the objects can also be estimated using radars using
microwaves
Imaging in the Radio Band
Radio waves have the lowest energy in their photons. The major applications of imaging in the radio
band (at the other end of the spectrum) are in medicine and astronomy. In medicine, radio waves are
used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). This technique places a patient in a powerful magnet and
passes radio waves through his or her body in short pulses. Each pulse causes a responding pulse of
radio waves to be emitted by the patient’s tissues. The location from which these signals originate and
their strength are determined by a computer, which produces a 2D picture of a section of the patient.
MRI can produce pictures in any plane.
Other imaging modalities:
Sound waves have frequency and energy lesser than that of radio waves. Imaging using “sound” finds
application in geological exploration, industry, and medicine. Geological applications use sound in the
low end of the sound spectrum (hundreds of Hz) while imaging in other areas use ultrasound (millions
of Hz). The most important commercial application of image processing in geology are in mineral and
oil exploration. Images of the unborn babies in the womb of a mother are captured using ultra sound
system.
Electron microscopes such as Transmission electron microscope (TEM) and Scanning electron
microscope are used for getting images of bacteria, microorganism etc.
Fractals are computer generated images using mathematical rules for generating random textures, 3 -D
visualization systems for flight simulators, computer animations, criminal forensics, special effects in
movies etc.

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Q3. Explain the Fundamental Steps in Digital Image Processing

The fundamental steps in digital image processing are shown in Figure 2. The diagram in Figure Q3
does not imply that every process is applied to an image. Rather, the intention is to convey an idea of all
the methodologies that can be applied to images for different purposes and possibly with different
objectives.
(i) Image acquisition is the first process. Acquisition could be as simple as being given an image that
is already in digital form. Using high resolution camera. images are captured, digitized and stored in the
non-volatile memory and later can be transferred to computer systems. Generally, the image acquisition
stage involves preprocessing, such as scaling.
(ii) Image enhancement is the process of manipulating an image so that the result is more suitable than
the original for a specific application. There is no general “theory” of image enhancement. When an
image is processed for visual interpretation, the viewer is the ultimate j udge of how well a particular
method works.
(iii) Image restoration is an area which also deals with improving the appearance of an image.
However, unlike enhancement, which is subjective, image restoration is objective, in the sense that
restoration techniques tend to be based on mathematical or probabilistic models of image degradation.
Enhancement, on the other hand, is based on human subjective preferences regarding what constitutes a
“good” enhancement result.
(iv) Color image processing is an area that has been gaining importance because of the significant
increase in the use of digital images over the Internet. Memory requirement and processing differs from
a gray scale image.
(v) Wavelets are the foundation for representing images in various degrees of resolution. Images are
subdivided into small regions. Wavelets are used for the processing of multi-resolution images.
(vi) Compression, as the name implies, deals with techniques for reducing the storage required to save
an image, or the bandwidth required to transmit it. Compressed images are stored in JPEG format.
(vii) Morphological processing deals with tools for extracting image components that are useful in the
representation and description of shape. Set theoretical concepts are used for this.
(viii) Segmentation procedures partition an image into its constituent parts or objects. In general,
autonomous segmentation is one of the most difficult tasks in digital image processing.
(ix) Representation and description almost always follow the output of a segmentation stage, which
usually is raw pixel data, constituting either the boundary of a region (i.e., the set of pixels separating
one image region from another) or all the points in the region itself.
(x) Object Recognition is the process that assigns a label (e.g., “vehicle”) to an object based on its
descriptors.
Knowledge about a problem domain is coded into an image processing system in the form of a

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knowledge database. This knowledge may be as simple as detailing regions of an image where the
information of interest is known to be located, thus limiting the search that has to be conducted in seeking
that information. The knowledge base also can be quite complex, such as an interrelated list of all major
possible defects in a materials inspection problem or an image database containing high -resolution
satellite images of a region in connection with change-detection applications. In addition to guiding the
operation of each processing module, the knowledge base also controls the interaction between modules.

Figure 2: Fundamental Steps in Digital Image Processing (Do not write the Chapter number in
the block diagram)
Q4. Explain the Components of an Image Processing System
Figure 3 shows the basic components comprising a typical general-purpose system used for digital image
processing. With reference to sensing, two elements are required to acquire digital images. The first is a
physical device that is sensitive to the energy radiated by the object we wish to image. The second,
called a digitizer, is a device for converting the output of the physical sensing device into digital form.
Specialized image processing hardware usually consists of the digitizer just mentioned, plus hardware
that performs other primitive operations, such as an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), that performs arithmetic
and logical operations in parallel on entire images. One example of how an ALU is used is in averaging
images as quickly as they are digitized, for the purpose of noise reduction. This type of hardware
sometimes is called a front-end subsystem, and its most distinguishing characteristic is speed. In other
words, this unit performs functions that require fast data throughputs (e.g., digitizing and averaging
video images at 30 frames/s) that the typical main computer cannot handle.
The computer in an image processing system is a general-purpose computer and can range from a PC to
a supercomputer. In dedicated applications, sometimes custom computers are used to achieve a required
level of performance, but our interest here is on general-purpose image processing systems. In these

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systems, almost any well-equipped PC-type machine is suitable for off-line image processing tasks.
Software for image processing consists of specialized modules that perform specific tasks. A well-
designed package also includes the capability for the user to write code that, as a minimum, utilizes the
specialized modules.
Mass storage capability is a must in image processing applications. One method of providing short-term
storage is computer memory. Another is by specialized boards, called frame buffers, that store one or
more images and can be accessed rapidly, usually at video rates. On-line storage generally takes the
form of magnetic disks or optical-media storage. Finally, archival storage is characterized by massive
storage requirements but infrequent need for access.
Image displays in use today are mainly color (preferably flat screen) TV monitors. Monitors are driven
by the outputs of image and graphics display cards that are an integral part of the computer system.
Hardcopy devices for recording images include laser printers, film cameras, heat -sensitive devices,
inkjet units, and digital units, such as optical and CDROM disks. Film provides the highest possible
resolution, but paper is the obvious medium of choice for written material. For presentations, images are
displayed on film transparencies or in a digital medium if image projection equipment is used. The latter
approach is gaining acceptance as the standard for image presentations.
Networking is almost a default function in any computer system in use today. Because of the large
amount of data inherent in image processing applications, the key consideration in image transmission
is bandwidth. In dedicated networks, this typically is not a problem, but communications with remote
sites via the Internet are not always as efficient.

Figure 3: Components of a general purpose image processing system

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Q5. Write a note on Image Sensing and Acquisition

Figure 4(a) shows the three principal sensor arrangements used to transform illumination energy into
digital images. Incoming energy is transformed into a voltage by the combination of input electrical
power and sensor material that is responsive to the particular type of energy being detected. The output
voltage waveform is the response of the sensor(s), and a digital quantity is obtained from each sensor by
digitizing its response.

Figure 4a: Sensor Cell, Sensor Strip/Line array and Sensor Array

Figure 4b: High precision Scanning

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Q6. Write a note on Image Acquisition Using a Single Sensor

Figure 4(a) shows the components of a single sensor. Perhaps the most familiar sensor of this type is the
photodiode, which is composed of silicon materials and whose output voltage waveform is proportional
to light. The use of a filter in front of a sensor improves selectivity. For example, a green (pass) filter in
front of a light sensor favors light in the green band of the color spectrum. As a consequence, the sensor
output will be stronger for green light than for other components in the visible spectr um. In order to
generate a 2-D image using a single sensor, there has to be relative displacements in both the x- and y-
directions between the sensor and the area to be imaged. Figure 8b shows an arrangement used in high-
precision scanning, where a film negative is mounted onto a drum whose mechanical rotation provides
displacement in one dimension. The single sensor is mounted on a lead screw that provides motion in
the perpendicular direction. Because mechanical motion can be controlled with high precision, this
method is an inexpensive (but slow) way to obtain high-resolution images. Other similar mechanical
arrangements use a flat bed, with the sensor moving in two linear directions. These types of mechanical
digitizers sometimes are referred to as microdensitometers.
Q7. Write a note on Image Acquisition Using Sensor Strips
A geometry that is used much more frequently than single sensors consists of an in-line arrangement of
sensors in the form of a sensor strip, as shown in Fig.5(b). The strip provides imaging elements in one
direction. Motion perpendicular to the strip provides imaging in the other direction. This is the type of
arrangement used in most flat-bed scanners. Sensing devices with 4000 or more in-line sensors are
possible. In-line sensors are used routinely in airborne imaging applications, in which the imaging
system is mounted on an aircraft that flies at a constant altitude and speed over the geographical area to
be imaged. One-dimensional imaging sensor strips that respond to various bands of the electromagnetic
spectrum are mounted perpendicular to the direction of flight. The imaging strip gives one line of an
image at a time, and the motion of the strip completes the other dimension of a two-dimensional image.
Lenses or other focusing schemes are used to project the area to be scanned onto the sensors.
Sensor strips mounted in a ring configuration are used in medical and industrial imaging to obtain cross -
sectional (“slice”) images of 3-D objects. A rotating X-ray source provides illumination and the sensors
opposite the source collect the X-ray energy that passes through the object (the sensors obviously have
to be sensitive to X-ray energy). This is the basis for medical and industrial computerized axial
tomography (CAT) imaging.

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Figure
5: Image acquisition using a linear sensor strip and circular sensor strip
Q8. Write a note on Image Acquisition Using Sensor Arrays
Figure 5(c) shows individual sensors arranged in the form of a 2-D array. Numerous electromagnetic
and some ultrasonic sensing devices frequently are arranged in an array format. This is also the
predominant arrangement found in digital cameras. A typical sensor for these cameras is a CCD array,
which can be manufactured with a broad range of sensing properties and can be packaged in rugged
arrays of elements or more. CCD sensors are used widely in digital cameras and other light sensing
instruments. The response of each sensor is proportional to the integral of the light energy projected onto
the surface of the sensor, a property that is used in astronomical and other applications requiring low
noise images. Noise reduction is achieved by letting the sensor integrate the input light signal over
minutes or even hours. Because the sensor array in Fig.5(c) is two-dimensional, its key advantage is that
a complete image can be obtained by focusing the energy pattern onto the surface of the array. Motion
obviously is not necessary, as is the case with the sensor arrangements discussed in the preceding two
sections.
Q11. Explain how an Image is formed in eye.
In an ordinary photographic camera, the lens has a fixed focal length, and focusing at various distances
is achieved by varying the distance between the lens and the imaging plane, where the film (or imaging
chip in the case of a digital camera) is located. In the human eye, the converse is true; the distance
between the lens and the imaging region (the retina) is fixed, and the focal length needed to achieve
proper focus is obtained by varying the shape of the lens. The fibers in the ciliary body accomplish this,
flattening or thickening the lens for distant or near objects, respectively. The distance between the center

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of the lens and the retina along the visual axis is approximately 17 mm. The range of focal lengths is
approximately 14 mm to 17 mm, the latter taking place when the eye is relaxed and focused at distances
greater than about 3 m. The geometry in Figure below, illustrates how to obtain the dimensions of an
image formed on the retina. Perception then takes place by the relative excitation of light receptors,
which transform radiant energy into electrical impulses that ultimately are decoded by the brain.

Figure 6: Graphical representation of the eye looking at a palm tree. Point C is the optical center of the
lens.
The geometry in Fig. 6 illustrates how to obtain the dimensions of an image formed on the retina. For
example, suppose that a person is looking at a tree 15 m high at a distance of 100 m. Letting h denote
the height of that object in the retinal image, the geometry of Fig. 6 yields 15/100 = h/17 or h = 2.55m.
The retinal image is focused primarily on the region of the fovea. Perception then takes place by the
relative excitation of light receptors, which transform radiant energy into electrical impulses that
ultimately are decoded by the brain.
Q12. Explain the Illumination Reflectance model.
We denote images by two-dimensional functions of the form shown below.

The value or amplitude of f at spatial coordinates is a positive scalar quantity whose physical meaning
is determined by the source of the image. When an image is generated from a physical process, its
intensity values are proportional to energy radiated by a physical source (e.g., electromagnetic waves).
As a consequence, must be nonzero and finite; that is,

The function may be characterized by two components:(1) the amount of source illumination incident
on the scene being viewed, and (2) the amount of illumination reflected by the objects in the scene.
Appropriately, these are called the illumination and reflectance components and are denoted by i(x,y)

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and r(x,y) respectively. The two functions combine as a product to form :

Equation above indicates that reflectance is bounded by 0 (total absorption) and 1 (total reflectance).
The nature of is determined by the illumination source, and is determined by the characteristics of the
imaged objects. It is noted that these expressions also are applicable to images formed via transmission
of the illumination through a medium, such as a chest X-ray. In this case, we would deal with a
transmissivity instead of a reflectivity function.
Q13. Explain the functions of rods and cones along with the human eye structure
and its details.
The eye is nearly a sphere, with an average diameter of approximately 20 mm. Three membranes enclose
the eye: the cornea and sclera outer cover; the choroid; and the retina. The cornea is a tough, transparent
tissue that covers the anterior surface of the eye. Continuous with the cornea, the sclera is an opaque
membrane that encloses the remainder of the optic globe. The choroid lies directly below the sclera. This
membrane contains a network of blood vessels that serve as the major source of nutrition to t he eye.
Even superficial injury to the choroid, often not deemed serious, can lead to severe eye damage as a
result of inflammation that restricts blood flow. The choroid coat is heavily pigmented and hence helps
to reduce the amount of extraneous light entering the eye and the backscatter within the optic globe. At
its anterior extreme, the choroid is divided into the ciliary body and the iris. The latter contracts or
expands to control the amount of light that enters the eye. The central opening of the ir is (the pupil)
varies in diameter from approximately 2 to 8 mm. The front of the iris contains the visible pigment of
the eye, whereas the back contains a black pigment. The lens is made up of concentric layers of fibrous
cells and is suspended by fibers that attach to the ciliary body. It contains 60 to 70% water, about 6%
fat, and more protein than any other tissue in the eye. The lens is colored by a slightly yellow
pigmentation that increases with age. In extreme cases, excessive clouding of the lens, caused by the
affliction commonly referred to as cataracts, can lead to poor color discrimination and loss of clear
vision. The lens absorbs approximately 8% of the visible light spectrum, with relatively higher
absorption at shorter wavelengths. Both infrared and ultraviolet light are absorbed appreciably by
proteins within the lens structure and, in excessive amounts, can damage the eye. The innermost
membrane of the eye is the retina, which lines the inside of the wall’s entire posterior portion. When the
eye is properly focused, light from an object outside the eye is imaged on the retina. Pattern vision is
afforded by the distribution of discrete light receptors over the surface of the retina. There are two classes

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of receptors: cones and rods. The cones in each eye number between 6 and 7 million. They are located
primarily in the central portion of the retina, called the fovea, and are highly sensitive to color. Humans
can resolve fine details with these cones largely because each one is connected to its own nerve end.
Muscles controlling the eye rotate the eyeball until the image of an object of interest falls on the fovea.
Cone vision is called photopic or bright-light vision. ght-light vision. The number of rods is much larger:
Some 75 to 150 million are distributed over the retinal surface. The larger area of distribution and the
fact that several rods are connected to a single nerve end reduce the amount of detail discernible by these
receptors. Rods serve to give a general, overall picture of the field of view. They are not involved in
color vision and are sensitive to low levels of illumination. For example, objects that appear brightly
colored in daylight when seen by moonlight appear as colorless forms because only the rods are
stimulated. This phenomenon is known as scotopic or dim-light vision.

Figure 7 : Simplified diagram of a cross section of the human eye.

Figure 8 : Distribution of rods and cones in the retina.

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Q14. Explain the concepts of Sampling and Quantization with respect to Image Processing.

Figure 1: Image, sampling, quantization and digitization

Digitizing the coordinate values is called sampling. Digitizing the amplitude values is called
quantization.
This digitization process requires that decisions be made regarding the values for M, N, and for the
number, L, of discrete intensity levels. There are no restrictions placed on M and N, other than they have
to be positive integers. However, due to storage and quantizing hardware considerations, the number of
intensity levels typically is an integer power of 2:
𝐿 = 2𝑘
We assume that the discrete levels are equally spaced and that they are integers in the interval
Sometimes, the range of values spanned by the gray scale is referred to informally as the dynamic range.
This is a term used in different ways in different fields. Here, we define the dynamic range of an imaging
system to be the ratio of the maximum measurable intensity to the minimum [0, L - 1].
The number, b, of bits required to store a digitized image is M x N x k
Q15. Define the terms - Spatial Resolution and Intensity Resolution.
Spatial resolution is a measure of the smallest discernible detail in an image. Quantitatively,spatial
resolution can be stated in a number of ways, with line pairs per unit distance, and dots (pixels) per unit
distance being among the most common measures. A widely used definition of image resolution is the largest
number of discernible line pairs per unit distance (e.g., 100 lines pairs per mm). Dots per unit distance
is a measure of image resolution used commonly in the printing and publishing industry. Reducing the
spatial resolution of an images reduces the quality of an image, producing a checkerboard effect.
Intensity resolution similarly refers to the smallest discernible change in intensity level. Unlike spatial
resolution, which must be based on a per unit of distance basis to be meaningful, it is common practice

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to refer to the number of bits used to quantize intensity as the intensity resolution. For example, it is
common to say that an image whose intensity is quantized into 256 levels has 8 bits of intensity
resolution. Because true discernible changes in intensity are influenced not only by noise and saturation
values but also by the capabilities of human perception, saying than an image has 8 bits of intensity
resolution is nothing more than a statement regarding the ability of an 8-bit system to quantize intensity
in fixed increments of units of intensity amplitude.
Reducing the intensity resolution causes false contouring. It is caused by the use of an insufficient
number of intensity levels in smooth areas of a digital image.
Q16. Describe Brightness Adaptation and Discrimination
As the digital images are displayed as a discrete set of intensities, the eye’s ability to discriminate
between different intensity levels is an important consideration in presenting image processing results.
The range of light intensity levels to which the human visual system can adapt is enormous—on the
order of 1010 from the scotopic threshold to the glare limit. Experimental evidence indicates that
subjective brightness (intensity as perceived by the human visual system) is a logarithmic function of
the light intensity incident on the eye.
Figures 2a and 2b shows the brightness sensation curve and variation of weber ratio as a function of
intensity. The long solid curve represents the range of intensities to which the visual system can adapt.
In photopic vision alone, the range is about the transition from scotopic to photopic vision is gradual
over the approximate range from 0.001. to 0.1 millilambert (to in the log scale), as the double branches
of the adaptation curve in this range show.
The essential point in interpreting the impressive dynamic range is that the visual system cannot operate
over such a range simultaneously. Rather, it accomplishes this large variation by changing its overall
sensitivity, a phenomenon known as brightness adaptation. The total range of distinct intensity levels
the eye can discriminate simultaneously is rather small when compared with the total adaptation range.
For any given set of conditions, the current sensitivity level of the visual system is called the brightness
adaptation level, which may correspond, for example, to brightness. The short intersecting curve
represents the range of subjective brightness that the eye can perceive when adapted to this level. This
range is rather restricted, having a level at and below which all stimuli are perceived as indistinguishable
blacks. The upper portion of the curve is not actually restricted but, if extended too far, loses its meaning
because much higher intensities would simply raise the adaptation level higher than B a.

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Fig 2a: Range of Subjective Brightness Fig 2b: Weber Ratio as a function of Intensity

Q17. What are Isotropic Curves? Explain with a diagram.

Sets of three types of images - Facial image of Lena, Cameraman and crowd were generated by varying
N and k,and observers were then asked to rank them according to their subjective quality. Results were
summarized in the form of so-called isopreference curves in the Nk-plane. Each point in the Nk-plane
represents an image having values of N and k equal to the coordinates of that point. Points lying on an
isopreference curve correspond to images of equal subjective quality. It was found in the course of the
experiments that the isopreference curves tended to shift right and upward, but their shapes in each of
the three image categories were similar. This is not unexpected, because a shift up and right in the curves
simply means larger values for N and k, which implies better picture quality.
The key point of interest in the context of the present discussion is that isopreference curves tend to
become more vertical as the detail in the image increases. This result suggests that for images with a
large amount of detail only a few intensity levels may be needed. For example, the isopreference curve
corresponding to the crowd is nearly vertical. This indicates that, for a fixed value of N, the perceived
quality for this type of image is nearly independent of the number of intensity levels used. It is of interest
also to note that perceived quality in the other two image categories remained the same in some intervals
in which the number of samples was increased, but the number of intensity levels actually decreased.
The most likely reason for this result is that a decrease in k tends to increase the apparent contrast, a
visual effect that humans often perceive as improved quality in an image.

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Figure 3: Isotropic Curves

Q18. What is Image Interpolation? Explain in detail .
Interpolation is a basic tool used extensively in tasks such as zooming, shrinking, rotating and geometric
corrections. Fundamentally, interpolation is the process of using known data to estimate values at
unknown locations. Suppose that an image of size pixels has to be enlarged 1.5 times to pixels. A simple
way to visualize zooming is to create an imaginary grid with the same pixel spacing as the original, and
then shrink it so that it fits exactly over the original image. Obviously, the pixel spacing in the shrunken
grid will be less than the pixel spacing in the original image. To perform intensity-level assignment for
any point in the overlay, we look for its closest pixel in the original image and assign the intensity of
that pixel to the new pixel in the grid. When we are finished assigning intensities to all the points in the
overlay grid, we expand it to the original specified size to obtain the zoomed image. The method just
discussed is called nearest neighbor interpolation because it assigns to each new location the intensity
of its nearest neighbor in the original image. A more suitable approach is bilinear interpolation, in which
we use the four nearest neighbors to estimate the intensity at a given location. Let (x, y) denote the
coordinates of the location to which we want to assign an intensity value (think of it as a point of the
grid described previously), and let v(x, y) denote that intensity value. For bilinear interpolation the
assigned value is obtained using the equation

where the four coefficients are determined from the four equations in four unknowns that can be written
using the four nearest neighbors of point. Bilinear interpolation gives much better results than nearest
neighbor interpolation, with a modest increase in computational burden. The next level of complexity is
bicubic interpolation, which involves the sixteen nearest neighbors of a point. The intensity value
assigned to point is obtained using the equation

where the sixteen coefficients are determined from the sixteen equations in sixteen unknowns that can

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be written using the sixteen nearest neighbors of point.

Q19. Explain some basic relationships between pixels with respect to neighbors of a pixel.
A pixel p at coordinates (x, y) has four horizontal and vertical neighbors whose coordinates are given
by

This set of pixels, called the 4-neighbors of p is denoted by N4(p). Each pixel is at a unit distance from
(x, y) and some of the neighbor locations of p lie outside the digital image if (x, y) is on the border of
the image.
The four diagonal neighbors of p have coordinates

and are denoted by ND(p).

These points, together with the 4-neighbors, are called the 8-neighbors of p, denoted by N8(p). Some of
the neighbor locations may fall outside the image if (x, y) is on the border of the image.
Q7. Explain 4-Adjacency, 8- adjacency and m-adjacency.
Let V be the set of intensity values used to define adjacency.
Binary image consists of only 2 intensity values, where 0 represents black and 1 represents white. In a
binary image, V = {1}, if we are referring to adjacency of pixels with value 1. In a gray-scale image, the
idea is the same, but set V typically contains more elements. For example, in the adjacency of pixels
with a range of possible intensity values 0 to 255, set V could be any subset of these 256 values. We
consider three types of adjacency:
(a) 4-adjacency. Two pixels p and q with values from V are 4-adjacent if q is in the set N4(p)
(b) 8-adjacency. Two pixels p and q with values from V are 8-adjacent if q is in the set N8(p)
(c) m-adjacency (mixed adjacency). Two pixels p and q with values from V are m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p) or (ii) q is in ND(p) and the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) has no pixels whose values are from V.
Mixed adjacency is a modification of 8-adjacency. It is introduced to eliminate the ambiguities that often
arise when 8-adjacency is used.

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Figure 4: Binary image, ambiguity in 8-adjacency, m-adjacency, Connected regions, closed path
for the pixed, closed path of 0.
Q20. Explain the different Distance Measures along with formulae.
For pixels p, q and z, with coordinates (x, y), (s, t) and (v, w) respectively, D is a distance function or
metric if

The Euclidean distance between p and q is defined as

For this distance measure, the pixels having a distance less than or equal to some value r from (x, y) are
the points contained in a disk of radius r centered at (x, y).
The City block distance (D4 distance) between p and q is defined as

In this case, the pixels having a distance from (x, y) less than or equal to some value r form a diamond
centered at (x, y). For example, the pixels with distance from (x, y) (the center point) form the following
contours of constant distance:

The pixels with D4 = 1 are the 4-neighbors of (x, y).

The chessboard distance (D8 distance) between p and q is defined as

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 Digital Image Processing (22ECE151)

In this case, the pixels with D8 distance from (x, y) less than or equal to some value r form a square
centered at 0. For example, the pixels with D8 distance ≤ 2 from (x, y) (the center point) form the
following contours of constant distance as shown below.

Q21. Explain Linear and Non Linear Operations with examples

Consider a general operator, H, that produces an output image, g(x, y), for a given input image, f(x, y):

H is said to be a linear operator if

Where ai, aj, fi (x, y) and fj (x, y) are arbitrary constants and images (of the same size), respectively. The
above equation indicates that the output of a linear operation due to the sum of two inputs is the same as
performing the operation on the inputs individually and then summing the results. In addition, the output
of a linear operation to a constant time an input is the same as the output of the operation due to the
original input multiplied by that constant. The first property is called the property of additivity and the
second is called the property of homogeneity.
As a simple example, suppose that H is the sum operator, that is, the function of this operator is simply
to sum its inputs.

Example: Sum operator is linear and max operator is non-linear. The example below shows that a max

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operator is a non-linear operator. Consider the following two images

and suppose that we let a1 = 1 and a2 = -1. To test for linearity, we again start with the left side of the
equation described above

Working next with the right side, we obtain

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