JABET

Journal of Advanced Biotechnology

REVIEW ARTICLE
J Adv Biotechnol Exp Ther. 2025 Sep; 8(3): 405-419
eISSN: 2616-4760, [Link]
and Experimental Therapeutics Published by [Link]

Exploring the impact of plant-based diets on environmental

sustainability and human health
Najifa Kamal Koli1 , Rifat Binte Munsur2 , Nusrat Zahan Rouf1, *
1Department of Biochemistry & Microbiology, School of Health & Life Sciences, North South University, Bashundhara, Dhaka, Bangladesh
2Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, School of Science, University of Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia

*Corresponding author ABSTRACT

Nusrat Zahan Rouf
Plant-based diets are at the forefront of promoting human health and environmental
Department of Biochemistry &
Microbiology, School of Health & sustainability. In addition, they play a critical role in preventing the extinction of many
Life Sciences, North South ICLE
species, safeguarding land and water resources that humans utilize on a global scale, and
University, Bashundhara, Dhaka,
Bangladesh. mitigating the effects of climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Whole food
Email: nusrat.rouf01@[Link] and plant-based diets have lower environmental footprints. As the world's population grows
and the ecological consequences increase, more significant efforts are necessary to improve
Academic editor
Md. Abdul Hannan, PhD food system sustainability. Given these environmental advantages, plant-based goods are
Bangladesh Agricultural University, among the best ways to combat climate change and preserve natural resources while also
Bangladesh
contributing to the global sustainability goal. In public health, plant-based diets are associated
Article info with a lower incidence of chronic diseases such as heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and specific
Received: 23 June 2025 types of cancer. Focusing on nutrient-dense foods rather than calorie-controlled diets may
Accepted: 11 August 2025
Published: 19 August 2025 assist in weight management and improve overall wellness. However, this initiative to
consume more vegetables is not without obstacles. This review highlights the current
Keywords
understanding of how plant-based diets can significantly impact environmental and health
Environment, Human health,
Nutrient intake, Plant-based diets, consequences. The challenges of consuming the appropriate amount of nutrients are
Sustainable food examined in this review, along with ways to lower costs and increase accessibility. Moreover,
the possible mechanistic pathways through which plant-based diets affect health and the
environment are critically discussed, underscoring the gaps where further research is needed.

INTRODUCTION

Human perceptions of food are changing in fascinating ways on a daily basis. Although
ethical, health, and environmental sustainability problems are linked, plant-based diets
are becoming increasingly popular among scientists, consumers, and legislators [1].
Despite the increasing adoption of plant-based diets, significant research gaps remain
in comprehensive and comparative analyses of their environmental footprints and
Copyright: © by the authors. This health outcomes across numerous varieties of plant-based dietary patterns, such as
article is an open access article vegetarian, vegan, and flexitarian diets. Addressing this gap is critical for informing
distributed under the terms and sustainable food systems and promoting healthier lifestyles [2].
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0) Our eating habits and interactions with the intricate network of life that supports us
International license. could alter more than simply what we consume. The necessity for a nutrition and plant-
based food revolution is becoming widely recognized owing to the growing worldwide
burden of chronic illness, depletion of resources, and the need to slow down the rate of
climate change [3]. The available data shows that a plant-based diet and our
dependence on it may improve human health, save the planet, and transform our food
systems significantly. Currently, two of the most complex problems all around the
globe are human health and the long-term sustainability of the environment. It is

[Link]/jabet Koli et al., J Adv Biotechnol Exp Ther. 2025 Sep; 8(3): 405-419
405
 commonly described in the scientific literature that animal agriculture underpins many
of these issues with current modes of food production [3]. While a singular solution to
these challenges remains elusive, adopting plant-based diets may significantly improve
human health and reduce the demand for freshwater resources. Plant-based diets
emphasize the consumption of plant-derived foods, such as fruits, vegetables, whole
grains, legumes or pulses, beans, nuts, and seeds have substantially lower
environmental footprints. These foods can be prepared in various ways; however, they
typically limit oil intake and exclude fully processed animal products [4, 5].
The earth is seriously threatened by our industrial food system, which depends heavily
on farm animals. According to the animal agricultural industry was responsible for 14.5%
of the direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions created by the land use/food chain
on final emission effects [6]. Animal agriculture is a prominent contributor to climate
change, with methane being one of the most concerning byproducts. However,
enlarged livestock farming requires considerable land for grazing and feed production,
leading to habitat degradation or deforestation [7]. In this case, a plant-based diet offers
two impressive benefits. Numerous studies have shown that vegan diets have far less
impact on the environment than diets containing animal-derived foods produced by
animals. By substituting plant-based foods, we can both feed ourselves and preserve
the delicate balance of our planet [8]. Plant-based diets have several benefits that go
well beyond environmental sustainability. An increasing amount of research has
indicated that they positively affect human health. Similarly, one of the issues from the
World Health Organization European Region (2020) stated that plant-based diets could
result in a lower risk of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases (CVD), Type II
diabetes, and several cancers [9]. A diet rich in fiber, vitamins, and minerals that also
provides antioxidants is essential for good health and well-being. It is critical to
understand that meticulous preparation is required for plant-based meals, especially
vegan diets, to ensure sufficient consumption of vital minerals, such as iron, vitamin
B12, and omega-3 fatty acids [10].
In addition to personal dietary preferences, plant-based diets are also being
investigated. It examines the complex contexts (social, cultural, environmental, and
economic) that shape not only what out-of-hand-like food is produced but also how it
might be used. A recent study demonstrates that plant-based diets may contribute to
various Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), encompassing hunger, health, and
environmental sustainability [11]. Business and innovation also benefit from the switch
to plant-based diets. Plant-based meat alternatives are increasingly favoured since they
fulfil health and sustainability objectives while preserving flavour and texture. This
study dives thoroughly into the delicate relationship between plant-based diets,
environmental sustainability, and human health. We sought to analyze the following
key aims in order to provide a full explanation of various plant-based diets, including
lenient, vegetarian, and vegan diet plans. A rigorous scoping evaluation analyzes
animal and plant-based food production's environmental footprints [12]. In this review,
we will look at how eating more plant-based foods could potentially reduce resource
use and encourage ecosystem regeneration. The land, water, and greenhouse gas costs
of animal farming are all taken into account in this analysis. Plant-based diet research
and health effects were also assessed.
The present scientific study associates plant-based diets with a reduced risk of heart
disease, the prevention of type 2 diabetes, and certain cancers. A range of techniques
has been developed to address these challenges and support the development of
healthy nutritional patterns. This review aims to deliver an impartial and thorough
evaluation of plant-based diets and their diverse impacts on the environment and

[Link]/jabet Koli et al., J Adv Biotechnol Exp Ther. 2025 Sep; 8(3): 405-419
406
 public health. This review also aims to emphasize the possibility of adopting plant-
centric dietary habits as a strategy for advancing sustainable development and
enhancing global health outcomes.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF PLANT-BASED DIETS

A plant-based diet significantly reduced natural greenhouse gas emissions compared
with diets based on animal products. Livestock farming contributes to nitrous oxide
and methane emissions. Moreover, both are greenhouse gases (GHGs). Therefore,
reducing the consumption of animal-based diets also reduces the production of these
gases [13]. A lean-based diet requires fewer resources, such as less land and water.
Plant-based farming also helps to preserve biodiversity and natural habitats. Plant-
based diets also help mitigate deforestation and soil degradation. This also promotes
the development of a resilient and sustainable ecosystem [14]. A shift towards plant-
centric eating patterns can substantially lower the overall carbon footprint of food
systems, with studies indicating that vegetarian and vegan diets can reduce food-
related greenhouse gas emissions by one-third to one-half, respectively, compared to
omnivorous diets [15].

Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

Greenhouse gases are the primary driver of climate change. Therefore, plant-based
diets play a crucial role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Livestock farming is a
significant source of GHG emissions, including carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous
oxide [6].
i. Methane emissions: Methane is a potent greenhouse gas with a warming potential of
25 percent greater than carbon dioxide over ten years [16]. Ruminants such as cows,
sheep, and goats produce methane during digestion through fermentation. Therefore,
adopting a plant-based diet reduces the demand for animal-raised food. This reduces
the methane emissions from enteric fermentation and manure [6].
ii. Carbon Dioxide emission: This is the most significant contributor to global warming.
Simultaneously, a large amount of fossil fuel is required to produce food for animals,
such as feed production, transportation, and processing. Carbon dioxide levels also
increase while cultivating feed crops and deforestation, as trees and vegetation remove
carbon [17].
iii. Nitrous oxide emission: Nitrous oxide is another potent greenhouse gas that causes
global warming, approximately 298 times that of carbon dioxide over 100 years [16].
This gas is primarily released from agricultural soils by synthetic and organic fertilizers.
Livestock farming significantly contributes to nitrogen monoxide emissions because of
the use of nitrogen-based fertilizers in livestock production [18].
iv. Life cycle emission: Activities such as animal rearing, slaughtering, processing, and
transportation result in high GHG emissions compared to plant-based diets. Studies
have shown that the life cycle stage of plant-based foods releases a lower carbon
footprint than an animal-based diet. For example, one kilogram of beef produces 60
kilograms equivalent of carbon dioxide, whereas one kilogram of legume results in
only 0.9 kilograms of carbon dioxide emissions [14].

[Link]/jabet Koli et al., J Adv Biotechnol Exp Ther. 2025 Sep; 8(3): 405-419
407
 Land use and deforestation
Plant-based diets have profound implications for land use and deforestation. Food
production affects nature and the environment because it affects soil health,
biodiversity, and carbon sequestration [6]. Animal agriculture requires intensive land to
produce meat from cattle because land is needed for grazing, growing crops, and
feeding crops. It takes 20 times more land to raise one calorie of beef than one calorie of
vegetables [19]. In comparison, plant-based farming is more land-efficient. Unlike
animal feed, crops are grown for direct human consumption. As a result, more people
can be fed with less land and time. This will also help in reforestation and conservation
by freeing up space [19].
Animal agriculture is a major cause of deforestation. Especially in tropical regions,
forests are cleared to create space for livestock and crops, such as soy, which are used
as animal feed [20]. Eighty percent of the deforestation in the Amazon rainforest is
attributed to cattle ranching [21]. Deforestation threatens biodiversity and releases the
carbon stored in trees and soil [22].

Water use
Water is an important agricultural resource. Water is used in food production, thereby
affecting environmental sustainability. A plant-based diet offers more sustainable use
of water resources than animal production [6]. Livestock farming is water-intensive
because it requires significant amounts of water to grow feed crops, provide animals
with drinking water, and maintain sanitary conditions. For example, one kg of beef
requires approximately 15,000 liters of water, and one kilogram of chicken requires
approximately 4,300 liters of water [23]. Water also grows livestock feed crops such as
soy and corn [24].
A plant-based diet requires a significantly lower water footprint. Crops are grown for
direct human consumption, which makes this process more water-efficient. Conversely,
producing animal feed involves the extraction of water from rivers, lakes, and canals,
leading to water depletion and affecting its availability for domestic and other
agricultural uses [25].

PLANT-BASED FOODS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS

In addition to the general environmental advantages of plant-based diets, specific types
of plant-based food offer distinct benefits illustrated in Figure 1. The environmental
impact of vegetarian and vegan diets, for instance, is considerably lower than that of
omnivorous diets, primarily due to reduced greenhouse gas emissions and resource
consumption [26]. For instance, legumes such as lentils and chickpeas improve soil
nitrogen fixation, thereby reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers, which are energy-
intensive to produce [27]. Whole grains require less energy and water compared to
animal agriculture, making them a sustainable staple in plant-based diets. Conversely,
the environmental footprint of highly processed plant-based meat substitutes, while
still generally lower than animal products, warrants careful consideration regarding
their land and water usage, and associated greenhouse gas emissions [28]. Nuts and
seeds provide nutritional value with a smaller environmental impact. However, the
cultivation of some nuts, particularly almonds, can be water-intensive, presenting a
localized environmental concern [29]. Furthermore, fruits and vegetables contribute
positively to biodiversity when cultivated using sustainable agricultural practices like

[Link]/jabet Koli et al., J Adv Biotechnol Exp Ther. 2025 Sep; 8(3): 405-419
408
 permaculture or agroforestry, which integrate trees and shrubs into crop and animal
farming systems [19] and require fewer resources and promote ecological resilience [12].
The impact of plant-based diets on the environment is described below.

Figure 1. Some of the commonly consumed plant-based foods and their benefits. This figure highlights the
environmental advantages of incorporating plant-based foods into the diet, supporting sustainable
agriculture and resource conservation efforts [6, 17, 30].

Biodiversity conservation
Plant-based diets have a positive impact on biodiversity. The production and
consumption of food directly impact ecosystems and wildlife. Animal agriculture is one
of the major drivers of habitat destruction because large areas of forests and grasslands
are cleared to produce feed crops for livestock [6]. Growing feed crops requires
chemicals detrimental to the local ecosystem, affecting non-target species such as birds,
aquatic life, and pollinators [18]. In contrast, plant-based methods require less chemical
input. Sustainable plant-based farming enhances biodiversity by creating wildlife-
friendly habitats [31].

Climate change
A plant-based diet can significantly impact climate change, which is a pressing global
challenge. The relationship between diet and climate is both important and complex.
Adopting a plant-based diet can benefit climate change mitigation by reducing
greenhouse gas emissions, preserving forests and natural habitats, and conserving
water [6]. People consuming fewer animal products will also help reduce methane
emissions because plant-based food requires less energy to produce, resulting in lower
carbon emissions [32]. A plant-based diet also requires less fertilizer during production,
which reduces nitrous oxide emissions [18]. Deforestation is driven by intensive land
use to produce feed. Animal food requires substantial energy, from growing feed to
processing meat, and relies heavily on fossil fuels [17]. In contrast, plant-based foods
require less energy and support renewable energy in agriculture, such as using wind
energy for irrigation, which helps to reduce the carbon footprint [31].

[Link]/jabet Koli et al., J Adv Biotechnol Exp Ther. 2025 Sep; 8(3): 405-419
409
 Sustainable food systems
A sustainable food system ensures the well-being of the planet and future generations.
Such a system encompasses economic viability, environment-friendly practices, and
social equity [33]. A sustainable food system also supports efficient resource use, as
plant-based foods are produced for direct human consumption, requiring less land and
water than animal-based foods [6]. Plant-based food is more cost-effective than raising
livestock because fewer production cycles are required, which reduces expenses [30].
Livestock production costs help to maintain a reasonable price and enhance food
security by ensuring nutritious food for all [34]. Additionally, plant-based food systems
create job opportunities in the agriculture, food processing, and retail sectors, which
improves social sustainability and public health [31]. Plant-based diets have numerous
health benefits, such as lowering the risk of heart disease, cancer, and diabetes [35].
Plant-based diets also reduce healthcare costs by decreasing diet-related diseases and
promoting overall well-being [36]. This efficiency in agriculture increases food security
and promotes a stable and resilient food supply that meets the nutritional needs of the
global population [17].

HUMAN HEALTH BENEFITS OF PLANT-BASED DIETS

Plant-based diets help improve overall health and reduce the incidence of chronic
diseases. When a person consumes various vegetables, fruits, nuts, and whole grains,
they all provide fiber, nutrients, and antioxidants, which help in optimal health [37].

Obesity
Plant-based diets play a crucial role in reducing obesity. Plant-based diets are lower in
calories but richer in nutrients than animal-based diets [38]. Plant-based products help
maintain and reduce overall calorie intake while providing the necessary nutrients.
Low-calorie rich foods, such as fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole grains,
contribute to this effect, as consuming these foods in large portions still results in fewer
calories, which aids in weight management [39]. High-fiber foods, such as grains and
fruits, are also prevalent in plant-based diets and help reduce hunger by slowing
digestion and keeping individuals full for longer [40]. Additionally, plant-based foods
are rich in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants that support healthy metabolism,
reduce inflammation, and ensure adequate nutrition [41].

Cardiovascular disease
Plant-based diets also help improve cardiovascular health by reducing the risk of
diseases related to stroke, heart disease, and other cardiovascular conditions [42]. Plant-
based foods typically have lower cholesterol levels than animal products [43]. Foods
high in soluble fiber, such as fruits, beans, and oats, help reduce cholesterol by binding
it to the digestive system and promoting its excretion [44]. This diet also improves
blood pressure, which is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Plant-based
diets, enriched with potassium-rich foods such as vegetables and fruits, help regulate
blood pressure levels, as potassium reduces blood vessel tension and lowers blood
pressure [45, 46]. Additionally, a plant-based diet reduces inflammation due to its high
content of anti-inflammatory foods, such as vegetables, nuts, and seeds, which reduce
oxidative stress and protect against damage [47].

[Link]/jabet Koli et al., J Adv Biotechnol Exp Ther. 2025 Sep; 8(3): 405-419
410
 Diabetes
Plant-based diets play a positive role in the prevention and management of diabetes. A
diet consisting of whole foods rich in nutrients and fiber helps maintain healthy blood
sugar levels and improves insulin sensitivity [45]. Foods high in fiber slow the
absorption of sugar into the bloodstream, which decreases glucose spikes and
maintains steady sugar levels [40]. Complex carbohydrates take longer to break down
than refined carbohydrates do, gradually releasing glucose [41]. A plant-based diet also
improves insulin sensitivity, allowing the body to use insulin more effectively and
reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes [48]. Numerous studies have indicated that a diet
rich in whole and unprocessed foods helps prevent metabolic syndromes and chronic
diseases [49].

Hypertension
Blood pressure and hypertension are common issues that can lead to various health
problems, such as heart disease and stroke. A plant-based diet is helpful in managing
and preventing health issues. Plant-based foods are rich in potassium, which helps
balance sodium in the body, reducing strain on blood vessel walls and lowering blood
pressure [45]. Foods, such as bananas, sweet potatoes, beans, spinach, and avocado, are
excellent sources of potassium and assist in managing blood pressure by counteracting
sodium [45, 49]. Additionally, plant-based diets are naturally lower in sodium than
animal-based diets, which helps significantly reduce sodium intake [48]. Plant-based
foods also contain high levels of antioxidants and healthy fats. Berries, leafy greens, and
nuts provide antioxidants, which promote optimal blood flow. Simultaneously, healthy
fats such as omega-3 fatty acids found in flaxseeds, walnuts, and chia seeds benefit
cardiovascular health [42]. To visually summarize these benefits, refer to Figure 2,
which depicts the key health benefits of plant-based diets, including hypertension
regulation, cancer prevention, gut health, bone health, and longevity.

Figure 2. Human health benefits of plant-based diets. This figure highlights 5 major areas supported by plant-
based eating patterns: hypertension & blood pressure regulation, cancer prevention, gut health, bone health,
and longevity. Each branch outlines specific nutrient contributions and physiological effects associated with
plant-derived foods.

[Link]/jabet Koli et al., J Adv Biotechnol Exp Ther. 2025 Sep; 8(3): 405-419
411
 Cancer
A plant-based diet is associated with a lower risk of developing different types of
cancer. Whole-plant foods are rich in nutrients, fiber, and phytochemicals, which work
together to help prevent cancer [50]. A balanced diet that includes antioxidants such as
vitamin C helps protect cells from oxidative stress and damage caused by free radicals
[45]. Plant phytochemicals have cancer-fighting properties, reduce inflammation, and
enhance the immune system [51].
High-fiber foods and dietary fibers play crucial roles in cancer prevention by
maintaining the digestive system and promoting regular bowel movements [40]. High
fiber content also supports the gut microbiome, which helps lower the risk of cancer by
facilitating a healthy gut environment [52]. Many plant-based foods, such as broccoli,
cauliflower, and Brussels sprouts, help detoxify the body and activate detoxifying
enzymes that neutralize carcinogens [49]. Thus, a balanced plant-based diet can
significantly reduce the risk of cancer and promote overall well-being [53].

Gut microbiome
Good gut health affects overall well-being, making maintenance crucial [54]. Plant-
based diets are highly beneficial for gut health. It supports a diverse gut microbiome
consisting of trillions of bacteria and microorganisms that aid in digestion and overall
bodily functions [52]. Fibers in plant-based foods play a vital role in gut health by
acting as prebiotics and feeding beneficial bacteria [40]. Foods such as fruits, vegetables,
whole grains, legumes, and nuts are fiber-rich and promote healthy gut microbiota [50].
Certain prebiotic foods, including garlic, onions, leeks, asparagus, and bananas, are
particularly beneficial for maintaining beneficial gut bacteria [49].

Bone disease
A plant-based diet helps improve bone health by providing a variety of nutrients
essential for maintaining bone density and preventing bone-related conditions, such as
osteoporosis [45]. Calcium is crucial for bone health, and in a plant-based diet, it can be
sourced from kale, bok choy, collard greens, fortified plant-based milks, tofu, almonds,
and sesame seeds [42]. Vitamin D is essential for calcium absorption, and plant-based
milk and cereals can help meet these vitamin D needs [50]. Mushrooms exposed to
sunlight are a good source of vitamin D [51]. Additionally, magnesium and potassium
are important for bone formation and regulating calcium levels; potassium helps
neutralize bone-depleting acids [48]. Vitamin K, boron, silicon, and omega-3 fatty acids
found in plant-based diets also contribute to improved bone health. The inclusion of a
diverse array of plant-based nutrients supports bone health and promotes overall well-
being [49].

Longevity
A plant-based diet is associated with many health benefits that improve quality of life
and longevity [54]. People who consume nutrient-dense foods, rather than processed
animal-based foods, have a reduced risk of chronic health conditions [49]. Chronic
diseases, such as type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and certain cancer risks, can be
mitigated by adopting a plant-based diet [50]. Plant-based foods with high fiber,
antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties are crucial for reducing the risk [40].
Maintaining heart health is essential for longevity, and consuming nutritional foods,
[Link]/jabet Koli et al., J Adv Biotechnol Exp Ther. 2025 Sep; 8(3): 405-419
412
 such as fruits, vegetables, and seeds, supports cardiovascular well-being [42].
Additionally, plant-based diets improve metabolic health by regulating blood sugar
levels and reducing the risk of diabetes, contributing to an increased lifespan [45].
Plant-based diets support heart and metabolic health, effective weight management,
cancer prevention, and cognitive function [48].

TYPES OF PLANT-BASED FOODS AND THEIR NUTRITIONAL BENEFITS

Plant-based diets include a variety of foods rich in essential vitamins and nutritional
value, including fruits, vegetables, legumes, whole grains, nuts, seeds, tofu, and plant-
based milk, to ensure optimal health and well-being [54] illustrated in Figure 3.
i. Fruits: Fruits are high in vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and fiber, and low in
calories. For instance, strawberries, blueberries, and raspberries are rich in antioxidants,
vitamins C and K, and fiber, which help to reduce inflammation and oxidative stress
[40]. Citrus fruits, such as oranges, lemons, and grapes, are abundant in vitamin C,
boosting the immune system and enhancing skin health [45]. Bananas provide
potassium and vitamin B6, which contribute to digestive health [46, 50].
ii. Vegetables: Vegetables are packed with phytochemicals, minerals, and fibers that
support health. Leafy greens, such as spinach, kale, and Swiss chard, are high in
vitamins A, C, and K, reducing the risk of chronic diseases [48]. Cruciferous vegetables,
such as broccoli, cauliflower, and Brussels sprouts, have cancer-preventive properties
[42]. Root vegetables, such as sweet potatoes and carrots, are rich in beta-carotene and
vitamin A, promote eye health, and boost immunity [49].
iii. Legumes: Legumes are excellent sources of fiber, protein, and essential nutrients.
Black beans, kidney beans, and chickpeas are high in protein, fiber, iron, and
potassium, which are beneficial for regulating blood sugar and heart health [54]. Lentils
are rich in protein, iron, folate, and fiber, whereas peas are high in vitamins A, C, and
iron [40].
iv. Whole grains: Whole grains, such as quinoa, brown rice, and oats, provide amino
acids, fiber, and manganese, supporting overall health [45].
v. Nuts and seeds: Nuts and seeds are nutrient-dense and offer fats, proteins, fibers,
and minerals. For example, almonds are rich in vitamin E, which supports skin health
and brain function [50]. Chia seeds are high in omega-3 fatty acids and calcium,
whereas flaxseeds help reduce inflammation and support digestion [48].
vi. Tofu and tempeh: Tofu provides amino acids, making it a complete protein rich in
magnesium and iron [53]. Tempeh, which is rich in fiber, supports gut health [49].
vii. Plant-based milk: Plant-based milk, such as almond, soy, and oats, offers various
nutritional benefits and supports overall health [42].

[Link]/jabet Koli et al., J Adv Biotechnol Exp Ther. 2025 Sep; 8(3): 405-419
413
 Figure 3. Major categories of plant-based foods and their dietary benefits. The diagram classifies primary
plant foods—namely fruits, vegetables, legumes, grains, nuts/seeds, tofu/tempeh, and plant-based milk—and
emphasizes their vital nutrients, including vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, proteins, and healthy fats. This
visual summary highlights the varied nutritional benefits of plant-based diets in enhancing overall health and
well-being.

CHALLENGES AND CONSIDERATIONS

Different challenges are faced when adopting a plant-based diet. However, it is possible
to overcome these challenges carefully if all the benefits of a plant-based diet are
considered, such as planning and taking some consideration.

Nutrient considerations
Vitamin B12 is the primary vitamin in animal-based products, and its deficiency can
cause anemia and damage to the nervous system. Consuming a B12 supplement and
fortified foods such as plant-based milk, cereals, and nutritional yeast can solve this
deficiency [55]. Plant-based iron is not absorbed as easily as animal-based products;
therefore, plant-based diets can cause iron deficiency [56]. Iron-rich foods, such as
chickpeas, lentils, and citrus fruits, enhance iron absorption from plant-based products.
Maintaining protein intake while consuming a plant-based diet can be difficult,
especially for people involved in high-intensity work [48]. Protein-rich foods, such as
quinoa, tempeh, legumes, and plant protein powder, can help alleviate protein
deficiency [57].

Nutrient requirements
Ensuring a balanced diet while consuming a plant-based diet is important because
various foods cover all nutritional bases [36]. Planning meals and ensuring balanced
nutrition helps individuals remain consistent and accountable [58]. Learning and

[Link]/jabet Koli et al., J Adv Biotechnol Exp Ther. 2025 Sep; 8(3): 405-419
414
 educating about plant-based diets from reliable sources and consulting dietitians can
also be helpful in addressing nutritional deficiencies and enhancing overall health [59].
Additionally, it is advisable to consider supplements for vitamin B12, vitamin D, and
omega-3s, which are challenging to obtain from plant-based foods [58-60]. Monitoring
health and adjusting diet based on individual needs are also important measures for
ensuring nutritional adequacy [61].

Accessibility and affordability

Adopting a plant-based diet is accessible and affordable, but there are also some
challenges. Access to fresh fruits and vegetables can be difficult in rural locations, and
plant-based options may be limited [62]. In this situation, supporting local farmers and
community gardens, as well as taking initiatives to make freshly produced food more
accessible, can be beneficial [63]. Online grocery service providers can expand their
range of plant-based foods. Additionally, variety can be challenging, as not all stores
have plant-based options, such as tofu, tempeh, and grains. Shopping at larger
supermarkets, where these options are available, and exploring different cuisines and
recipes can help diversify meal options [64].

Cultural and societal barriers

There can be different barriers to adopting a plant-based diet because people have been
using it in traditional dietary practices for a long time. Animal-based products are
easily accessible, widely available, and staple foods for many people and regions [7].
Practicing a respectful culture and introducing new plant-based versions of traditional
dishes can help overcome these barriers [65]. Highlighting health and environmental
benefits can change people’s perspectives on their dietary plans [50].
People are accustomed to eating animal-based foods for festivals and celebrations, and
plant-based options may be fewer. Adding more variation to celebratory foods and
sharing delicious plant-based recipes can help raise awareness and demonstrate that
plant-based foods can be enjoyable [27]. Certain religious beliefs also affect the
consumption of animal-based foods [66].
Additionally, societal and peer pressure often favor meat consumption, and individuals
may feel pressured to conform. Finding supportive communities with similar values
and goals can be helpful [67]. Perceptions of plant-based foods include a lack of variety
and concerns about nutritional adequacy. Sharing information regarding these
misconceptions and demonstrating the diversity and availability of plant-based foods
can address these concerns [53].

Nutritional education and awareness

Introducing topics on plant-based diets into the educational curriculum can create
familiarity among many people. This approach helps individuals develop in-depth
knowledge and understanding of plant-based diets [68]. School curricula can include
classes on nutrition that inform students about the benefits of plant-based diets, and
cooking classes can teach students how to prepare various plant-based dishes [68]. At
the university level, nutrition, dietetics, and environmental science courses can provide
the benefits of plant-based diets. Public seminars and workshops can raise awareness of
plant-based diets. In healthcare facilities such as clinics, sessions on plant-based diets
can be valuable for chronic disease prevention and management [69].
[Link]/jabet Koli et al., J Adv Biotechnol Exp Ther. 2025 Sep; 8(3): 405-419
415
 Policy and institutional support
Changes in the framework and institutional support are required for households to
adopt a plant-based diet. Public and private institutions can ensure that plant-based
foods are easily accessible to people [7]. Governments can create inclusive dietary
guidelines that emphasize the importance of plant-based diets [17]. In addition,
government programs such as public campaigns can educate and provide guidelines
on plant-based diets [70].
Providing subsidies and incentives for plant-based agriculture can motivate farmers to
grow more plant-based food [38]. Governments can also offer tax breaks to companies
that work with plant-based products; these incentives can motivate businesses to
produce more plant-based foods for general consumption [71]. The clear labeling of
plant-based products makes it easier for consumers to identify and choose them.
Including nutritional value and providing recipes in product descriptions can help
consumers make informed decisions [72].
Although the adoption of plant-based diets poses certain challenges, they can be
effectively managed. Ensuring adequate nutrient intake through thoughtful dietary
planning and, if necessary, supplementation, enhancing the availability and
affordability of plant-based foods, and addressing cultural and societal obstacles
through targeted education and promotion are the key strategies [73]. Moreover, policy
measures and institutional backing are vital for fostering a supportive environment for
this dietary transition. With collaborative efforts from individuals, communities,
healthcare providers, and policymakers, the shift towards plant-based diets can be
encouraged, benefiting human health and environmental sustainability [74].

CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, plant-based diets are becoming increasingly important for advancing
human health and environmental sustainability. These diets considerably improve
ecological balance by lowering greenhouse gas emissions and preserving resources [75].
These factors also contribute to improved general health and weight control by
reducing the incidence of chronic diseases. Notwithstanding these advantages,
problems still exist, such as ensuring that nutrients are consumed while overcoming
past traditional food habits and practices [76]. To address these issues, inexpensive
plant-based solutions, supportive guidelines, and public education are needed. To
maximize these benefits, future studies should concentrate on long-term effects and
scalable approaches [77]. Plant-based diets, but not a panacea, present a viable route to
a better and more sustainable future with the potential to significantly improve health
outcomes and preserve the environment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of
Health & Life Sciences, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh, for providing the
necessary resources and support that facilitated this research. The authors thank Mr.
S.M. Arbid Hassan for his assistance in referencing with EndNote.

[Link]/jabet Koli et al., J Adv Biotechnol Exp Ther. 2025 Sep; 8(3): 405-419
416
 AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
NKK wrote the manuscript. RBM reviewed and edited it. NZR conceptualized the
study, developed the content structure, contributed to writing, reviewed and edited the
manuscript, proofread it, prepared the figures, handled revisions, and managed
correspondence related to the paper. All authors have approved the final version of the
manuscript.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
There is no conflict of interest among the authors.

REFERENCES
[1] Alcorta A, Porta A, et al. Foods for plant-based diets: Challenges and innovations. Foods. 2021;10:293.
[2] Moreno LA, Meyer R, et al. Perspective: Striking a balance between planetary and human health-is
there a path forward? Adv Nutr. 2022;13:355-75.
[3] McDougall J. The role of a starch-based diet in solving existential challenges for the 21st century.
Frontiers in Nutrition. 2023;10.
[4] Estell M, Hughes J, et al. Plant protein and plant-based meat alternatives: Consumer and nutrition
professional attitudes and perceptions. Sustainability. 2021;13:1478.
[5] Huang R-Y, Huang C-C, et al. Vegetarian diets and weight reduction: A meta-analysis of randomized
controlled trials. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2016;31:109-16.
[6] Poore J, Nemecek T. Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers.
Science. 2018;360:987-92.
[7] Clark MA, Springmann M, et al. Multiple health and environmental impacts of foods. Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences. 2019;116:23357-62.
[8] Aleksandrowicz L, Green R, et al. The impacts of dietary change on greenhouse gas emissions, land use,
water use, and health: A systematic review. PLOS ONE. 2016;11:e0165797.
[9] Wickramasinghe K, Breda J. Plant-based diets and their impact on health, sustainability and the
environment a review of the evidence who european office for the prevention and control of
noncommunicable diseases2022.
[10] Rizzo G, Laganà A, et al. Vitamin b12 among vegetarians: Status, assessment and supplementation.
Nutrients. 2016;8:767.
[11] Morton S, Pencheon D, et al. Sustainable development goals (sdgs), and their implementation. British
Medical Bulletin. 2017:1-10.
[12] Jarmul S, Dangour A, et al. Climate change mitigation through dietary change: A systematic review of
empirical and modelling studies on the environmental footprints and health effects of 'sustainable diets'.
Environmental Research Letters. 2020;15:123014.
[13] Lynch J, Cain M, et al. Agriculture's contribution to climate change and role in mitigation is distinct
from predominantly fossil co2-emitting sectors. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. 2021;4.
[14] Goldstein B, Moses R, et al. Potential to curb the environmental burdens of american beef consumption
using a novel plant-based beef substitute. PLOS ONE. 2017;12:e0189029.
[15] Caporgno MP, Mathys A. Trends in microalgae incorporation into innovative food products with
potential health benefits. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2018;5.
[16] Pathak N, McKinney A. Planetary health, climate change, and lifestyle medicine: Threats and
opportunities. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2021;15:541-52.
[17] Clark MA, Domingo NGG, et al. Global food system emissions could preclude achieving the 1.5° and
2°c climate change targets. Science. 2020;370:705-8.
[18] Nogrady B. How farming could become the ultimate climate-change tool. Nature. 2024;630:S23-S5.
[19] Lacour C, Seconda L, et al. Environmental impacts of plant-based diets: How does organic food
consumption contribute to environmental sustainability? Frontiers in Nutrition. 2018;5.
[20] Solomon T, Gupta V, et al. Balancing livestock environmental footprints with forestry-based solutions:
A review. Ecologies. 2023;4:714-30.
[21] Skidmore M, Moffette F, et al. Cattle ranchers and deforestation in the brazilian amazon: Production,
location, and policies. Global Environmental Change. 2021;68:102280.
[22] Schiermeier Q. Eat less meat: Un climate-change report calls for change to human diet. Nature.
2019;572:291-2.
[23] Mekonnen MM, Hoekstra AY. Water footprint benchmarks for crop production: A first global
assessment. Ecological Indicators. 2014;46:214-23.

[Link]/jabet Koli et al., J Adv Biotechnol Exp Ther. 2025 Sep; 8(3): 405-419
417
 [24] Ridoutt B, Baird D, et al. Diets within environmental limits: The climate impact of current and
recommended australian diets. Nutrients. 2021;13:1122.
[25] Lakhiar IA, Yan H, et al. A review of precision irrigation water-saving technology under changing
climate for enhancing water use efficiency, crop yield, and environmental footprints. Agriculture.
2024;14:1141.
[26] Fresán U, Sabaté J. Vegetarian diets: Planetary health and its alignment with human health. Advances
in Nutrition. 2019;10:S380-S8.
[27] Viroli G, Kalmpourtzidou A, et al. Exploring benefits and barriers of plant-based diets: Health,
environmental impact, food accessibility and acceptability. Nutrients. 2023;15:4723.
[28] Kustar A, Patiño-Echeverri D. A review of environmental life cycle assessments of diets: Plant-based
solutions are truly sustainable, even in the form of fast foods. Sustainability. 2021;13:9926.
[29] Blackwell MSA, Takahashi T, et al. Potential unintended consequences of agricultural land use change
driven by dietary transitions. npj Sustainable Agriculture. 2024;2.
[30] Willett W, Rockström J, et al. Food in the anthropocene: The eat–lancet commission on healthy diets
from sustainable food systems. The Lancet. 2019;393:447-92.
[31] Funabashi M. Water and ecosystem cycles mediated by plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.
IntechOpen; 2019.
[32] Seymour M. Expanding recognition and inclusion of animal-free organic agriculture in the sustainable
agriculture movement. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. 2023;7.
[33] Godfray HCJ, Beddington JR, et al. Food security: The challenge of feeding 9 billion people. Science.
2010;327:812-8.
[34] Henchion M, Hayes M, et al. Future protein supply and demand: Strategies and factors influencing a
sustainable equilibrium. Foods. 2017;6:53.
[35] Andrews CJ, Raubenheimer D, et al. Associations between national plant-based vs animal-based
protein supplies and age-specific mortality in human populations. Nature Communications. 2025;16.
[36] Satija A, Hu FB. Plant-based diets and cardiovascular health. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2018;28:437-41.
[37] Craig WJ, Mangels AR, et al. The safe and effective use of plant-based diets with guidelines for health
professionals. Nutrients. 2021;13:4144.
[38] Sabaté J, Soret S. Sustainability of plant-based diets: Back to the future. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;100 Suppl
1:476s-82s.
[39] Dinu M, Abbate R, et al. Vegetarian, vegan diets and multiple health outcomes: A systematic review
with meta-analysis of observational studies. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2017;57:3640-9.
[40] Bakaloudi DR, Halloran A, et al. Intake and adequacy of the vegan diet. A systematic review of the
evidence. Clinical Nutrition. 2021;40:3503-21.
[41] Samtiya M, Aluko RE, et al. Potential health benefits of plant food-derived bioactive components: An
overview. Foods. 2021;10:839.
[42] Dressler J, Storz MA, et al. Does a plant-based diet stand out for its favorable composition for heart
health? Dietary intake data from a randomized controlled trial. Nutrients. 2022;14:4597.
[43] Kahleova H, Levin S, et al. Vegetarian dietary patterns and cardiovascular disease. Prog Cardiovasc Dis.
2018;61:54-61.
[44] Shah B, Ganguzza L, et al. The effect of a vegan versus aha diet in coronary artery disease (evade cad)
trial: Study design and rationale. Contemp Clin Trials Commun. 2017;8:90-8.
[45] Patel H, Chandra S, et al. Plant-based nutrition: An essential component of cardiovascular disease
prevention and management. Current Cardiology Reports. 2017;19.
[46] Micha R, Peñalvo JL, et al. Association between dietary factors and mortality from heart disease, stroke,
and type 2 diabetes in the united states. JAMA. 2017;317:912.
[47] Gibbs J, Gaskin E, et al. The effect of plant-based dietary patterns on blood pressure: A systematic
review and meta-analysis of controlled intervention trials. Journal of Hypertension. 2021;39:23-37.
[48] Qian F, Liu G, et al. Association between plant-based dietary patterns and risk of type 2 diabetes: A
systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2019;179:1335-44.
[49] Peña-Jorquera H, Cid-Jofré V, et al. Plant-based nutrition: Exploring health benefits for atherosclerosis,
chronic diseases, and metabolic syndrome-a comprehensive review. Nutrients. 2023;15.
[50] Bahrami H. Nutrition for cancer prevention and control: A review of dietary risk factors and protective
measures. Cancer Screening and Prevention. 2023;2:250-9.
[51] Tan M-M, Chan CKY, et al. Religiosity and spirituality and the intake of fruit, vegetable, and fat: A
systematic review. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2013;2013:1-18.
[52] Kaczmarczyk MM, Miller MJ, et al. The health benefits of dietary fiber: Beyond the usual suspects of
type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease and colon cancer. Metabolism. 2012;61:1058-66.
[53] Fuentes F, Paredes-Gonzalez X, et al. Dietary glucosinolates sulforaphane, phenethyl isothiocyanate,
indole-3-carbinol/3,3'-diindolylmethane: Anti-oxidative stress/inflammation, nrf2,
epigenetics/epigenomics and in vivo cancer chemopreventive efficacy. Current Pharmacol Report.
2015;1.
[54] Gomes A, Sobral PJDA. Plant protein-based delivery systems: An emerging approach for increasing the
efficacy of lipophilic bioactive compounds. Molecules. 2021;27:60.

[Link]/jabet Koli et al., J Adv Biotechnol Exp Ther. 2025 Sep; 8(3): 405-419
418
 [55] Martinez-Torres V, Torres N, et al. Anemia and associated risk factors in pediatric patients. Pediatric
Health, Medicine and Therapeutics. 2023;Volume 14:267-80.
[56] Clemente-Suárez VJ, Redondo-Flórez L, et al. Impact of vegan and vegetarian diets on neurological
health: A critical review. Nutrients. 2025;17:884.
[57] Robinson GHJ, Balk J, et al. Improving pulse crops as a source of protein, starch and micronutrients.
Nutrition Bulletin. 2019;44:202-15.
[58] Hannibal L, Lederer AK, et al. Vitamin b(12) status and supplementation in plant-based diets. Food
Nutr Bull. 2024;45:S58-s66.
[59] Hurrell R, Egli I. Iron bioavailability and dietary reference values. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91:1461s-7s.
[60] Phillips SM. Current concepts and unresolved questions in dietary protein requirements and
supplements in adults. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2017;4.
[61] Tang H, Rising HH, et al. Long-term space nutrition: A scoping review. Nutrients. 2021;14:194.
[62] Clem J, Barthel B. A look at plant-based diets. Mo Med. 2021;118:233-8.
[63] Le LT, Sabaté J. Beyond meatless, the health effects of vegan diets: Findings from the adventist cohorts.
Nutrients. 2014;6:2131-47.
[64] Craig WJ, Brothers CJ. Nutritional content and health profile of non-dairy plant-based yogurt
alternatives. Nutrients. 2021;13:4069.
[65] Harmayani E, Anal AK, et al. Healthy food traditions of asia: Exploratory case studies from indonesia,
thailand, malaysia, and nepal. Journal of Ethnic Foods. 2019;6.
[66] Riley M. Food and beverage management : A review of change. International Journal of Contemporary
Hospitality Management - INT J CONTEMP HOSP MANAG. 2005;17:88-93.
[67] Bertolotti M, Chirchiglia G, et al. Promoting change in meat consumption among the elderly: Factual
and prefactual framing of health and well-being. Appetite. 2016;106:37-47.
[68] DeVelde S. Promoting nutrition education in seventh-day adventist schools. The Journal of Adventist
Education. 2022;84:39-45.
[69] Wongprawmas R, Sogari G, et al. Strategies to promote healthy eating among university students: A
qualitative study using the nominal group technique. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2022;9.
[70] Krattenmacher J, Casal P, et al. Universities should lead on the plant-based dietary transition. The
Lancet Planetary Health. 2023;7:e354-e5.
[71] Pohjolainen P, Vinnari M, et al. Consumers’ perceived barriers to following a plant-based diet. British
Food Journal. 2015;117:1150-67.
[72] Landry MJ, Ward CP. Health benefits of a plant-based dietary pattern and implementation in
healthcare and clinical practice. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine. 2024;18:657-65.
[73] Faber M, Berti C, et al. Prevention and control of micronutrient deficiencies in developing countries:
Current perspectives. Nutrition and Dietary Supplements. 2014:41.
[74] Mulpuri L, Allen N, et al. Rooting for wellness: An initiative introducing plant-based nutrition to first
year medical students. International Journal of Disease Reversal and Prevention. 2021;3:12 pp.
[75] Robbins O. The intersection of health and planet: Why food choices matter. Am J Lifestyle Med.
2025:15598276251323249.
[76] Palo SK, Nayak SR, et al. Prevalence and pattern of multimorbidity among chronic kidney disease
patients: A community study in chronic kidney disease hotspot area of eastern india. Frontiers in
Medicine. 2023;10.
[77] Lopes CVA, Mihrshahi S, et al. Aboriginal food practices and australian native plant-based foods: A
step toward sustainable food systems. Sustainability. 2023;15:11569.

[Link]/jabet Koli et al., J Adv Biotechnol Exp Ther. 2025 Sep; 8(3): 405-419
419