Unit 2 : AC fundamentals
Waveform:
The path traced by a quantity, such as the voltage in Fig. plotted as a function of some variable
such as time, position, degrees, radians, and so on.
Instantaneous value:
The magnitude of a waveform at any instant of time.
Peak amplitude (Em):
The maximum value of a waveform as measured from its average or mean value. It is the maximum
value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity.
Peak-to-peak value (EP-P):
The maximum value of a waveform from positive to negative peaks.
Periodic waveform:
A waveform that continually repeats itself after the same time interval. Waveform of Fig. is a
periodic waveform.
Cycle:
One complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quantity is known as a cycle.
Period (T1 or T2):
The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called its time period T. For
example, a 50 Hz alternating current has a time period of 1/50 seconds.
Frequency:
The number of cycles that occur in 1 s. The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz = 1 cycle
per second.
Peak and RMS Values
The magnitude of alternating quantity can be expressed in three ways:
1. Peak Value
2. Average Value
3. Effective or rms value
Peak Value:
The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during of one cycle is called peak value.
This is also called maximum value or amplitude. The peak of an alternating voltage or current is
represented by Vm and Im
Average Value:
The average value of a periodic waveform whether it is a sine wave, square wave or triangular
waveform is defined as: “the quotient of the area under the waveform with respect to time”. In
other words, the averaging of all the instantaneous values along time axis with time being one full
period, (T).
For symmetrical waves like sinusoidal current or voltage waveform, the positive half cycle will be
exactly equal to negative half cycle. Therefore, the average value over a complete cycle will be
zero. The work is done by both, positive and negative cycle and hence the average value is
determined without considering the signs. So, the only positive half cycle is considered to
determine the average value of alternating quantities of sinusoidal waves.
Effective or RMS Value:
"RMS" stands for "Root-Mean-Squared", also called the effective or heating value of alternating
current, which would provide the same amount of heat generation in a resistor as the AC voltage
would if applied to that same resistor. That steady current which, when flows through a resistor
of known resistance for a given period of time than as a result the same quantity of heat is
produced by the alternating current when flows through the same resistor for the same period of
time is called R.M.S or effective value of the alternating current.
In other words, the R.M.S value is defined as the square root of means of squares of instantaneous
values.
Form Factor and Peak Factor
Form Factor is defined as the ratio of the root mean square value to the average value of an
alternating quantity (current or voltage).
Form Factor = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 / 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 1.11
Peak Factor is defined as the ratio of maximum value to the R.M.S value of an alternating quantity.
The alternating quantities can be voltage or current.
Peak Factor = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 / 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 1.4142
Phasor Representation of alternating quantity:
An alternating quantity can be represented in the form of wave and equation. The waveform gives
the graphical representation whereas equation represents the mathematical expression of the
instantaneous value of an alternating quantity. The same alternating quantity can be represented
by a line of definite length (representing the maximum value) rotating in counterclockwise
direction at a constant velocity (w rad/sec) Alternating Current (AC) is a type of electric current
that reverses its direction periodically in contrast to the Direct Current (DC) which flows in a single
direction.
Phasor Diagram of a Sinusoidal Waveform
As the single vector rotates in an anti-clockwise direction, its tip at point A will rotate one complete
revolution of 360o or 2π representing one complete cycle. If the length of its moving tip is
transferred at different angular intervals in time to a graph as shown above, a sinusoidal waveform
would be drawn starting at the left with zero time. Each position along the horizontal axis indicates
the time that has elapsed since zero-time, t = 0. When the vector is horizontal the tip of the vector
represents the angles at 0deg, 180deg and at 360deg. Likewise, when the tip of the vector is
vertical it represents the positive peak value, (+Am) at 90o or π/2 and the negative peak value, (-
Am) at 270deg or 3π/2. Then the time axis of the waveform represents the angle either in degrees
or radians through which the phasor has moved. When we are analyzing alternating waveforms,
we may need to know the position of the phasor, representing the Alternating Quantity at some
particular instant in time especially when we want to compare two different waveforms on the
same axis. For example, voltage and current. We have assumed in the waveform above that the
waveform starts at time t = 0 with a corresponding phase angle in either degrees or radians.
But if a second waveform starts to the left or to the right of this zero-point or we want to represent
in phasor notation the relationship between the two waveforms then we will need to take into
account this phase difference, Φ of the waveform.
Phase Difference of a Sinusoidal Waveform
The phase of an alternating quantity at an instant is defined as the fractional part of a cycle
through which the quantity has advanced from a selected origin.
The two alternating quantities having same frequency, when attain their zero values at different
instants, the quantities are said to have a phase difference.
The generalized mathematical expression to define these two sinusoidal quantities will be
written as:
The current, i is lagging the voltage, v by angle Φ and in our example above this is 30deg. So, the
difference between the two phasors representing the two sinusoidal quantities is angle Φ and the
resulting phasor diagram will be.
Phasor Diagram of a Sinusoidal Waveform
The phasor diagram is drawn corresponding to time zero (t = 0) on the horizontal axis. The lengths of the
phasors are proportional to the values of the voltage, (V) and the current, (I) at the instant in time that the
phasor diagram is drawn. The current phasor lags the voltage phasor by the angle, Φ, as the two phasors
rotate in an anticlockwise direction, therefore the angle, Φ is also measured in the same anticlockwise
Types of Power:
a) Real power: The power which is actually consumed or utilized in ac circuit is called true power or active
power or real power. It is consumed by the resistive load in the circuit. The unit of real power is watts.
Real power = VI cos ϕ Watts
b) Reactive power: The power which flows back and forth that means it moves in both the directions in
the circuit or reacts upon itself, is called Reactive Power. A pure inductor and a pure capacitor do not
consume any power since in a half cycle whatever power is received from the source by these components,
the same power is returned to the source. This power which returns and flows in both the direction in the
circuit, is called Reactive power. This reactive power does not perform any useful work in the circuit. It is
measured in a unit called Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR), rather than watts.
c) Apparent power: The product of root mean square (RMS) value of voltage and current is known as
Apparent Power. This power is measured in kVA or MVA. In a purely resistive circuit, the current is in phase
with the applied voltage, whereas in a purely inductive and capacitive circuit the current is 90 degrees out
of phase, i.e., if the inductive load is connected in the circuit the current lags voltage by 90 degrees and if
the capacitive load is connected the current leads the voltage by 90 degrees.
Hence, from all the above discussion, it is concluded that the current in phase with the voltage produces
true or active power, whereas, the current 90 degrees out of phase with the voltage contributes to reactive
power in the circuit. Therefore,
• True power = voltage x current in phase with the voltage
• Reactive power = voltage x current out of phase with the voltage
The phasor diagram for an inductive circuit is shown below:
Taking voltage V as reference, the current I lags behind the voltage V by an angle ϕ. The current I is divided
into two components:
• I Cos ϕ in phase with the voltage V
• I Sin ϕ which is 90 degrees out of phase with the voltage V
Therefore, the following expression shown below gives the active, reactive and apparent power
respectively.
• Active power P = V x I cosϕ = V I cosϕ
• Reactive power Pr or Q = V x I sinϕ = V I sinϕ
• Apparent power Pa or S = V x I = VI
Power Triangle:
Power Triangle is the representation of a right angle triangle showing the relation between active power,
reactive power and apparent power. When each component of the current that is the active component
(Icosϕ) or the reactive component (Isinϕ) is multiplied by the voltage V, a power triangle is obtained shown
in the figure below
d) Power factor: The power factor in ac circuit is the ratio of the real power that is used to do work and
the apparent power that is supplied to the circuit. The power factor can get values in the range from 0 to
1. When all the power is reactive power with no real power (usually inductive load) - the power factor is
0.
Power factor (Cos ϕ) = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 / 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 −𝐴𝑚𝑝
Transformer
Working Principle of a Transformer
A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in
one circuit is transformed to electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. It can raise or lower
the voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. The physical basis of a
transformer is mutual induction between two circuits linked by a common magnetic flux. In its simplest
form, it consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separate but magnetically linked through a
path of low reluctance as shown in Fig. 21-1.
The two coils possess high mutual inductance. If one coil is connected to a source of alternating
voltage, an alternating flux is set up in the laminated core most of which is linked with the other coil in
which it produces mutually-induced e.m.f. (according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction i.e.
e=M dl/dt). If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and so electric energy is transferred
(entirely magnetically) from the first coil to the second coil. The first coil, in which electric energy is fed
from the a.c. supply mains, is called primary winding and the other, from which energy is drawn out, is
called secondary winding. In brief, a transformer is a device that
(i) transfers electric power from one circuit to another
(ii) it does so without change of frequency
(iii) it accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and
(iv) where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influence with each other.
Transformer Construction
The simple elements of a transformer consist of two coils having mutual inductance and a
laminated steel core The two coils are insulated from each other and from the steel core. Other necessary
parts are: some suitable container for the assembled core and windings; a suitable medium for insulating
the core and its windings from its container; suitable bushings (either of porcelain, oil-filled or capacitor-
type) for insulating and bringing out the terminals of windings from the tank.
In all types of transformers, the core is constructed of transformer sheet steel laminations
assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with minimum of airgap included. The steel used is of
high silicon content, sometimes heat treated to produce a high permeability and a low hysteresis loss at
the usual operating flux densities. The eddy current loss is minimized by laminating the core, the
laminations being insulated from each other by a light coat of core plate varnish or by an oxide layer on
the surface. The thickness of laminations varies from 0-35 mm for a frequency of 50 Hz to 05 mm for a
frequency of 25 Hz. The core laminations (in the form of strips) are joined as shown in Fig. 21-2. It is seen
that the joints in the alternate layers are staggered in order to avoid the presence of narrow gaps right
through the cross-section of the core. Such staggered joints are said to be ‘imbricated'.
Constructionally, the transformers are of two general types, distinguished from each other merely by the
manner in which the primary and secondary coils are placed around the laminated steel core. The two
types are known as (i) core-type and (ii) shell-type. Another recent development is spiral core or wound-
core type the trade name being spirakore transformer.
In the so-called core-type transformers, the windings surround a considerable part of the core
whereas in shell-type transformers, the core surrounds a considerable portion of the windings as shown
schematically in Fig. 21-3 (a) and (b) respectively.
In the simplified diagram for the core type transformers [Fig. 21-3 (a)] the primary and secondary
windings are shown located on the opposite legs (or limbs) of the core, but in actual construction, these
are always interleaved to reduce leakage flux. As shown in Fig. 21-4, half the primary and half the
secondary winding have been placed side by side or concentrically on each limb, not primary on one limb
(or ‘leg') and the secondary on the other.
Core-type Transformers
The coils used are form-wound and are of the cylindrical type. The general form of these coils may
be circular or oval rectangular. In small size core type transformers, a simple rectangular core is used with
cylindrical coil which are either circular or rectangular in form. But for large size core-type transformers,
round or circular cylindrical coils are used which are so wound as to fit over a cruciform core section as
shown in Fig. 21-5 (a). The circular cylindrical coils are used in most of the core-type transformers because
of their mechanical strength. Such cylindrical coils are wound in helical layers with the different layers
insulated from each other by paper, cloth, micarta board or cooling ducts. Fig. 21-5 (c) shows the general
arrangement of these coils with respect to the core. Insulating cylinders of fuller board are used to
separate the cylindrical windings from the core and from each other. Since the low-voltage (LV) winding is
easiest to insulate, it is placed nearest to the core.
Because of laminations and insulation, the net or effective core area is reduced, due allowance for
which has to be made. It is found that, in general, the reduction in core sectional area due to the presence
of paper, surface oxide etc. is of the order of 10% approximately.
Shell-type Transformers
In their case also, the coils are form-wound but are multi-layer disc type usually wound in the form
of pancakes. The different layers of such multi-layer discs are insulated from each other by paper. The
complete winding consists of stacked discs with insulation spaces between the coils—the spaces forming
horizontal cooling and insulating ducts. A shell type transformer may have a simple rectangular form as
shown in Fig. 21-6 (a) or it may have a distributed form as shown in Fig. 21-7.
It may be pointed out that cores and coils of transformers must be provided with rigid mechanical
bracing in order to prevent movement and possible insulation damage. Good bracing reduces vibration
and the objectionable noise—a humming sound—during operation.
Transformers are generally housed in tightly-fitted sheet-metal tanks filled with special insulating
oil. This oil has been highly developed and its function is two-fold. By circulation, it not only keeps the coils
reasonably cool, but also provides the transformer with additional insulation not obtainable when the
transformer, is left in the air.
In cases where a smooth tank surface does not provide sufficient cooling area, the sides of the
tank are corrugated or provided with radiators mounted on the sides. Good transformer oil should be
absolutely free from alkalis, Sulphur and particularly from moisture. The presence of even an extremely
small percentage of moisture in the coil is highly detrimental from the insulation view point because it
lowers the dielectric strength of the oil considerably. The importance of avoiding moisture in the
transformer oil is clear from the fact that even an addition of 8 parts of water in 1,000,000 reduces the
insulating quality of the oil to a value generally recognized as below standard. Hence, the tanks are sealed
air-tight in smaller units. In the case of large-sized transformers where complete air-tight construction is
impossible, chambers known as breathers are provided to permit the oil inside the tank to expand and
contract as its temperature increases and decreases. The atmospheric moisture is entrapped in these
breathers and is not allowed to pass on to the oil Another thing to avoid in the oil is sledging which is
simply the decomposition of oil with long and continued use. Sledging is caused principally by exposure to
oxygen during heating and results in the formation of large deposits of dark and heavy matter that
eventually clogs the cooling ducts in the transformer.
No other feature in the construction of a transformer is given more attention and care than the
insulating materials, because the life of the unit almost solely depends on the quality, durability and
handling of these insulating materials. All the insulating materials are selected on the basis of their high
quality and their ability to preserve this high quality even after many years of normal use.
All the transformer leads are brought out of their cases through suitable bushings. There are many
designs of these, their size and construction depending on the voltage of the leads. For moderate voltages,
porcelain bushings are used to insulate the leads as they come out through the tank. In general, they look
almost like the insulators used on the transmission lines. In high-voltage installations, oil-filled or capacitor-
type bushings are employed.
The choice of core or shell-type construction is usually determined by cost because similar
characteristics can be obtained with both types. For very high-voltage transformers or for multi-winding
design, shell-type construction is preferred by many manufacturers. In this type, usually the mean length
of coil turn is longer than in a comparable core-type design. Both core and shell forms are used and hence
selection is decided by many factors such as voltage rating, kVA rating weight, insulation stress, heat
distribution etc.
Another means of classifying the transformers is according to the type of cooling employed. The following
types are in common use:
(a) Oil-filled self-cooled
(b) Oil-filled water-cooled
(c) Air-blast type
Small and medium-sized distribution transformers—so called because of their use on distribution
systems as distinguished from line transmission—are of type (a). The assembled windings and cores of
such transformers are mounted in a welded, oil-tight steel tank provided with a steel cover. After putting
the core at its proper place, the tank is filled with purified, high quality insulating oil. The oil serves to
convey the heat from the core and the windings to the case from where it is radiated out to the
surroundings. For all sizes, the tanks are usually smooth-surfaced, but for larger sizes, the cases are
frequently corrugated or fluted to get greater heat-radiation area without increasing the cubical capacity
of the tank. Still larger sizes are provided with radiators or pipes.
Construction of very large self-cooled transformers is expensive, a more economical form of
construction for such large transformers is provided in the oil-immersed, water-cooled type. As before,
the windings and the core are immersed in the oil, but there is mounted near the surface of oil, a cooling
coil through which cold water is kept circulating. The heat is carried away by this water. The largest
transformers such as those used with high voltage transmission lines, are constructed in this manner.
Oil-filled transformers are built for outdoor duty, and as these require no housing other than their
own, a great saving is thereby affected. These transformers require only periodic inspection. For voltages
below 25,000 V, transformers can be built for cooling by means of an air blast. The transformer is not
immersed in oil but is housed in a thin sheet-metal box open at both ends through which air is blown from
the bottom to the top by means of a fan or blower.
Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is one which has no losses i.e. whose windings have no ohmic resistance, so
that there is no I2R loss and no core loss and in which there is no magnetic leakage. In other words, an
ideal transformer consists of two purely inductive coils wound on a loss-free core. It may, however, be
noted that it is impossible to realize such a transformer in practice, yet for convenience, we will start with
such a transformer and step by step approach an actual transformer.
Consider an ideal transformer [Fig. 21-8 (a)] whose, secondary is open and whose primary is
connected to a sinusoidal alternating voltage Vx. This potential difference causes the flow of an alternating
current in primary winding. Since the primary coil is purely inductive and there is no output (secondary
being open), the primary draws the magnetizing current /**. only. The function of this current is merely
to magnetize the core, it is small in magnitude and lags Vx by 90°. This alternating current I* produces an
alternating flux d> which is, at all times, proportional to the current (assuming permeability of the
magnetic circuit to be constant) and hence is in phase with it. This changing flux is linked both with the
primary and the secondary windings. Therefore, it produces self-induced e.m.f. in the primary. This self-
induced e.m.f. E1 is, at every time, equal to and in opposition to V1. It is also known as counter e.m.f. or
back e.m.f. of the primary.
Similarly, there is produced in the secondary an induced e.m.f. E2 which is known as mutually-
induced e.m.f. This e.m.f. is anti-phase with Vx and its magnitude is proportional to the rate of change of
flux and the number of secondary turns.
The instantaneous values of applied voltage, induced e.m.f.s, flux and magnetizing current are shown by
sinusoidal waves in Fig. 21-8 (b). Fig. 21-8 (c) shows the vectorial representation of the effective values of
the above quantities.
Battery Technical Specifications
1. Nominal Voltage (V) – The reported or reference voltage of the battery, also sometimes thought
of as the “normal” voltage of the battery.
2. Cut-off Voltage – The minimum allowable voltage. It is this voltage that generally defines the
“empty” state of the battery.
3. Capacity or Nominal Capacity (Ah for a specific C-rate) – The coulometric capacity, the total
Amp-hours available when the battery is discharged at a certain discharge current (specified as a
C-rate) from 100 percent state-of-charge to the cut-off voltage. Capacity is calculated by
multiplying the discharge current (in Amps) by the discharge time (in hours) and decreases with
increasing C-rate.
4. Energy or Nominal Energy (Wh (for a specific C-rate)) – The “energy capacity” of the battery,
the total Watt-hours available when the battery is discharged at a certain discharge current
(specified as a C-rate) from 100 percent state-of-charge to the cut-off voltage. Energy is
calculated by multiplying the discharge power (in Watts) by the discharge time (in hours). Like
capacity, energy decreases with increasing C-rate.
5. Cycle Life (number for a specific DOD) – The number of discharge-charge cycles the battery can
experience before it fails to meet specific performance criteria. Cycle life is estimated for specific
charge and discharge conditions. The actual operating life of the battery is affected by the rate
and depth of cycles and by other conditions such as temperature and humidity. The higher the
DOD, the lower the cycle life.
6. Specific Energy (Wh/kg) – The nominal battery energy per unit mass, sometimes referred to as
the gravimetric energy density. Specific energy is a characteristic of the battery chemistry and
packaging. Along with the energy consumption of the vehicle, it determines the battery weight
required to achieve a given electric range.
7. Specific Power (W/kg) – The maximum available power per unit mass. Specific power is a
characteristic of the battery chemistry and packaging. It determines the battery weight required
to achieve a given performance target.
8. Energy Density (Wh/L) – The nominal battery energy per unit volume, sometimes referred to as
the volumetric energy density. Specific energy is a characteristic of the battery chemistry and
packaging. Along with the energy consumption of the vehicle, it determines the battery size
required to achieve a given electric range.
9. Power Density (W/L) – The maximum available power per unit volume. Specific power is a
characteristic of the battery chemistry and packaging. It determines the battery size required to
achieve a given performance target.
10. Maximum Continuous Discharge Current – The maximum current at which the battery can be
discharged continuously. This limit is usually defined by the battery manufacturer in order to
prevent excessive discharge rates that would damage the battery or reduce its capacity. Along
with the maximum continuous power of the motor, this defines the top sustainable speed and
acceleration of the vehicle.
11. Maximum 30-sec Discharge Pulse Current –The maximum current at which the battery can be
discharged for pulses of up to 30 seconds. This limit is usually defined by the battery
manufacturer in order to prevent excessive discharge rates that would damage the battery or
reduce its capacity. Along with the peak power of the electric motor, this defines the
acceleration performance (0-60 mph time) of the vehicle.
12. Charge Voltage – The voltage that the battery is charged to when charged to full capacity.
Charging schemes generally consist of a constant current charging until the battery voltage
reaching the charge voltage, then constant voltage charging, allowing the charge current to taper
until it is very small.
13. Float Voltage – The voltage at which the battery is maintained after being charge to 100 percent
SOC to maintain that capacity by compensating for self-discharge of the battery.
14. (Recommended) Charge Current – The ideal current at which the battery is initially charged (to
roughly 70 percent SOC) under constant charging scheme before transitioning into constant
voltage charging.
15. (Maximum) Internal Resistance – The resistance within the battery, generally different for
charging and discharging.
