L2: LIMITS

2.1 Limits of a Function and Theorems on Limits

DISCUSSION OF THE TOPICS:

Consider the function

x3 − 1
f (x) =
x −1

Note that the given function is not defined at x = 1 since at this point f(x) has the
0
form which is meaningless or indeterminate.
0

But what will happen to f(x) as x approaches 1, or is f(x) approaching some specific
values as x approaches 1?

To answer the question, consider the following:

Calculate some values of f(x) for values of x close to 1. Show these relationships in a
schematic diagram, and sketch the graph of the function.

x 1.2 1.1 1.01 1 0.99 0.9 0.8 0.7

x3 − 1
y= 3.64 3.31 3.03 ? 2.97 2.71 2.31 2.19
x −1

y
3.64
f(x)
1.20 3.31 4
y=
1.10
1.01 3.03
3
0.99 2.97
0.90
2.71
2
0.80
0.70 2.31 f(x)
1

2.19

x
x y 1 2
Schematic
Diagram
 From the illustrations above, we arrived at the conclusion that “f(x) approaches 3
as x approaches 1”. In symbol we write

x3 − 1
lim =3
x →1 x − 1

x3 − 1
and read as “the limit of as x approaches 1 is 3.”
x −1

Algebraically, a better illustration is given by

x3 − 1 ( x − 1)( x 2 + x + 1)
lim = lim
x →1 x − 1 x →1 x −1

= lim( x 2 + x + 1) , x1
x →1

= 12 + 1 + 1
=3
x −1
To justify the second illustration, note that = 1 as long as x  1.
x −1

Given the above illustration then,

lim f ( x ) = L means that when x is close to but not equal to a, then f(x) is
x →a

close to L.

Theorems on Limits. To evaluate limits using simpler methods, the following theorems
are presented based on the definition.

Theorem 1 Limit of a Constant

If c is a constant, then for any number a

lim C = C
x →a

Example:
lim 4 = 4
x →2
Theorem 2 Limit of the Identify Function

lim x = a
x →a
Example:
lim x = −5
x →−5

Theorem 3 Limit of a Linear Function

If m and b are constants

lim(mx + b ) = ma + b
x →a

Example:
lim(2 x + 3) = 2(4) + 3
x →4

= 11

Theorem 4 Limit of the Sum and Difference

If lim f ( x ) = L and lim g ( x ) = M , then

x →a x →a

lim [ f ( x)  g ( x)] = lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)

x →a x →a x →a
=LM

Example:
lim(2 x − 5) = lim(2 x ) + lim( −5)
x →4 x →4 x →4

= 8 -5

=3

Theorem 5 Limit of the Product

If lim f ( x ) = L and lim g ( x ) = M , then

x →a x →a

lim [ f ( x)  g ( x)] = lim [ f ( x)]  lim [ g ( x)]

x →a x →a x →a
=LM
Theorem 6 Limit of the nth Power of a Function

If lim f ( x ) = L and n is any positive integer, then

x →a

[lim f ( x)]n = Ln
x →a
Example:
3
lim (3 x + 6)3 =  lim (3 x + 6)
x →−3  x →−3 

= (-3)3

= -27

Theorem 7 Limit of a Quotient

If lim f(x) = L and lim g(x) = M , then

x →a x →a

f ( x) lim
x →a
f ( x)
lim =
x →a g ( x) lim
x →a
g ( x)

L
= , M 0
M
Example:
2x lim(2 x )
x →5
lim =
x →5 5 x − 4 lim(5 x ) + lim( −4)
x →5 x →5

10
=
21
Theorem 8 Limit of the nth Root of a Function

If n is a positive integer and lim f ( x ) = L , then

x →a

lim n f ( x) = n lim f ( x)
x →a x →a
note: If n is even L > 0.
= L n

Example:
8x + 1 8x + 1
lim = lim
x →1 x +3 x →1 x + 3

9
=
4

3
=
2

(
Example 1. Evaluate lim 3 x 2 + 4 x − 1
x →3
)
Solution:
( ) ( )( ) + ( lim 4)( lim x ) − lim1
2
lim 3 x 2 + 4 x − 1 = lim 3 lim x
x →3 x →3 x →3 x →3 x →3 x →3

= 3 (3) + 4 (3) − 1
2

= 27 + 12 − 1
= 38
or: When evaluating the limit of a function at a given value, simply replace the
variable by the indicated limit then solve for the value of the function:

( )
lim 3 x 2 + 4 x − 1 = 3 ( 3 ) + 4 ( 3 ) − 1
x →3
2

= 27 + 12 − 1
= 38
 x3 + 8
Example 2. Evaluate lim
x →−2 x + 2

x+2 − 2
Example 3. Evaluate lim
x →0 x

8 x 3 − 27
Example 4. Evaluate lim3
x→ 2 4x 2 − 9
 x 3 + 2x + 3
Example 5. Evaluate lim
x →2 x2 + 5
.

2.2 One-Sided Limits

DISCUSSION OF THE TOPICS:

In a graph of a given function, when a function has a break point, then the limit
does not exist at the break point. For such functions, it is proper to introduce one-sided
limits.

a. Right hand limit (one-sided limit from the right) is written as:

lim f ( x)
x →a +

b. Left-hand limit (one sided limit from the left) is written as:

lim f ( x)
x →a −

c. Two-sided limit (undirected limit) is written as:

lim
x→a
f ( x)
A two sided limit exists if and only if
lim+ f ( x ) = lim− f ( x ) = L
x →a x →a
Example 6. Find the indicated limit if it exists and sketch the graph of
-4 if x > 1
 
f ( x ) = -1 if x = 1
2 if x < 1

Solution:
a. Evaluate the one-sided limit

lim f(x) = lim- 2

x →1− x →1
=2

lim f ( x ) = lim+ ( −4 )
x →1+ x →1
= -4

lim f ( x ) does not exist

x →1

since lim− f ( x )  lim f ( x )

x →1 x →1+

b. The graph y

-3

Example 7. Find the indicated limit if it exists and sketch the graph of
6+x if x < -2 
g( x ) =  2 
x if x  -2

Solution:
a. Evaluate the one-sided limit
 lim g ( x ) = lim (6 + x )
x →-2- x →-2-
= 6–2
= 4

lim+ g ( x ) = lim+ x 2
x →-2 x →-2
= (-2)2
= 4

lim g ( x ) = lim g ( x )
x → 2+ x →2-

 lim g ( x) = 4 , exists.
x →2

b. Graph
g(x)

x
-6 -2 4
2.3 Infinite Limits

DISCUSSION OF THE TOPICS:

Limits of Infinity

The limit of a function as its variable increases without bound illustrates the limit at
infinity.

The notation,

lim f ( x )
x →

is read as “the limit of f(x) as x approaches infinity” and denotes the behavior of
f(x) as x increases without bound.

If f(x) approaches a finite number L, then we write

lim f ( x ) = L .
x →

If f(x) increases or decreases without bound, then we write

lim f ( x ) =  or lim f ( x ) = -
x → x →
Infinite Limits

Theorem 1

If r is any positive integer, then

1
a) lim+ = +
x →0 xr

1 - if r is odd
b) lim− =
x →0 x r + if r is even

Example 8.1: Evaluate

1 1
a. lim+ = + b. lim+ = +
x →0 x4 x →0 x5

1 1
c. lim− = + d. lim− = -
x →0 x4 x →0 x5

Theorem 2

If a is any real number and if lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim g ( x ) = c , where c is a constant

x →a x →a

 0, then

a) if c > 0 and if f(x) → 0 through (+) values of f(x),

g( x )
lim = +
x →a f ( x )

b) if c > 0 and if f(x) → 0 through (-) values of f(x),

g( x )
lim = -
x →a f (x)

c) if c < 0 and f(x) → 0 through (+) values of f(x),

g( x )
lim = -
x →a f ( x )
 d) if c < 0 and if f(x) → 0 through (-) values of f(x),

g( x )
lim = +
x →a f ( x )

Note:

The above illustration is also valid if “x → a” is replaced by “x → a+” or “x → a-”.

3x 3x 3x
Example 8. Evaluate: a) lim− b) lim+ c) lim =
x →2 x-2 x →2 x - 2 x →2 x - 2

Solution:

3x
a) lim−
x →2 x - 2

independently, lim− 3 x = 6 and (+) ;

x →2

lim ( x - 2 ) = 0
x → 2−

3x 6
 lim− = = -
x →2 x-2 0

Since x → 2-, take a value of x near 2 from left, say x = 1.8

3x 5.4
lim = = (-) 27 , therefore
x →1.8 x-2 - 0.2

3x
lim− =-
x →2 x-2

3x
b) lim+
x →2 x-2

3x 6
similarly, lim+ = + = +
x →2 x-2 0
 Since x → 2+, take a value of x near 3 from right, say 2.2, so

3x 7.2
lim = = (+) 36, therefore
x →2.2 x - 2 0.2

3x
lim+ =+
x →2 x - 2

3x 3x 3x
c) lim =  , since lim− = -  and lim+ = +  that is, the limit
x →2 x - 2 x →2 x - 2 x →2 x - 2

can be evaluated from both sides of x=2.

Theorem 3

a) If lim f ( x ) = + , and lim g ( x ) = C , then

x →a x →a

( + ) + c = +
lim f ( x ) + g ( x ) = + note:
x →a
( − ) + c = −
b) If lim f ( x ) = − , and lim g ( x ) = C , then
x →a x →a

lim f ( x ) + g ( x ) = −
x →a

where C is any constant

2 2 1
Example 9. If lim+ = +  and lim+ = ,
x →3 x-3 x →3 x + 3 3

 2 2 
then lim+  + =+
x →3  x - 3 x + 3 
Theorem 4

From Theorem 3a, if C is any constant except 0, then

a) lim f ( x ) • g ( x ) = + , if C > 0 and

x →a

( + )( +c ) = +
b) lim f ( x ) • g ( x ) = - , if C < 0. note:
x →a
( − )( +c ) = −

2x 2x
Example 10. If lim+ = +  and lim− = + 1,
x →1 x-1 x →1 x + 1

 2x x - 3
then lim  • = +
x →1 x - 1 x + 1
 

Theorem 5

From Theorem 3b, if C is any constant except 0, then

a) lim f ( x ) • g ( x ) = − , if C > 0 and

x →a

( − )( +c ) = −
b) lim f ( x ) • g ( x ) = + , if C < 0. note:
x →a
( − )( −c ) = +

3x 2x - 6 1
Example 11. If lim− = -  and lim− =- ,
x →2 x-2 x →2 x + 4 2

 3x 2x - 6 
then lim−  • = +
x →2  x - 2 x + 4 
 4x 2
Example 12. Evaluate lim−
x →3 9 − x
2

Solution:
4 (3)
2
4x 2 36
lim = = + = +
x →3− 9 − x 9−3
2 2
0

4x 2
Example 13. Evaluate lim+
x →3 9 − x2
Solution:
4x 2 36
lim− = − = −
x →3 9−x 2
0

4x 2
Example 14 Evaluate lim
x →3 9 − x 2

Solution:

It was evaluated from the previous problems (see examples 8.1 and 8.2) that:
4x 2 4x 2
lim− = + and lim = −
x →3 9 − x x →3+ 9 − x
2 2

4x 2
 lim =  or the two sided limit exists.
x →3 9 − x 2

Supplementary Table:

Two-Sided From the Left From the Right

 + −
 − +
+ + +
− − −
Theorem 6

If r is any positive integer, then

1
a) lim r = 0
x →+ x

1
b) lim r = 0
x →− x

5 x 3 − 12 x + 7
Example 15. Evaluate lim
x →− 4x 2 − 1
Solution:
5 x 3 − 12 x + 7 − +  + 7 
lim = =
x →− 4x 2 − 1  −1 

Divide both the numerator and the denominator by x3:

 1
(
5 x 3 − 12 x + 7  3 ) 12 7
5− 2 + 3
lim
x
  = lim x x = 5 = ?
 1 4 1
( ) 0
x →− x →−
4x 2 − 1  3  − 3
x  x x

 12 7 
lim  5 − 2 + 3  = 5  0
x →−
 x x 

4 1  but f ( x ) → 0 thru negative values of f(x)

lim  − 3  = 0
x x 
x →−

12 7
5− +
5 x − 12 x + 7
3
x 2 x 3 = 5 = −
 lim = lim
x →− 4x 2 − 1 x →− 4 1 0−
− 3
x x
2.4 Continuity of Functions

DISCUSSION OF THE TOPICS:

In general, continuous function is one whose graph is an unbroken curve. This

property is not present to all functions, but those that have, are extremely important in the
foundation of calculus.

Definition 1:
A function f is said to be continuous at a number a if the following conditions are
satisfied:
a.) f(a) exists
b.) lim f ( x ) exists and is finite
x →a

c.) lim f ( x ) = f ( a )
x →a

If one or more of the above conditions fails to hold at a the function is said to be
discontinuous.

Figure 1 illustrates discontinuity.

y

x
o 1 2 3 4 5 6

Fig. 1

Notice that there is discontinuity when c=2 because the graph has a gap in that
point and therefore f(2) is not defined.
When c=3, the graph is also discontinuous; f(3) is defined but lim f ( x ) does not
x →3

exist because the left hand and right hand limits are not equal.
 x2 − x − 6
Example 16. Given the function f defined as f ( x ) = , draw a sketch of the graph
x −3
of f, then by observing where there are breaks in the graph, determine
the values of the independent variable at which the function is
discontinuous and why each is discontinuous.

Solution:
x 2 − x − 6 ( x + 2) ( x − 3 )
f (x) = = = x+2
x −3 x −3
 f ( x ) = x − 2 where x  3
y
Graph

2 Test for continuity:

a) f(3) is not defined; since the first
condition is not satisfied, then f is
x
-2 2 4 discontinuous at x=3

 x2 − x − 6
 if x  3
Example 17. Given the function f defined as f ( x ) =  x − 3 draw a sketch of
 2 if x = 3

the graph of f, then by observing where there are breaks in the graph,
determine the values of the independent variable at which the function is
discontinuous and why each is discontinuous.

Solution:
 x2 − x − 6
 if x  3
f (x) =  x − 3
 2 if x = 3


Graph
y
Test for continuity:
a.) f(3) is defined
x2 − x − 6
b.) lim f ( x ) = lim
x →3 x →3 x −3
2

x
-2 2 4
 ( x − 3 ) ( x + 2)
= lim
x →3 x −3
= lim ( x + 2 )
x →3

=3+2
=5
c.) lim f ( x ) = 5 and f ( 3 ) = 2
x →3

The limit exists but lim f ( x )  f ( 3 ) , therefore f is

x →3

discontinuous at x=3

1
 if x  0
Example 18. Given the function f defined as f ( x ) =  x 2 draw a sketch of the
 2 if x = 0
graph of f, then by observing where there are breaks in the graph,
determine the values of the independent variable at which the function is
discontinuous and why each is discontinuous.

Solution:
1
 if x  0
f ( x ) =  x2
 2 if x = 0

Graph
1 y
f (x) = if x  0
x2

VA:
X2=0; x=0
1 1 1
lim 2 = = +
x →0 + x 0+
x
1 1 -1 1
lim− 2 = = +
x →0 x 0+

 x = 0 is a VA

HA:
 1 Test for Continuity:
lim =0 a.) f(0)=2; is defined
x →+ x 2
b.) lim f ( x ) does not exists
x →0

1 Since the second condition is not

lim =0 satisfied, then f is discontinuous at x=0.
x →− x 2

 y = 0 is a HA

2 − x if x  2
Example 19. Given the function f defined as f ( x ) =  draw a sketch of the
2 + x if x  2
graph of f, then by observing where there are breaks in the graph,
determine the values of the independent variable at which the function
is discontinuous and why each is discontinuous.

Solution:
2 − x if x  2
f (x) = 
2 + x if x  2

Graph
y Test for continuity:
a.) f(2)=2+2=4; therefore f(2) is defined
b.) lim+ f ( x ) = lim+ ( 2 − x ) = 2 − 2 = 0
x →2 x →2

lim f ( x ) = lim− ( 2 + x ) = 2 + 2 = 4
x → 2− x →2

2
Therefore since the lim+ f ( x )  lim− f ( x ) then
x →3 x →3

lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x →3
x
-2 2 4
Since the second condition is not satisfied then
the function is discontinuous at x=2.

Definition 2:
A function f is continuous from the right at a number of c if:
lim+ f ( x ) = f ( c ) and
x →c
f is continuous from the left at c if
 lim f ( x ) = f ( c )
x →c −

Definition 3:
A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in the
given interval.
Ex. 2 Show that the function f ( x ) = 9 − x 2 is continuous on the closed interval [-
3,3].
Solution:
lim f ( x ) = lim + 9 − x 2 lim f ( x ) = lim− 9 − x 2
x →−3+ x →−3 x →3 − x →3

=0 =0
= f ( −2 ) = f ( 2)
Since f is continuous from the right at -3 and continuous from left at 3, therefore f
is continuous on the closed interval [-3,3].

Theorems:
I. If f and g are continuous at c and k is a constant, then the following functions are
also continuous at c:
a) f+g
b) f-g
c) kf
d) fg
e) f/g provided g(c)  0

II. The following functions are continuous at every number in their domains:
a) polynomial functions
b) rational functions
c) trigonometric functions
d) inverse trigonometric functions
e) exponential functions
f) logarithmic functions