Physics Study Notes

I Can Do Maths
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D A P S
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P G N R
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Key Terms for

Scientific Reports
Aim To investigate the effect of increasing/decreasing the independent variable on
the dependent variable.

Validity How well you test the aim. ie. Only changing one independent variable at a time.

Reliability Repeating measurements and getting consistent results.

Accuracy The accuracy of the equipment used to take measurements AND how close the
experimental and theoretical values are.
Not-9 My-6 Millipede-3, My0 Kangaroo’s-3 Massive-6 Gahoonahs-9
Module 1: Kinematics
Lesson 1: Scalar and Vector Quantities
Lesson 2: Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration
Lesson 3: Equations of Motion
Lesson 4: Graphs of Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration Against Time
Lesson 5: Problem Solving With Equations Of Motion
Lesson 6: Relative Velocity
Lesson 7: Vectors in 2D
Lesson 8: Further Applications of Relative Velocity

Module 2: Dynamics

Lesson 1: Forces
Lesson 2: Newton’s Laws of Motion
Lesson 3: Net Force and Equilibrium in 1D and 2D
Lesson 4: Energy
Lesson 5: Friction
Lesson 6: Power
Lesson 7: Momentum
Lesson 8: Elastic and Inelastic Collisions

Module 3: Waves and Thermodynamics

Lesson 1: Waves
Lesson 2: Wave Calculations
Lesson 3: Properties of Waves
Lesson 4: Light as a Ray
Lesson 5: Refraction
Lesson 6: Total Internal Reflection
Lesson 7: Dispersion
Lesson 8: Inverse Square Law
Lesson 9: Sound Waves
Lesson 10: Harmonics
Lesson 11: Doppler Effect
Lesson 12: Thermodynamics
Lesson 13: Specific Heat Capacity
Lesson 14: Latent Heat
Lesson 15: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
Lesson 16: Thermal Conductivity

Module 4: Electricity and Magnetism

Lesson 1: Electric Charge

Lesson 2: Force on Charged Particles in Electric Fields
Lesson 3: Coulomb’s Law
Lesson 4: Electric Current
Lesson 5: Ohm’s Law
Lesson 6: Voltage
Lesson 7: Kirchoff’s Laws
Lesson 8: Resistors in Series and in Parallel
Lesson 9: Magnets

Module 5: Advanced Mechanics

Lesson 1: Introduction to Projectile Motion

Lesson 2: Circular Motion
Lesson 3: Work and Torque in Circular Motion
Lesson 4: Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
Lesson 5: Gravitational Field Strength
Lesson 6: Orbital Motion
Lesson 7: Kepler’s Laws
Lesson 8: Gravitational Potential Energy (The Truth At Last)
Lesson 9: Escape Velocity
Lesson 10: Total Mechanical Energy

Module 6: Electromagnetism

Lesson 1: Force on a Charged Particles in an Electric Field

Lesson 2: Charged Particles in Magnetic Fields
Lesson 3: The Motor Effect
Lesson 4: Force Between Parallel Wires
Lesson 5: Magnetic Flux
Lesson 6: Faraday and Lenz’s Laws
Lesson 7: Transformers
Lesson 8: Voltage Drop
Lesson 9: DC/AC Generators/Motors
Lesson 10: Back EMF
Lesson 11: Eddy Currents

Module 7: The Nature of Light

Lesson 1: Maxwell’s Theory of Electromagnetism

Lesson 2: Historical Experiments to Calculate the Speed of Light
Lesson 3: Emission and Absorption Spectra
Lesson 4: Spectra of Stars
Lesson 5: Newton vs Huygens
Lesson 6: The Double Slit Experiment
Lesson 7: Polarisation
Lesson 8: Blackbody Radiation
Lesson 9: The Photoelectric Effect
Lesson 10: Special Relativity and Light
Lesson 11: Consequences of Special Relativity
Lesson 12: Proof for Special Relativity

Module 8: From the Universe to the Atom (Express Service)

Lesson 1: The Universe (BBT)

Lesson 2: Stars
Lesson 3: Stellar Fusion
Lesson 4: Cathode Ray Tubes - Electrons Exist!
Lesson 5: Thomson’s Charge to Mass Experiment - Proof Electrons have a
Charge and a Mass
Lesson 6: Milikan’s Oil Drop Experiment - The Charge and Mass of an
Electron
Lesson 7: Geiger-Marsden/Gold Foil Experiment
Lesson 8: Chadwick’s Discovery of the Neutron
Lesson 9: Rydberg’s Equation and Bohr’s Planetary Model
Lesson 10: De Broglie’s Matter Wave and the Davisson and Germer’s
Experiment
Lesson 11: Schrodinger’s Quantum Cookedness and the Uncertain Nature
of Matter
Lesson 12: Radioactive Decay and Half Life
 Module 1: Kinematics

Lesson 1: Scalar and Vector Quantities

Vectors Vs Scalars

Scalar Quantities:
Can be described by a magnitude alone.

Geometric Vectors:
A directed (has direction) line segment (is finite in length) in space, described by both a
magnitude (or length) and a direction.(Oh yeah)

Vector Quantities:
Change when either their direction or magnitude changes (or both).
Eg. a car turning a corner experiences a change in velocity if there is no change in
speed.

Scalars Vectors
Distance - The length of the path taken by a Displacement - The change in position of a
given object. given object.

Speed - The rate of the change of distance Velocity - The rate of change of
with respect to time. displacement with respect to time.
Mass - How much matter a body contains. Force - The mass of an object times the
acceleration of the object.

Temperature - A measure of the average Acceleration - The rate of change of

kinetic energy particles in an object. velocity with respect to time.

Electric Current - The amount of electric

charge that pases through a particular point
over a certain period of time.

Electric Charge - The physical property of

matter that causes it to experience a force
when placed in an electromagnetic field.

Time - The interval over which change

occurs

One Dimensional Vectors

●​ In one dimension there are only two directions a vector can point in:

Up​ ​ ​ ​ ​ N
​ ↕​ ​ Left↔Right​ ↕ W↔E​​
Down​​ ​ ​ ​ S

●​ When drawing vectors make them approximately proportional to their

magnitudes.

●​ To signify a value is a vector simply place an arrow above it.

→ → →
a b c

Adding and Subtracting One Dimensional Vectors

1.​ Draw the two vectors so the start of one vector coincides with
the end of the other vector.
 2.​ The sum of the two vectors is drawn from the start of the first
vector to the end of the second vector.

●​ If they are both going in the same direction (North-North, Down-Down

etc.) then they are both ‘positive numbers’.
→ ​​ ​ →
a = 2 m/s North b = 1 m/s North

→ →
a + b = 3 m/s North

Subtraction is intuitive from this.

​ → ​​ ​ →
a = 2 m/s North b = 1 m/s South

→ →
a - b = 1 m/s North

●​ If one is going in the opposite direction (North-South, Left-Right etc.),

then that is a ‘negative number’.
→ ​​ ​ →
a = 2 m/s North b = 1 m/s South

→ → → →
a + b = a + (-b) = 1 m/s North

Subtraction is intuitive from this.

​ → ​​ ​ →
a = 2 m/s North b = 1 m/s South
 → → → →
a - b = a - (-b) = 3 m/s North

Lesson 2: Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration

Distance vs Displacement

Definitions of Key Terms In Lesson One Table.

Lesson 3: Equations of Motion

Important Equations

s = Displacement (m)
u = Initial Velocity (ms-1) (m/s)
v = Final Velocity (ms-1) (m/s)
t = Time (s)
a = Acceleration (ms-2) (m/s/s)
Given On HSC Formula Sheet
s = ut + ½ at2
v = u + at
v2 = u2 + 2as

Not Given On HSC Formula Sheet

s = vt - ½ at2
s = ½(u+v)t

Lesson 4: Graphs of Displacement, Velocity, and

Acceleration Against Time

Displacement - Time Graphs

-​ The gradient represents velocity.

-​ Why?
-​ Displacement/Time (S/t) is the gradient.
-​ Velocity = (S/t)

Velocity - Time Graphs

-​ The gradient represents acceleration.

-​ Why?
-​ Velocity/Time (v/t) is the gradient.
-​ Acceleration = (v/t)

-​ The area between the graph and the x-axis represents displacement.
-​ Why?
-​ The graph line is velocity (with respect to time)
-​ So the area is the graph line x time
-​ Also: v = S/t
-​ So vt = S
-​ Therefore the graph line (v) x time (t) = displacement (S)
Acceleration - Time Graphs

-​ The area between the graph and the x-axis represents velocity.
-​ Why?
-​ The graph line is acceleration (with respect to time)
-​ So the area is the graph line x time
-​ Also: a = v/t
-​ So at = v
-​ Therefore the graph line (a) x time (t) = velocity (v)

Negative portion of the graph you just treat as a negative number.

The object is moving left to right

Each point where velocity changes is an point (plus at 30 min when it
crosses the line)

A to B: The object’s is increasing in speed as it moves to the right

B to C: The object’s speed is constant it moves to the right
C to D: The object is decreasing in speed as it moves to the right
D: The object’s speed is 0
D to E: The object’s is increasing in speed as it moves to the left
E to F: The object is decreasing in speed as it moves to the left

Lesson 5: Problem Solving With Equations Of

Motion
●​ Out of the 5 values (u,v,S,a,t), questions will always give you at least
three. Using these three, + the three formulas given on the HSC, you
can calculate the other two values.

●​ As you can see, any three values given will allow you to derive a
fourth, and then that can be used to find the 5th.
○​ s = ut + ½ at2
○​ v = u + at
○​ v2 = u2 + 2as
 ●​ When you’re given a worded question to solve, start by writing down
all the values you’re given, then choose your formula, and solve for
the value you’re missing.

Lesson 6: Relative Velocity

●​ The relative velocity of an object relative to another object is given as:
​ → → →
​ vA|B = vA - vB

●​ That’s like it.

●​ Tune in next lesson Ig.

Lesson 7: Vectors in 2D
●​ Mmmk so last lesson’s deficit has been made up for.

Adding and Subtracting Vectors

1.​ Algebraically (Use this when finding precise values.)
○​ Add vectors u and v.
i.​ u = 4.00ms-1 North
ii.​ v = 3.00ms-1 West
○​ 1. Draw diagram

○​
2 2
○​ |u+v| = 3. 00 + 4. 00
○​ = 5.00ms-1
○​ tanθ = ¾
○​ θ = 36.9o
○​ u + v = 5.00ms-1 N 36.9o W (Start at north and go 36.9o west.)
2.​ Geometrically (Use this when you’re not given values for the
quantities.)
i.​ Draw the vectors so that the head of a coincides with the
tail of b (or vice versa).
ii.​ Draw the resulting vector from the tail of a to the head of
b.
 ○​

Lesson 8: Further Applications of Relative Velocity

●​ Read questions carefully and interpret it logically.

●​ When working on a non-right angled triangle, if you know an exact
bearing, you can ‘complete’ the triangle into a right angled one with
the dotted triangle(see in first image, top left).
●​ Alternatively the cosine rule can be used (see below).
●​ Be careful when calculating your final bearing component of your
answer and ensure you consider exactly what your calculated ‘θ’
actually is in terms of the question.
 Module 2: Dynamics

Lesson 1: Forces
A force is a push or pull which alters the velocity of an object (increase in
speed (acceleration),decrease in speed (decceleration), or change
direction).

Non-Contact Forces Contact Forces

-​ Requires an object with a specific -​ Requires direct contact between two
property to be in the field of the force. objects.

●​ Gravity/Weight (Object must ●​ Normal (Opposes gravity (for ex,

have mass) if there’s a book on a table, the
●​ Magnetism normal force is exerted by the
●​ Electrostatic (Object must have table holding the book up))
electric charge) ●​ Friction
●​ Air/Fluid Resistance
●​ Buoyancy
●​ Elastic
●​ Tension

A field is a region around an object in which other objects experience a

force.

Lesson 2: Newton’s Laws of Motion

1st Law:
 ●​ An object in motion will remain in motion unless acted upon by an
external force.
○​ Objects at rest will remain at rest unless acted upon by an
external force.
○​ Moving objects: Velocity is only changed by an external force.
○​ Inertia = The resistance to change in motion.
○​ Net force (resultant force) = Vector sum of all forces acting on
an object.

2nd Law:
●​ The net force acting on an object is directly proportional to the
object’s mass and acceleration.
○​ ⅀ F→ = F→net = ma→ (F = ma)
○​ The net force and acceleration always act in the same direction.
○​ The velocity and acceleration always act in the same direction.
○​ For an object not accelerating (at rest or moving in a straight
line at a constant speed) the net force is zero.

3rd Law:
●​ For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
○​ Action = Whichever force happened first.
○​ These two forces are referred to as an ‘action-reaction pair.
○​ The two forces are acting on different objects.
○​ For ex:
■​ Car A drives into the back of Car B, Car A’s velocity is the
‘Action’.
 ■​ As a result Car B exerts a force of equal magnitude on
Car A, but acting in the opposite direction, the ‘reaction’.

Lesson 3: Net Force and Equilibrium in 1D and 2D

Equilibrium: When the net force on an object is zero, the forces are said to
be in equilibrium.

●​ Much like adding vectors

●​ Just add vectors to find net force
●​ Often helps to split into x and y

Lesson 4: Energy
●​ Energy can be:
○​ Kinetic (KE)
○​ Potential (PE)
●​ Energy is the ability to do work.
●​ Work is the transfer of energy by a force acting on an object as it is
displaced.
●​ In other words, work is the change in KE.
○​ 𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝐹𝑠
●​ Change in potential energy equals mass x accel. due to grav. x the
height off the ground.
○​ ∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔∆ℎ
●​ Energy is measured in Joules (J)
Change in Kinetic Energy = Force x Displacement
Dot product of two vectors:
a→ . b→ = ab cos(angle between a→ and b→)
Lesson 5: Friction

●​ Friction is a force which prevents two objects from sliding against

each other.
●​ It always acts parallel to the surface, opposing the object's motion.
●​ If a small force is applied to an object and it does not move, static
friction is acting.
●​ If the applied force causes the object to start moving, kinetic friction is
acting.
●​ FFriction = μ FNormal
○​ μs = coefficient of static friction
○​ μk = coefficient of kinetic friction
○​ For most surfaces, μs > μk​

Lesson 6: Power
●​ Power is the rate at which energy is converted from one form to
another.
●​ Units:
○​ Js-1 = W (Watt)
●​ Formulae
○​ 𝑃 =
𝐸
○​ = 𝑡
𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
○​ = 𝑠
𝑡
○​ = 𝐹 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
○​ = 𝐹 ॥
𝑣

Lesson 7: Momentum
●​ 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
 ●​ ∆𝑝 = 𝐹∆𝑡
○​ ∆𝑝 = Impulse
○​ 𝐹 = Force
○​ ∆𝑡 = Time

Lesson 8: Elastic and Inelastic Collisions

●​ Elastic:
○​ All kinetic energy is conserved
●​ Inelastic:
○​ Some kinetic energy is transformed into other forms of energy.
(Often sonic energy
○​ In a perfectly inelastic collision, the maximum amount of KE is
transformed into the other forms.
○​ This occurs when the objects combine after the collisions

Module 3: Waves and Thermodynamics

Lesson 1: Waves

Mechanical Waves: Require a medium to travel through

 ●​ Transverse: Wave motion is perpendicular to particle
oscillations

●​ Longitudinal: Wave motion is in the same direction as particle

oscillations

Electromagnetic Waves: Can travel in a vacuum

●​ Different lengths of transverse waves
○​ Radio Waves
○​ Microwaves
○​ Infrared Radiation
○​ Visible Light
○​ Ultraviolet Light
○​ X-Rays
○​ Gamma Rays
○​ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjOGNVH3D4Y

Wavelength (λ): Distance between 2 crests or troughs - can be

found through displacement-time graph.
​ Units: m

Period (T): Time taken for one cycle of the wave to happen - can
be found through displacement-distance graph.
​ Units: s

Frequency (f): The number of waves passing through a fixed point

per second.
​ Units: s-1 or Hz (Hertz)
Amplitude (A): Maximum displacement of a wave from the
equilibrium position. (how high it gets from the middle)
​ Units: m

2π
Wave Number (k): λ
​ Units: (m-1)

Two points ‘in phase’: Two points at the same point on the
wavelength

1 λ
𝑓= 𝑇
​ 𝑣= 𝑇
​ 𝑣 = 𝑓 λ​ 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒

Lesson 2: Wave Calculations

8 −1
Speed of light (in a vacuum) (c) = 3. 00 × 10 𝑚𝑠
−1
Speed of sound (in air) = 340 𝑚𝑠

1 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑚 = 1𝑚

Lesson 3: Properties of Waves

Things that change how waves move:

-​ Reflection
 Parabolic Mirrors

-​ Refraction
-​ Of course because, when the wave changes to a new
medium, its velocity changes too.
-​ The frequency remains constant so 𝑣 = 𝑥λ

-​ Diffraction
-​ The bending of waves after they pass through a slit,
hole, or around a corner. As wavelength approaches
the size of the slit and/or the size of the slit ↓, diffraction
increases.
 -​ Interference (adding waves)
-​ Interference refers to two or more waves coinciding with
each other.

Visible Light: 400-700 nm

Lesson 4: Light as a Ray

●​ The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence is
equal to the angle of reflection.
○​ i=r
●​ Luminosity (l) is given in candelas (cd).
●​ Luminosity is the intensity of light.
●​ Luminosity times distance (r) squared is a ratio.
○​ l1r12=l2r22
Lesson 5: Refraction
●​ Refractive index is kinda like how able a medium is to refract
light.
●​ Refractive index in medium x (nx) is the ratio between the
speed of light in a vacuum (c) and the speed of light in the
medium (vx).
𝑐
○​ 𝑛 𝑥
= 𝑣 𝑥

○​ 𝑛 1𝑣 1
= 𝑛 2𝑣 2
■​ Where:
■​ n1,n2 = the refractive index of materials 1/2
■​ v1,v2 = the speed of light in the 1st/2nd material
●​ Snell's Law
○​ n1sin(i) = n2sin(r)
■​ Where:
■​ n1n2 = the refractive index of the incident/refracting
medium
■​ i = is the angle of incidence
■​ r = is the angle of refraction
○​ sin(ic) = 1/nx
■​ Where:
■​ ic = critical angle
■​ nx = Refractive index

Lesson 6: Total Internal Reflection

●​ When light passes from a medium with a low refractive index
to one with a higher refractive index (like air-to-water), it is
refracted towards the normal.
●​ Conversely, when light passes from a medium with a high
refractive index to one with a lower refractive index, it is
refracted away from the normal (fig.a).
●​ In this case, as the angle of incidence increases, the angle
of refraction gets closer to 900 (fig.b).
●​ Eventually, at an angle of incidence known as the critical
angle, the angle of refraction becomes 900 and the light is
refracted along the interface between the two mediums
(fig.c).
●​ If the angle of incidence is increased above this value, the
light ray does not undergo refraction; instead it is reflected
back into the original medium, as though striking a perfect
mirror (fig.d) in a phenomenon known as total internal
reflection.
●​ The angle for refraction for the critical angle is 900, so the
critical angle is defined by the formula n1sin(ic) = n2sin(90).
 ●​ But since sin(90) = 1, this formula can be rearranged as
sin(ic) = n2/n1

Lesson 7: Dispersion
●​ White light is a mixture of different colours of light.
●​ Each colour has a slightly different refractive index in the
medium.
●​ This means that each colour of light will have a slightly
different angle of refraction in the new medium.
●​ Blue light (shortest wavelength) is refracted more than red
light (longest wavelength)
●​ Brackets it splits the light cos it refracts each at a slightly
different angle.

Lesson 8: Inverse Square Law

●​ Intensity1 x Distance12 = Intensity2 x Distance22
 ●​ This is basically telling us how intense light is at a given
distance​

Lesson 9: Sound Waves

●​ Soundwaves are longitudinal
𝑣
●​ 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ ↑ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 ↑ 𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ↓ (𝑎𝑠 𝑓 = λ
)
𝑃
●​ 𝐼 = 2 ​
4π𝑟
−2
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑊𝑚 ), 𝑃 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑊), 𝑟 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚)
●​ fbeat = |f1 - f2|
●​ When two waves of equal amplitude but different frequencies
are superimposed, a pulse or beat is created.
●​ The speed of sound is dependent on the medium.
𝑇
●​ 𝑣 = 𝑚/𝑙
​
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑙 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Lesson 10: Harmonics

●​ Waves on a string:

●​ When the string/pipe is fixed/open at both ends the formulas

look like
 2𝑙 2(𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔)
●​ λ = 𝑛
​ 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠
𝑛𝑣 (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠)(𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒)
●​ 𝑓 = 2𝑙
​ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 2(𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔)

●​ If the string/pipe is fixed/closed at one end, only odd

overtones exist.
●​ And the formulas change from 2 ⇒ 4
4𝑙 𝑛𝑣
●​ So λ = 𝑛
, and 𝑓 = 4𝑙

Lesson 11: Doppler Effect

●​ Basically the compression of sound waves.
 (𝑣 +𝑣 )
●​ 𝑓' = 𝑓 (𝑣
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
−𝑣
𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟
)
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒

●​ When 𝑓' = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(𝐻𝑧),

𝑓 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(𝐻𝑧),
𝑣 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚(𝑚/𝑠),
𝑣 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟
= 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 (𝑚/𝑠)
(+ 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑖𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑤
𝑣 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 (𝑚/𝑠)
(+ 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑖𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑤
●​ Basically vobserver and source are positive if they are moving
towards the other, but negative if they are moving away.

Lesson 12: Thermodynamics

●​ Heat vs Temperature
○​ Heat - a form of energy which is transferred from one
object to another due to a difference in temperature.
○​ Temperature - a measure of the kinetic energy of an
object's particles.
●​ States of Matter
○​ Particles in liquids and gases are more free to move
than in solids due to their greater kinetic energy.
 ○​ Solids have a fixed shape. Liquids and gases do not
have a fixed shape.
●​ Kelvin Scale
○​ 0 K = -273.15 oC
○​ K = oC - 273.15
○​ oC = K + 273.15
●​ Thermal Equilibrium
○​ Two objects that are touching for a long time will
eventually end up at the same temperature.

Lesson 13: Specific Heat Capacity

●​ The Specific Heat Capacity of a substance is the amount of
heat energy required to increase the temperature of the
substance by 1 degree K/oC.
●​ This must stay in the same state of matter as SHC changes
based on the state.
●​ 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
●​ Where 𝑄 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑/𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑, 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡,
𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, ∆𝑇 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝.
●​ The units for c dictate the units for the rest of the question.
○​ For example, if c is in J kg-1K-1, Q is in J, m is in Kg, ∆T
is in K.
○​ For example, if c is in kJ g-1 oC-1, Q is in kJ, m is in g, ∆T
is in oC.
●​ If two substances are mixed to the same temperature, their
heat absorbed/released must add to zero cause all the
energy released by the hot one must go into heating up the
 cold one (classic physics assumption). Just make one neg
so they cancel.

Lesson 14: Latent Heat

●​ The latent heat of a substance is the amount of heat
required to change its state at a constant temperature
(basically once it reaches its boiling point, more energy is
required to vapourise it).
𝑄
●​ Solid to liquid: heat of fusion 𝐿 𝑓
= 𝑚
𝑄
●​ Solid to liquid: heat of vapourisation 𝐿 𝑣
= 𝑚

Lesson 15: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation

●​ Conduction is the transfer of heat through a substance by
collisions between particles – particles with greater kinetic
energy transfer some of their energy to particles with less
kinetic energy until the substance reaches thermal
equilibrium.
 ●​ Convection is the transfer of heat energy through movement
of particles in a fluid (liquid or gas) from a hotter to cooler
region. Hotter fluids have a lower density than cooler fluids,
allowing them to rise above cooler fluids.
●​ Radiation is the transfer of energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation – it does not need a medium or
involve particles.
●​ All objects emit electromagnetic radiation due to moving
charged particles – the faster they move, the hotter the
substance is.

Lesson 16: Thermal Conductivity

𝑄 𝑘𝐴∆𝑇
●​ 𝑡
= 𝑑
 𝑄
●​ 𝑡
= The rate at which heat energy moves from one end of
an object to another (Js-1 or W(A Watt is just one J/s btw)).
●​ 𝑘 = thermal conductivity constant (a constant for each
material).
●​ 𝐴 = cross-sectional area (m2)
●​ ∆𝑇 = Temperature difference between two ends (Co or K)
●​ 𝑑 = length of object (m)

Module 4: Electricity and Magnetism

Lesson 1: Electric Charge

●​ Electric charge is the property objects need to have in order
to experience a force when placed within an electric field.
●​ Unit for electric charge (q) is Coulombs (C)
−19
●​ Charge for one proton = 1. 602 × 10 𝐶
●​ Atoms are electrically neutral unless they are ionised (by
adding or removing electrons)
●​ Neutral objects can experience a force when placed near
charged objects (neutral objects consist of positive and
negative charges).
Lesson 2: Force on Charged Particles in Electric
Fields
 ●​ 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸
○​ F: Force
○​ q: Charge
○​ E: Electric field strength
●​ Electric field strength is a vector quantity.
○​ If q > 0, F and E have the same direction.
○​ If q > 0, F and E have opposite directions.
𝑉
●​ 𝐸 = 𝑑
○​ E = electric field strength (Vm-1)
○​ V = electric potential (volts)
○​ d = distance between points (m)
∆𝑈 𝑊 𝐹𝑑 𝑞𝐸𝑑
●​ 𝑉 = 𝑞
= 𝑞
= 𝑞
= 𝑞
= 𝐸𝑑
○​ U = potential energy (J)
○​ W = work done (J)
○​ q = charge on the point (C)
○​ V = electrical potential (volts)
○​ E = electric field strength (Vm-1)
○​ d = distance between points (m)

Lesson 3: Coulomb’s Law

1 𝑞 1𝑞
●​ 𝐹 = 4πε
× 2
2

0 𝑟
1
●​ Let 𝑘 = 4πε 0
𝑞 1𝑞
●​ 𝐹 = 𝑘 2
2

𝑟
○​ F = the force on each charged object (N)
○​ q1,q2 = the charge on each of the points (C)
○​ r = the distance between each charged point (m)
 ○​ ε0 = 8.8542x10-12 C2 N-1 m-2
○​ 𝑘 = 9. 0x109N m2 C-2
𝑞
●​ 𝐸 = 𝑘 2
𝑟
○​ E = magnitude of the electric field strength around a
point (N C-1)
○​ q = charge on the point creating the field (C)
○​ r = distance from charge (m)
○​ k = 9.0 x109 N m2 C-2
●​ Vm-1 = NC-1

Lesson 4: Electric Current

𝑞 𝑛 𝑒𝑞
●​ 𝐼 = 𝑡
= 𝑡
𝑒

○​ I = Current = rate of flow of electric charge through a

fixed point per unit of time (Cs-1 = A (Ampere))
○​ q = Total amount of positive charge passing through the
point (C)
○​ t = time (s)
○​ ne = # of e-
○​ qe = charge of e-
 ●​
●​ Electric current is a scalar quantity (even though it has both
direction and magnitude) since both q and t are scalars.
●​ Electric current flows from the positive to negative terminals
of a battery (conventional current) even though electrons
carry current.

Lesson 5: Ohm’s Law

●​ 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
○​ V= Voltage = pressure pushing the current through
○​ I = Current = rate of flow of electric charge through a
fixed point per unit of time (Cs-1 = A (Ampere))
○​ R = Resistance = slows down the current (Ω)

Lesson 6: Voltage and Power

●​ 𝑊 = 𝑞𝑉
𝑊
●​ So 𝑉 = 𝑞
○​ Voltage is the difference in potential energy between
two points in an electric circuit per unit charge.
∆𝐸
●​ 𝑃 = ∆𝑡
= 𝑉𝐼
 ○​ Power = Js-1 = W (Watt)
○​ E = Energy Transformed
○​ t = Time
○​ V =Voltage
○​ I = Current

Lesson 7: Kirchoff’s Laws

●​ In a closed circuit, the sum of all voltages across all
components is zero.
○​ VBattery + VResistor 1 + VResistor 2 = 0
●​ A junction is a point in a circuit where 3 or more wires meet.
○​ The total current into a junction equals the total current
flowing out of a junction.

Lesson 8: Resistors in Series and in Parallel

●​ Series:
○​ Current through each resistor is the same.
○​ Voltage is split across the resistors.
■​ V=IR
■​ VTotal = V1 + V2 + … + Vn
■​ IReq = IR1 + IR2 + … + IRn
■​ Req = R1 + R2 + … + Rn
●​ Parallel:
○​ Voltage of all resistors is the same.
○​ Current is split between the resistors.
■​ I = V/R
■​ ITotal = I1 + I2 + … + In
■​ V/Req = V/R1 + V/R2 + … + V/Rn
■​ 1/Requivalant resistance = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + … + 1/Rn
Lesson 9: Magnets
●​ Magnets work because magnetic fields.
●​ Magnetism = Electricity
●​ e- = Tiny Magnets
●​ Full shell = some tiny magnets facing both ways, so they
cancel.
●​ Only when the shell is half filled can the tiny magnets group
together and not cancel out so they become magnetic.
●​ To be magnetic:
○​ An object must have different parts of the object aligned
on the human scale.
○​ The e-’s must also be properly aligned on the atomic
scale.
■​ This means the shells must be half filled so the e-’s
don’t cancel.
●​ Magnetic fields are a vector quantity.
○​ Denoted by B, units are Teslas (T).
●​ Charged particles have a property called spin - they can
either be spin up or spin down.
●​ In atoms with e- pairs, e- cancel their sibling out.
●​ A domain is a region in which all atoms are grouped together
and aligned.
μ 0𝐼
●​ 𝐵 = 2π𝑟
μ 0𝑁𝐼
●​ 𝐵 = 𝐿
●​ 𝐵 = Magnetic field strength of the solenoid
●​ μ 0 = Magnetic permeability constant
●​ 𝐼 = Current in the wire
 ●​ 𝑟 = Of the circle formed by surrounding wire of solenoid
●​ 𝑁 = Number of turns of the coil
●​ 𝐿 = Per unit length

Module 5: Advanced Mechanics

Lesson 1: Introduction to Projectile Motion

●​ Ignore air resistance.

●​ Therefore Gravity is the only relevant force.
●​ Its velocity is dependent on horizontal and vertical
components.
●​ Vertical is a linear function of time.
●​ Vertical Formulae:
○​ Sy=uyt + ½ ayt2
○​ Vy=uy + ayt
○​ Vy2=uy2 + 2aySy
●​ Horizontal is constant.
●​ Horizontal Formulae:
○​ Sx=uxt
○​ Vx=ux

Lesson 2: Circular Motion

●​ Centripetal Force is NOT an actual force.

●​ It is simply the effect of other forces that causes an object to
 undergo circular motion.

Example of Circular Motion Centripetal Force

A planet orbiting a star. Gravitational attraction between the planet
and the star.
An electron orbiting the nucleus of an Electrostatic attraction between the electron
atom. and the nucleus of the atom.
An object tied to a string swung in a The tension in the string.
horizontal circle.
A car turning a corner on a horizontal The friction between the tires and the road.
road

●​ Formulas:
𝑑θ
○​ ω = 𝑑𝑡
■​ ω = Angular velocity [radians/second]
𝑑θ
■​ 𝑑𝑡
= The rate of change of angular displacement
to time
2π𝑟
○​ 𝑣 = 𝑇
■​ 𝑣 = Linear or tangential velocity [m/s]
■​ 𝑟 = Radius
■​ 𝑇 = Period (time for 1 revolution [s])
○​ 𝑣 = 𝑟ω
■​ 𝑣 = Velocity
■​ 𝑟 = Radius
■​ ω = Angular Velocity [radians/second]
2
𝑣
○​ 𝑎 𝑐
= 𝑟
■​ 𝑎 𝑐
= Centripetal acceleration [m/s2]
 2
■​ 𝑣 = Linear or tangential velocity [m/s]
■​ 𝑟 = radius
2
𝑚𝑣
○​ 𝐹 𝑐
= 𝑟
■​ 𝐹 𝑐
= Centripetal force [N]
■​ 𝑚 = mass [g]
2
■​ 𝑣 = Linear or tangential velocity [m/s]
■​ 𝑟 = radius

Lesson 3: Work and Torque in Circular Motion

●​ Work is the energy required to move an object a given

distance.
○​ 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠
○​ 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
■​ Where θ is the angle between the actual
displacement and the force we’re looking at.

In uniform circular motion, the angle between 𝐹 and 𝑠 is

90o. Therefore work done is zero.
Since 𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸, the kinetic energy of an object in
 uniform circular motion remains constant.

●​ Torque is the rotational equivalent of force.

●​ Torque is also a vector (oh yeah)
τ = 𝑟𝐹
■​ τ = 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 (𝑁𝑚 (𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠))
■​ 𝑟 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓
●​ 𝐿𝑜𝑤 𝑘𝑒𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
■​ 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
■​ 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 2𝐷 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒, 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑖

●​ Magnitude of torque:
○​ τ = 𝑟𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
○​ Where θ is the angle between 𝑟 and 𝐹.
●​ Use the RH rule to determine the direction of torque.
○​ Thumb points in direction of Torque
○​ 2nd finger points in direction of r (position vector)
○​ Middle finger points in direction of force
●​ REMEMBER:
○​ Trans Raccoons Fly
Lesson 4: Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

●​ All objects with mass exert a gravitational force on all other

objects with mass.
●​ These forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction.
●​ Gravitational force is always attractive.
𝐺𝑚 1𝑚
○​ 𝐹 = 2
2

𝑟
■​ 𝐹 - The Force
■​ 𝐺 - Universal Gravitational force constant
−11 2 −2
= 6. 67 × 10 𝑁𝑚 𝑘𝑔
■​ 𝑚 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 2 - Masses of objects in kg
■​ 𝑟 - Distance between the two objects in metres.​

Lesson 5: Gravitational Field Strength

●​ The gravitational force acting on an object (due to the Earth’s
gravitational field) is equal to its weight.
●​ 𝐹 𝐺 = 𝐹 𝑊
𝐺𝑀𝑚𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
●​ 2 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑔
𝑟
○​ Where:
■​ 𝐺 = 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
■​ 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
■​ 𝑚𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
■​ 𝑟 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
■​ 𝑔 = 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
Lesson 6: Orbital Motion
●​ Gravity provides the centripetal force for satellites
undergoing uniform circular motion around another body.
○​ 𝐹𝐺 = 𝐹𝐶
■​ 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚
2
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑣
○​ 2 = 𝑟
𝑟
𝐺𝑀 2
○​ 𝑟
=𝑣
𝐺𝑀
○​ 𝑣 𝑜𝑟𝑏
= 𝑟
[NOT ON F.S.]
■​ 𝐺: 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
■​ 𝑀: 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑔 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
■​ 𝑚: 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
■​ 𝑟: 𝑂𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠
■​ 𝑣: 𝑂𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

●​ Orbital Radius: Average distance between a satellite and the

object it orbits. FROM THE CENTRE OF BOTH OBJECTS!
●​ Orbital Period: Time taken for a satellite to complete one
orbit.
●​ Orbital Velocity: Linear velocity of a satellite.

Lesson 7: Kepler's Laws

●​ 1st Law: Celestial Bodies Orbit in Ellipses with the mass
being orbited at a focus point.
●​ 2nd Law: Bodies cover equal areas in equal times.
3
𝐺𝑀 𝑟
●​ 3rd Law: 2 = 2 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
4π 𝑇
𝐺𝑀 2π𝑟
○​ Derived from: 𝑉𝑜𝑟𝑏 = 𝑟
and 𝑣 = 𝑇
Lesson 8: Gravitational Potential Energy (The Truth
At Last)
𝐺𝑀𝑚
●​ 𝑈 =− 𝑟
○​ 𝑈 = 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
○​ 𝐺 = 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
○​ 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡
○​ 𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
○​ 𝑟 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠
●​ Gravitational Potential Energy is ALWAYS NEGATIVE - the
zero points are at the centre of the Earth, and at an infinite
distance from the centre of the earth.
Lesson 9: Escape Velocity
●​ The minimum velocity an object needs to escape some
gravitational field.
●​ Deriving Formula
○​ 𝐷𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦: 𝐾𝐸 + 𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 0 (𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠)
1 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
○​ 2
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑟
=0
1 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
○​ 2
𝑚𝑣 = 𝑟
2 2𝐺𝑀
○​ 𝑣 = 𝑟
2𝐺𝑀
○​ 𝑣 = 𝑟
NOT ON F.S.

Lesson 10: Total Mechanical Energy

●​ Gravitational potential energy of a satellite:
𝐺𝑀𝑚
○​ 𝑈 =− 𝑟
●​ Kinetic Energy:
1 2
○​ 𝐾 = 2
𝑚𝑣
1 𝐺𝑀
○​ = 2
𝑚 𝑟
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
○​ = 2 𝑟
●​ Total Mechanical Energy:
○​ 𝑇𝑀𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
○​ = 2 𝑟 − 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚 1
○​ = 𝑟
( 2
− 1)
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
○​ =− 2 𝑟
●​ Moving from a lower to a higher orbit:
○​ Kinetic Energy Decreases
○​ Potential Energy Increases
 ○​ Total Mechanical Energy Holds Constant
●​ Circular Orbits:
○​ 𝐾, 𝑈, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 + 𝑈 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
●​ Elliptical Orbits
○​ 𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑈 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑦, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐾 + 𝑈 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Module 6: Electromagnetism

Lesson 1: Force on a Charged Particle in an Electric

Field

●​ 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 (again)
○​ F: Force
○​ q: Charge
○​ E: Electric field strength
●​ If you throw a charged particle in between two charged
plates, it will move parabolically as there is no ax, ay is
constant for each case (equate 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 and 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎), as
these conditions are the same as projectile motion the
charged particle also forms a parabola.
Lesson 2: Force on a Charged Particle in a Magnetic
Field

●​ When a moving charged particle enters a magnetic field, it

experiences a force:
○​ 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣 × 𝐵
○​ 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
■​ 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)
■​ 𝑞 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝐶)
■​ 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚/𝑠)
■​ 𝐵 = 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑇)[𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑠]
■​ θ = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐵𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
●​ RIGHT-HAND RULE
○​ Thumb is Force
○​ 2nd Finger is Velocity or Current
○​ Middle finger Magnetic Field Strength
●​ REMEMBER:
○​ Fat (or Fashionable) Voles/Cows Bake
Lesson 3: The Motor Effect

●​ The magnitude of the force acting on a current-carrying wire

in a magnetic field is given by:
○​ 𝐹 = 𝑙𝐼 ⊥ 𝐵
 ■​ 𝐹 is the force
■​ 𝑙 is the length of the conductor
■​ 𝐼 is the current
■​ ⊥ is the angle between 𝐼 and 𝐵
■​ 𝐵 is the magnetic field strength

Lesson 4: Force Between Parallel Wires

𝐹 µ0 𝐼1𝐼2
●​ 𝑙
= 2π 𝑟
○​ F: Force (N)
○​ l: Length of the wire (m)
○​ µ0: 4 pi x10-7 N A-2
○​ I1, I2: The current in the two wires (A)
○​ r: Distance between the two wires (m)
●​ If the current is flowing the same way, the force between
them is attractive.
●​ If the currents are flowing in opposite directions, the force
between them is repulsive.

The Official Definition of an Ampere

●​ Pre-2019 Definition: 1 Ampere = the current required to be passed
through 2 parallel wires, 1 metre apart to produce a force of 2 × 10–7 N m–1
●​ Post-2019 Definition (OOS): 1 Ampere = the electric current equivalent
to 1019 elementary charges [i.e. 1.602 × 1019 C] moving every 1.602 seconds
●​ More Importantly
𝐹 µ0 𝐼1𝐼2
○​ For 𝑙
= 2π 𝑟
, due to Newton’s Third Law of Motion
(every action has an equal and opposite reaction),
when wire 1 exerts a force on wire 2, wire 2 will exert a
 force on wire 1 with equal magnitude and opposite
direction.

Lesson 5: Magnetic Flux

●​ Magnetic Flux:
○​ A closed coil is placed in a magnetic field
○​ ‘How many magnetic field lines are passing through the
plane of the coil?’

○​ ϕ = 𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
2
■​ ϕ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 (𝑇𝑚 2
𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑠.𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
= 𝑊𝑏𝑊𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟
)
■​ 𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑇, 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟)
2
■​ 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚 , 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟)
●​ 𝐴'𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑧 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝. 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛
■​ θ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

Lesson 6: Faraday and Lenz’s Laws

∆Φ
●​ ε =− 𝑁 ∆𝑡
○​ ε 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
○​ − 𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑢𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐
 ○​ 𝑁 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
∆Φ
○​ ∆𝑡
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
●​ Direction of flux with a magnetic field:
○​ Basically: Lenz says that
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

●​ As the flux is ↑, the magnetic field will oppose the

pre-existing field and go out the page. Then use
the Right Hand Grip Rule to find the direction of
the current.
●​ The thumb points the magnetic field, the fingers
point the current round the wire.

●​ Direction of flux with a magnet through a solenoid

○​ *MAGNETIC FIELDS GOES FROM NORTH TO
SOUTH POLES*
 ○​ Magnetic flux is increasing, therefore the direction of
the induced force opposes the initial force.

Lesson 7: Transformers
●​ Transformers take a voltage and either increase (step up) or
decrease (step down) it.
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝
●​ 𝑉𝑠
= 𝑁𝑠

●​ 𝑉𝑝𝐼𝑝 = 𝑉𝑠𝐼𝑠
○​ 𝑉𝑝: 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦/𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
○​ 𝑉𝑠: 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦/𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
○​ 𝑁𝑝: 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙
○​ 𝑁𝑠: 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙
○​ 𝐼𝑝: 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙
○​ 𝐼𝑠: 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙

●​ Note: Step down in V = step up in I and vice versa.

●​ Wall Sockets output 240 VOLTS [Memorise this]
●​ To improve transformers:
○​ Laminate the cores
■​ Reduces eddy currents
■​ Minimising heat loss
○​ Use iron cores
■​ Increases flux linkage
 ■​ Minimising flux loss
○​ Make wires more insulated and thicker
■​ Minimises resistance
■​ More current makes it through ig (V=IR)

Lesson 8: Voltage Drop

●​ We use massive voltages to transfer power.

●​ Why? To minimize power loss.
●​ ∆𝑃 = ∆𝑉 × 𝐼
2
●​ ∆𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑅, As ∆𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
○​ ∆𝑃: 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
■​ The amount of power lost to resistance when passed
along a wire and through a transformer.
○​ ∆𝑉: 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝
■​ The drop in voltage when passed through a transformer.
○​ 𝐼: 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
●​ ∴ 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉
○​ But 𝐼 = 𝑅
○​ So as I is minimised, V must be huge

Lesson 9: DC/AC Generators/Motors

Motors vs Generators
●​ Motors: [electrical energy (current)] → [kinetic energy]
●​ Generators: [kinetic energy (∆ϕ)] → [electrical energy]
Essentially: Motors and generators are the same, except motors
use current to make kinetic energy and generators use voltage
(emf from ∆ϕ) to make power (electrical energy).

A weird thing:
●​ DC Generators, DC Motors, and AC Generators are
basically the same.
○​ Motors and Generators work in opposite directions (see
above).
○​ DC uses a SPLIT ring commutator and AC uses 2 SLIP
ring commutators.
●​ But AC Motors are TOTALLY DIFFERENT (see below)
DC vs AC Generator:

●​ As the generator runs faster: the voltage increases (

∆Φ
ε =− 𝑁 ∆𝑡 , ↓ ∆𝑡, ↑ ε. (𝑎𝑠 ε = 𝑉))
DC Motors:

●​ The gold circle is a SPLIT Ring Commutator

○​ Reverses the direction of the current every half-rotation to
maintain the direction of the torque (and hence the direction of
rotation)
○​ Made of a conducting metal
○​ Connected to the coil but not to the brushes
●​ The magnets are Radial Magnets
○​ To provide an external magnetic field (so that the coil
experiences a force)
 ○​ May be provided by more than one magnet or an electromagnet
○​ The radial magnetic field shown below allows the coil to rotate
at a constant rotational speed.
●​ The wire is an Armature
●​ The Brushes
○​ Provide conductive connection between commutators and the
battery
○​ Commutator and brushes prevent the wire from becoming
tangled as the coil rotates

Torque in a DC/AC Generators or DC Motor:

●​ τ = 𝑛𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
○​ τ: 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 − 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑅𝐻𝑅
○​ 𝑛: 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
○​ 𝐼: 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴)
2
○​ 𝐴: 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 (𝑚 )
○​ 𝐵: 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑇)
○​ θ: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

AC Motors:
(fig. 1)​

(fig. 2)
 (fig. 3)

●​ The Blue, Green, and Red electromagnets (fig. 1) are turned on

and off in sequence.
●​ This generates a magnetic field (the blue arrows).
●​ This magnetic field crosses the squirrel cage (yellow circle).
●​ This squirrel cage (fig. 3) is made of a conductive metal and
there is a magnetic field running across it.
●​ This causes a current to flow through the copper rotor bars
(wires).
●​ Did someone say current carrying wire in a magnetic field?
ITS FORCE TIME BABY.
●​ WE GOT A SPINNING SQUIRREL CAGE (ooooh yeah!).
●​ it do be rotating fr fr (then we have kinetic energy so
like… it's a motor).

Lesson 10: Back EMF

●​ As the coil rotates in a DC motor, the angle between the
magnetic field and the plane of the area changes.
●​ Hence flux changes (ϕ = 𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ as we are changing
theta).
∆Φ
●​ Hence an EMF exists, (as ∆Φ and ε =− 𝑁 ∆𝑡 ).
 ●​ By Lenz’s Law this EMF OPPOSES the initial motion.
●​ Hence it pushes back against the rotation of the motor.
●​ Therefore, no [∞ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑] → [∞ 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦] glitch.
●​ BASICALLY:
○​ ∆θ → ∆ϕ → ε
○​ 𝐵𝑦 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑧'𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤, ε 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 (𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛).

Lesson 11: Eddy Currents Eddy’s in the spacetime continuum! well then someone help him out…

●​ Eddy Currents are the induced currents in metal objects

(bar coils or wires) which happen when ∆ϕ exists.
●​ By Lenz’s Law, these oppose the initial motion.
Eg 1. Metal plate moving into a magnetic field

●​ Big man Faraday tells us that this initial movement

makes an increase in ϕ, generating eddy currents.
●​ Big man Lenz tells us these will counteract the
pre-existing magnetic field and current goes out the
page.
●​ By RH grip rule: (we know thumb is out the page), ∴
current anticlockwise.

Eg 2. Electromagnetic Braking
 RHS of the Brake:
●​ ↑ Flux(as wheel moves in front of brake)
●​ ∴ Field Opposed
●​ ∴ Induced current out of page
●​ ∴ By RH grip rule: thumb out, fingers anticlockwise
​ LHS of the Brake:
●​ ↓ Flux(as wheel moves in front of brake)
●​ ∴ Field added to
●​ ∴ Induced current into page
●​ ∴ By RH grip rule: thumb out, fingers clockwise

Module 7: The Nature of Light

Lesson 1: Maxwell’s Theory of Electromagnetism

What we know:
●​ The oscillation of an accelerating charge creates an electric
field
○​ 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
○​ 𝑞𝐸 = 𝑚𝑎
○​ 𝑞, 𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
○​ 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∆𝑎 ⇒ ∆𝐸
●​ This Electric field induces a Magnetic field, which induces an
Electric field etc.
●​ This continues, forming a self-propagating electromagnetic
wave.
●​ You MUST start with the ∆electric field

●​ Why? Because Physic.

○​ It just does.

What Maxwell did:

●​ Maxwell did some math and went: “hang on, my
experimentally calculated speed for EM waves is
suspiciously close to the theoretical speed of light…”
●​ Hence he proposed that light WAS an EM wave.
 ​ ​
●​ Maxwell also predicted the existence of other EM waves,
apart from Visible and Infrared Light.
●​ Hertz did an experiment with radio waves to show that they
traveled at the speed as visible light.
●​ Hence, they are EM waves.

Lesson 2: Historical Experiments to Calculate the

Speed of Light

1.​Galileo’s Lanterns
●​ Method
○​ Galileo and an observer stood 10 km apart each
with a lantern
○​ One uncovered their lantern and the other did the
same as soon as they saw the light
💀
○​ Measuring with his pulse , he concluded that
𝑐 ≥ 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ 10
●​ Limitations
○​ Reaction time was longer than transmission time
○​ Light was too fast
○​ Pulse was not a consistent measure of time
2.​Melting Cheese in a Microwave
●​ Method
○​ Remove the rotating disc from the microwave
○​ Place a slice of cheese in the centre of the
microwave
○​ Turn of the microwave and watch to see where the
cheese gets most molten
○​ Measure the distance between these spots
○​ This is ½ the wavelength
○​ Read the frequency of the microwave from the
side of it
○​ 𝑣 = 𝑓λ
○​ As its an EM wave, 𝑣 = 𝑐
●​ Limitations
○​ Finding the exact distance between molten spots
to high enough accuracy
○​ Having a slightly miscalibrated microwave
3.​Roemer’s Io Eclipse
●​ Method
○​ Romer looked at the orbit of Io around Jupiter
○​ He measured the light took to get from Io to Earth
at the point at which it stopped being eclipsed by
Jupiter
○​ He realised it was longer when Earth was further
away
○​ Therefore light isn’t infinite in speed
○​ After his death, others used his measurements
and Kepler’s equations to figure out light was ~227
million m/s
●​ Limitations
○​ His equipment was kinda shite
4.​Evanson’s Lasers
●​ Method​
○​ Shined a laser through a ‘Half-silvered mirror’
(splits the light in ½)
○​ Then each light wave goes to a mirror before
bouncing back and interacting with the other wave
○​ Either constructive or destructive interference will
occur, and the resulting wave will be picked up by
a detector
○​ This will let us find the wavelength of light by
seeing when it’s constructive vs destructive
interference dependant on how far back the mirror
is
○​ Multiply frequency and wavelength to find speed
Lesson 3: Emission and Absorption Spectra https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjOGNVH3D4Y

●​ The spectra of a light source tells us what wavelengths of

light are mostly emitted
○​ Blackbodies emit a continuous spectrum
○​ Other substances have an emission and an absorption
spectrum
●​ An emission spectrum is created when an electron gains
energy
●​ This causes electrons to move to a higher energy level
●​ As it returns to its original energy level, EM radiation is
emitted (not necessarily visible)
ℎ𝑐
●​ 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = λ
○​ 𝐸: 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 (𝐽)
−34
○​ ℎ: 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑘'𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (6. 626 × 10 𝐽𝑠)
○​ 𝑓: 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑀 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐻𝑧, 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑)
8 −1
○​ 𝑐: 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (3. 00 × 10 𝑚𝑠 )
○​ λ: 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑚)

●​ Examples of Spectra:
○​ Discharge Tubes - (Emission Spectrum)
■​ Tubes with vaporised elements in them held
between two electrode
■​ The electrons in the element get excited by the
current passing through them
■​ They produce the specific emission spectrum of
their element as specific electrons fire off and get
picked up by the detector

○​ Reflected Sunlight - (Absorption Spectrum)

■​ Sunlight is entirely UV and Visible EMR
■​ Elements in our atmosphere absorb specific parts
of this spectrum
 ■​ This causes black gaps in the complete spectrum
emitted by the sun

○​ Incandescent Light Bulbs - (Complete Spectrum)

■​ A thin resistive filament is heated
■​ This produces a continuous spectrum of light

Lesson 4: Spectra of Stars

●​ Classifying Stars:
●​ We can classify stars based on colour and temperature (by
−1
Wien's Law, the two are ∝ )
●​ Wien’s Law:
𝑏
○​ λ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇
■​ λ𝑚𝑎𝑥: The maximum intensity of EMR emitted (𝑚)
−3
■​ 𝑏 = 2. 898 × 10 𝑚𝐾: Wien's Displacement
Constant
■​ 𝑇: Temperature (𝐾)

To remember the spectral class order:

​ Old Bogans Are Fat. Gay Kangaroos M**t**b**e
​
🙄
Then further classifed with numbers 0-9, 0 is hottest, 9
is coolest ( ).
​ ie. [𝑂0, 𝑂1, ... 𝐵5, …𝐹7, …𝐺9,... 𝑀7, 𝑀8, 𝑀9] (Hottest →
Coldest)
●​ What do these spectra tell us?
○​ Chemical Composition
■​ When EMR passes through the gases surrounding
a star, some wavelengths are absorbed by these
gasses to create an absorption spectrum.
■​ This spectrum can be compared with known
spectra for certain elements to determine the
chemical composition of the star

○​ Translational Velocity
■​ Doppler Effect: Relative motion between the
source of a wave and the observer appears to
change the frequency
■​ If source and observer are:
↪​ Moving apart, 𝑓' is shifted lower → Redshift
↪​ Getting closer, 𝑓' is shifted higher → Blue
shift
↪​ Think about an Ambulance 🚑
↪​ As it moves away, its lower pitched
↪​ ∴ longer wavelength
↪​ ∴ towards infraRED
↪​ ∴ red shifted (and vice versa for blue
shift [UltraVIOLET])
■​ Therefore:
 ↪​ As a star moves away from Earth, light waves
elongate, and appear redshifted
↪​ As a star moves towards Earth, light waves
contract, and appear blue shifted
■​ We can compare these shifted spectra to known
spectra of stars of the same type to determine
their relative velocity

○​ Rotational Velocity
■​ Stars are big. You won’t believe how vastly, hugely, mind-bogglingly big it is. I mean, you may
think it’s a long way down the road to the chemist’s, but that’s just peanuts to stars.

■​ Hence, if a star is rotating, one side will be getting

closer, while the other side moves away
■​ Hence, the side getting closer blueshifts, while the
side getting further away red shifts
■​ This is the Doppler Shift
■​ This causes black absorption lines to broaden, but
they will remain sharp
 ○​ Density
■​ The larger a star, the less dense it is at the
surface.
↪​ Cos it’s all sucked to the centre
↪​ This matters cos spectrums are taken from
near the surface
■​ For large stars → less density at the surface →
less collisions between atoms → less changes in
energy at the surface → less atoms registered by
the spectrum → narrow spectral lines

■​ For small stars → greater density at the surface →

more collisions between atoms on the surface →
more changes in energy levels at the surface →
more atoms registered by the spectrum → wider
spectral lines

■​ However, density can fuzz observation lines 🙃

Lesson 5: Newton vs Huygens

●​ Light as a Ray
○​ Light travels in straight lines called rays
○​ Rays travel forever, until they hit matter
○​ Rays can be reflected or refracted
●​ Newton:
○​ “Light is a stream of particles, called corpuscles,
travelling in straight lines”
○​ “White light is a combo of all the coloured particles”
○​ He tried to explain the properties of light with this.
○​ Reflection: The particles bounce off the wall
(momentum type collisions)
○​ Refraction: The particles have mass, so when they
pass between mediums, the boundary exerts a force on
them. Light will travel FASTER in denser mediums.
○​ Diffraction and Interference: ¯\_(ツ)_/¯ (bro did not
cook here)
●​ Huygens(Say: Hoi-Genz):
○​ “Light is a wave”
○​ “Cos of the geometry I did that shows how a wave can
propagate with no outside input”
■​ 200 years later, Maxwell collected everyone’s data
and said:
●​ “LIGHT IS A WAVE, IT PROPAGATES
[Electric]→[Magnetic]→[Electric]→…”
●​ ∴ Huygens was right
○​ “All points on this wave are point sources for secondary
spherical wavelets”
○​ “Waves CAN diffract and interfere”
○​ Light will travel SLOWER in denser mediums (later
proved by experiments).
○​ Wavelets form perpendicular to the direction of
propagation
Lesson 6: The Double Slit Experiment

●​ Thomas Young tested these two hypotheses and look to see

which prediction it follows:

●​ He found it followed the wave model

○​ Note: Thicker fringes = Brighter

●​ 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛θ = 𝑚λ
○​ 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑠
○​ θ = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑠
○​ 𝑚 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑡 (𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑛)
○​ λ = 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑦
●​ Note: 𝑡𝑎𝑛θ = 𝐿
(𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚)
●​ As θ is usually small, 𝑡𝑎𝑛θ ≈ 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
 𝑦
●​ ∴ 𝑑 𝐿
≈ 𝑚λ (for small angles)

Lesson 7: Polarisation

●​ Raw (or unpolarised) light oscillates in every direction in all

three dimensions.
●​ Polarising it lets through exactly half, taking all of the waves
that align with the filter, and then taking components of all
the others, until totally blocking the waves perpendicular to
the filter.
●​ The direction that is kept is the direction the electric
field vibrates in.

●​ If we then send it through another polarizing filter at 90o to

the previous one, all light should be erased.

●​ If the next filter is on any other angle, some component of

the light wave is let through, such that the intensity
decreases, and the wave effectively rotates.
●​ This works according to Malus’s Law:
 2
○​ 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
■​ 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
■​ 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
■​ θ = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑

Lesson 8: Blackbody Radiation

●​ An IDEAL blackbody absorbs all EM radiation and never

releases it.
●​ Hence all EM radiation would have to come from the black
bodies temperature.
●​ This makes blackbody radiation a continuous spectrum.
●​ However, the strength of emissions on different wavelengths
vary significantly.
●​ Note how as [T↑], [Peak Intensity ↑], [Peak Wavelength ↓]
(shifts bluer), [Total Light Emitted ↑]
𝑏
●​ λ𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇
○​ λ𝑀𝑎𝑥: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠)
−3
○​ 𝑏: 𝑊𝑖𝑒𝑛'𝑠 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 2. 898 × 10 𝑚 𝐾 (𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖
○​ 𝑇: 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛)
●​ The Classical theories curved never peaked.
●​ This meant that while experiments showed the UV range to
be near zero, the model predicted it would be off towards
infinity
●​ This was called the Ultraviolet Catastrophe
●​ Max Planck fixed this by suggesting radiation (energy)
wasn’t emitted continuously
●​ He suggested it was emitted in small packets, called quanta,
of energy
●​ These packets became known as photons
●​ 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
○​ 𝐸: 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
 −34
○​ ℎ: 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑘'𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (6. 262 × 10 𝐽𝑠)
○​ 𝑓: 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
−19
●​ Electronvolts: 1 𝑒𝑉 = 1. 602 × 10 𝐽

Lesson 9: The Photoelectric Effect

●​ When light hits a piece of metal, it causes electrons to jump

off the plate.
●​ This light is usually quite high frequency.
●​ The emitted electron is called the photoelectron.
●​ It occurs near instantaneously.
●​ There is a threshold frequency for the light where, below
this, no electrons are emitted.
●​ The velocity of photoelectrons was NOT increased when
light intensity was increased.
●​ It DID increase when the frequency of light was increased.
●​ This is ONLY consistent with light being emitted in discrete
energy packets.
●​ Hence: LIGHT ALSO BEHAVES LIKE A PARTICLE !!

Einstein’s Explanation:
 ●​ When the frequency of the incident light is greater than the
threshold frequency, the excess energy acts as kinetic
energy for the photoelectron.
●​ 𝐾𝑀𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − Φ
○​ 𝐾𝑀𝑎𝑥: 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟)
○​ ℎ𝑓: 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
○​ Φ: 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛, 𝑖𝑒. ℎ𝑓, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟
●​ The frequency of the light determines the KE of the
photoelectron
●​ The intensity of the light determines the number of electrons
emitted
●​ Higher intensity ≠ greater KE

Lesson 10: Special Relativity and Light

Frames of Reference:
●​ All motion is relative
●​ That means it occurs with respect to a frame of reference
○​ Like ‘a car traveling at 60 kph’, is travelling at 60 kph
relative to the Earth!
○​ Cos the car is also orbiting the sun which is orbiting the
galactic centre which is moving away from other
galaxies… etc.
●​ An inertial frame of reference has a constant velocity (can be
zero)
●​ Non-inertial frames of reference are accelerating (v is
changing)
Aether Model:
●​ The Aether Model hypothesised that, as light was a wave, it
required a medium to propagate through.
●​ It was suggested that this medium was the luminiferous
aether and that it made up all of space.
●​ Thought to be totally stationary → hence an absolute inertial
point of reference
●​ This means that Earth is moving through the aether
●​ Hence the light would speed up in the direction of the Earth’s
motion through the aether, and slow down in the direction
opposing the Earth’s motion through the aether.
●​ But this Michelson-Morley Experiment showed that light did
not preference any direction

Einstein’s Theory of Special Relativity:

●​ Einstein developed 2 postulates and backed them up with
thought experiments
1.​The Laws of Physics are the same for all inertial
observers
2.​The Speed of Light (c) is constant and independent of
the speed of observers or the source
Einstein’s Thought Experiment:
●​ Consider a train travelling near velocity c
●​ The train has a light source on the roof and a detector on the
floor

●​ Einstein Says: “The Speed of Light is Constant”

●​ But as 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒/𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, given that speed is constant,
and observer B is seeing the light travel further in the same
length of time, time must be dilating for observer A or the
length of the train must be contracting

Pros/Cons of Thought Experiments:

-​ Pro: Can imagine impossible scenarios that could not be
manufactured irl
-​ Con: If your intuition is cooked then your results will be total
bs

Lesson 11: Consequences of Special Relativity

Time Dilation:
𝑡0
●​ 𝑡 = 2
𝑣
1− 2
𝑐

○​ 𝑡 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟

○​ 𝑡0 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔
○​ 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔
Length Contraction:
2
𝑣
●​ 𝑙 = 𝑙0 1− 2
𝑐
○​ 𝑙 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟
○​ 𝑙0 = 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔
○​ 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔

Relativistic Momentum (Mass Dilation):

𝑚0𝑣
●​ 𝑝𝑣 = 2
𝑣
1− 2
𝑐

○​ 𝑝𝑣 = 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟

○​ 𝑚0 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛
○​ 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑚0
●​ 𝑚 = 2
(𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑣 (𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣)) [𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑆]
𝑣
1− 2
𝑐

○​ 𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟

●​ But where does the mass go?
○​ It is released as energy, dictated by Einstein’s Mass
Energy Equivalence
2
○​ 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐
■​ 𝐸: 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽)
■​ 𝑚: 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔)
■​ 𝑐: 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Maximum Velocity:
 ●​ An object with mass cannot be accelerated to (or past) the
speed of light
○​ This is because: 𝑎𝑠 𝑣 → 𝑐, 𝑝𝑣 → ∞
𝑚0𝑣
■​ 𝑝𝑣 = 2
𝑣
1− 2
𝑐

○​ So momentum must be increased to ∞

○​ But to increase 𝑝𝑣, an impulse in required
■​ 𝐼 = ∆𝑝 = 𝐹∆𝑡
○​ So either an infinite force for a finite time, or a finite
force for infinite time, must be applied to the object

Lesson 12: Proof for Special Relativity

●​ Einstein’s Thought Experiment was published in 1905

●​ Experimental evidence was not collected until 1941/1955

1.​Cosmic Muons - 1941

★​Muons are unstable particles created in the upper
atmosphere
★​Created by collisions between atoms and cosmic rays
★​Even travelling at c, a muons lifetime of 2x10-6 means it
can only travel 600m
★​Hence, according to classical physics, these Muons
could hardly ever reach Earth’s surface
★​But by special relativity, a muon travelling at relativistic
speeds will have its life time dilate and the distance to
Earth contract (according to our frame of reference)
 ★​Rossi and Haul tested this and found that many muons
reached the surface

2.​Atomic Clock (Hafele-Keating Experiment) - 1955

★​Two planes travelled East and West, parallel to the
Earth’s rotation
★​Multiple atomic clocks on each plane were compared to
clocks at the US Naval Observatory
★​The clock following the Earth’s rotation ran 59 ± 10𝑛𝑠
slower than the observatory
★​The clock flying against the Earth’s rotation ran
273 ± 7𝑛𝑠 slower than the observatory

Module 8: From the Universe to the Atom (Express Service)

Lesson 1: The Universe (BBT)

●​ The universe started as a small hot ball of energy
1.​It grew incredibly rapidly, cooling as it went
2.​Space kept expanding and cooling
 ●​ Eventually, the energy could condense into matter (see
2
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 )
1.​This matter was originally just elementary particles
(quarks and leptons)
●​ These then formed nuclei and atoms
1.​Only light elements (H, He, Li) formed in the Big Bang
2.​Heavier elements were formed in stellar processes

Evidence for Expansion:

1.​Red Shifting:
○​ Hubble discovered that distant galaxies were
red-shifting
○​ This means they are zooming away according to
𝑣 = 𝐻0𝑑
■​ 𝑣: 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
■​ 𝐻0: 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
■​ 𝑑: 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑥𝑦
2.​Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation:
○​ Radiation from the early universe would have expanded
with the universe
○​ This radiation would have expanded into the microwave
region
○​ Mesurement of CMBR matches predictions
3.​Compostion of the Universe:
○​ Theoretical ratios of H to He in the early universe
matched predictions

Lesson 2: Stars
●​ See 7.3 for Spectra

●​ See 7.4 for Spectra of Stars

●​ Stellar Evolution - Two Pathways

●​ Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram:
○​ Luminosity vs Surface Temperature (or colour) Graph
○​ Consider the distinct regions and the relationships
between the axes
●​ Basically:
○​ The bigger the star, the heavier the elements that can
form in its core
○​ Most stars are ‘average’ or ‘massive’ and in the main
sequence
 ○​ Some deviate to be bigger (giants, or super giants;
brighter, but cooler than the sun)
○​ And others deviate smaller (white dwarfs; dimmer but
hotter)

Lesson 3: Stellar Fusion

●​ The processes that fuse Hydrogen into Helium within the

core of a star

1.​Proton-Proton (P-P) Process (Occurs in smaller stars

(like the sun))
○​ “1+1 is 2, plus 1, that’s 3/2, times two makes 4/2
plus 2 1’s to start again. On the e+ve of ɣay-ness”

(𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑂𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑐𝑒)

2.​CNO (Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen) Cycle
○​ “I Could Not Count the Number Of Nights”
 ●​ Both these processes occur in all stars; however, as
mass of stars increase past the mass of our sun, the
CNO Cycle dominates over the P-P Process.

Lesson 4: Cathode Ray Tubes - Electrons Exist!

●​ Dalton’s Atomic Model:

1.​Atoms are indivisible
2.​Atoms of different elements differ
●​ Cathode Ray tubes are evacuated (anaerobic) tubes that
have an anode (+ve) and cathode (-ve) plate at either end.
●​ By applying a high potential difference to the tube, electrons
can jump from the cathode to the anode
●​ But there was initially debate– particles or waves?

●​ Wave - (Hertz)
1.​Travelled in straight lines
2.​Produced a shadow when path obstructed
3.​Could pass through thin metal foils without leaving
damage
●​ Particle - (Crookes)
1.​Left the cathode at 90o (not radiating like a wave would)
2.​Were deflected by magnetic fields
3.​They have momentum
4.​Travelled slower than light
●​ Experiments:
1.​Maltese Cross:
-​ A barrier placed in the middle cast a shadow
-​ Hence rays came from cathode

2.​Rotating Wheel
-​ Rays from the cathode spun a light paddle
-​ Hence the beam had momentum

3.​Magnetic Deflection
-​ A magnet next the tube caused particles to deflect
(RHR)
-​ Therefore, negatively charged rayas it bends
towards +ve plate

●​ So this thing exists, and it’s particulate.

➢​Why?
★​It has momentum ⇒ it has mass (and velocity)
Lesson 5: Thompson’s Charge to Mass Experiment -
Proof Electrons are Particles have a Charge and a
Mass

●​ A Cathode ray at one end sends a beam of electrons

through an evacuated tube

●​ Then, down the other end, he added an:

1.​Electric Field ONLY
■​ The ray deflected towards the positive plate
■​ ∴ Negatively charged particle

2.​Electric Field AND Magnetic Field

■​ He adjusted the voltage until the beam went
through undeflected
■​ ie:
→​𝐹𝐸 = 𝐹𝐵
→​𝑞𝐸 = 𝑞𝑣𝑏
𝐸
→​𝑣 = 𝐵
■​ Hence he found the velocity of the ray
→​Much slower than light
→​∴ not EM Radiation
 3.​Magnetic Field ONLY
■​ This made the electron travel in a circular path
■​ ie:
→​𝐹𝐶 = 𝐹𝐵
2
𝑚𝑣
→​ 𝑟 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵
𝐸
𝑚𝐵
→​ 𝑟
= 𝑞𝐵
𝐸 𝑞
→​ 2 = 𝑚
𝐵𝑟
■​ This value was findable, so the particle must have
mass
■​ These particles became known as electrons
●​ Hence: Particles, not Waves.
●​ ∴ Dalton was wrong
●​ Thompson’s Plum Pudding Model
○​ Electrons scattered throughout a field of positive charge
○​ Electrons = Plums in a Plum Pudding
Lesson 6: Milikan’s Oil Drop Experiment - The
Charge and Mass of an Electron

●​ Oil sprayed into an upper chamber, fell through a small hole

into the chamber below
●​ The lower chamber then had an electric field applied to it
●​ X-rays negatively charged these droplets

●​ Milikan fiddled with the voltage so that one drop remained

stationary
1.​ie:
→​𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝐸
→​𝑚𝑔 = 𝑞𝐸
●​ By repeating this will oil drops of different masses, Millikan
discovered that the difference in charge on each drop was
−19
always an integer multiple of − 1. 602 × 10 𝐶, the charge
on an electron !
Lesson 7: Geiger-Marsden/Gold Foil Experiment

●​ Also known as Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment, this

experiment investigated the nature of the atom
●​ Alpha particles fired through a piece of incredibly thin gold
foil
●​ A screen covered in Zinc Sulphide detected the deflection
pattern
●​ Most particles passed through undeflected
●​ Some deflected a little bit
●​ 1/8000 particles deflected off in wildly unexpected directions
●​ Hence a small dense area of positive charge exists
1.​Electrostatically repelling alpha particles that get too
close to it
2.​And sending any alpha particles that directly hit it off on
crazy angles
●​ Rutherford’s Nuclear Model proposed, with a neucleus and,
and electrons orbiting around it
 ●​ Couldn’t explain why the electrons that would emit energy
(as they are accelerating) did not eventually lose all their
energy and spiral into the nucleus

Lesson 8: Chadwick’s Discovery of the Neutron

●​ Rutherford later identified some problems with his model:

1.​Why protons in the nucleus didn’t repel each other
though they’re all positive?
→​ Because electrons hold them in there
2.​Why the mass of He was 4x the mass of H, but only 2x
the charge?
→​ Because a neutral particle exists in the nucleus
●​ James Chadwick (Rutherford’s Student) was first to prove
the existence of Neutral particles
●​ He considered the experiment done by Curie and Joliot
●​ Alpha particles fired through Beryllium emitted unknown
radiation
●​ Chadwick used the Conservation of Momentum to conclude
that the radiation was a particle that was as heavy as a
proton
○​ He concluded it was a particle as no gamma radiation
nor photon had the energy or momentum to emit so
many protons through Paraffin wax
→​Paraffin is made of hydrocarbons, so it is rich in
protons to release
●​ He then showed that the unknown particles had no charge
●​ And the neutron was born
Lesson 9: Rydberg’s Equation and Bohr’s Planetary
Model

●​ Rydberg’s Equation
1 1 1
○​ λ
= 𝑅𝐻( 2 − 2 )
𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖

■​ λ = 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
7 −1
■​ 𝑅𝐻 = 𝑅𝑦𝑑𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔'𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 1. 097 × 10 𝑚
■​ 𝑛𝑓 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙
■​ 𝑛𝑖 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙
○​ Tell us the wavelengths of the spectral lines Hydrogen
emits when its electrons go between shells
○​ Lyman Series is when it drops to 𝑛 = 1
○​ Balmer Series is when it drops to 𝑛 = 2 [𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑆𝐶]
○​ Paschen Series is when it drops to 𝑛 = 3
●​ Bohr’s Applications of Rydberg’s Equation to the
Atomic Structure
■​ Bohr combined the Balmer/Rydberg equation with
an understanding of the quantum realm
■​ Why did electrons not spiral into the centre?
Because they existed in discrete and stable orbits
(but why did they? Bro did not know 😔🥀🪫)
■​ Bohr proposed that they were not constantly
emitting energy–only when they changed energy
levels from an excited state back down!
○​ Limitations
■​ The model accurately described smaller atoms
■​ But once more electrons got involved in more and
more shells, things kinda fell apart
■​ The presence of an external magnetic field kinda
cooked the absorbtion spectra (Zeeman Effect)

➢​Like wtf? Why is it splitting like that? Cooked

ahh experimental evidence
■​ The model could not explain how solids emitted a
continuous spectrum
 ■​ Whilst the Bohr Model had limited applications, it
was paramount as a stepping stone on the
pathway to taking a quantum leap (see what I did there? eh?)

Lesson 10: De Broglie’s Matter Wave and the

Davisson and Germer’s Experiment

●​ De Broglie’s Thinking:
○​ In 1924, Lil Bro really looked at Einstien’s work and
went
■​ ‘Hmm, if light got that Wave-Particle Duality goin’
on, why can’t matter be a particle and a wave
too?’
○​ He hypothesised that wavelength is inversely
proportional to momentum
 ℎ ℎ
➢​λ = 𝑝
= 𝑚𝑣
○​ Wait, like everyday objects too?
■​ The De Broglie wavelength of an electron is
smaller than visible light
■​ Hence, every day objects must have even smaller
wavelengths due to ↑ 𝑚 ⇒↓ λ
■​ So we wouldn’t ever see it
○​ Okay, lets prove ts
■​ Naturally, Physicists set out to double-slit some
electrons
○​ Only issue was, we couldn’t get slits small enough to
observe the effect (go figure)
■​ ⇒ 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
●​ Davisson and Germer’s Experiment:
○​ In 1927, Davisson and Germer accelerated electrons
using a potential difference into a nickel crystal
 ■​ Electrons diffracted off crystals in the lattice,
producing interference patterns
■​ ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
○​ Fixing Bohr’s Model
■​ How were electrons stable in their orbits?
■​ e- were stable iff their orbits aligned as a series of
n waves, where n is the electron shell number
 ■​ If n wasn’t an integer (ie. the electron is not in a
shell), then the waves interfere and the orbit isn’t
sustainable

■​ 2π𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛λ
➢​𝑟𝑛 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙
➢​𝑛 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙
−
➢​λ = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒
■​ So thats why electrons have (mostly) discrete
orbitals!

Lesson 11: Schrodinger’s Quantum Cookness and

the Uncertain Nature of Matter

●​ But wait, hold up, like wtf is going on D.B.?

 ○​ De Broglie work left physics in a bit of a state, as it
turns out the dual nature of energy & matter is pretty
damn cooked
○​ This is because waves and particles are fundamentally
different
■​ Continuous vs Discrete
○​ Essentially, particles should have a defined position, but
waves can disperse throughout space
○​ Quantum Mechanics was founded to try and investigate
this.
●​ Schrodinger’s Atomic Model
○​ In 1926, Schrodinger turned to math for solutions
○​ He thought of the wave nature of the particle as a
probability function
○​ His wave function predicted the probability that an
electron would be in a given position at a given time
○​ The 3D harmonics of this wave function give us the
SPDF orbitals

○​
●​ Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
○​ States that position and momentum cannot both be
known with 100% certainty at the same time.
ℎ
○​ ∆𝑥∆𝑝 ≥ 4π
■​ ∆𝑥 = 𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
■​ ∆𝑝 = 𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
➢​𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣,
𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝑣 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛
 ℎ −35
■​ 4π
= 5. 27 × 10
■​ Therefore ∆𝑥, ∆𝑝 must be non-zero
○​ This affirms Schrodinger:
■​ If you don’t know where it is or how fast it’s going,
it only makes sense to think of it in terms of
probabilities
➢​Think continuous probability distributions, the
area of the function ‘at a point’ is
non-sensical to think about !
➢​You gotta consider a range of options
★​Also like, Schrodinger’s Cat
★​The cat is both alive and dead if it’s a
quantum cat
★​Which makes no sense and is cooked
asf 😔🥀🪫
★​So we gotta remember that the quantum
cookedness is on scales so
infintessimally small, it’s ludicrous to try
and relate it to our everyday life
Lesson 12: Radioactive Decay and Half Life

●​ Elements have Protons and Neutrons that give it mass

●​ The ratio of Protons to Neutrons causes a zone of

stability
○​ For 𝑍 ≤ 20, 1: 1 ratio gives the most stable
isotopes
○​ For 20 < 𝑍 < 84, 2: 3 ratio gives the most stable
isotopes
○​ For 𝑍 ≥ 84, there are no stable isotopes
●​ In order to reach this zone of stability, isotopes undergo
appropriate decays
○​ α decay removes a Helium Nuclei - 2 protons, 2
neutrons
○​ β decay removes either an electron or a positron
○​ γ decay removes a blast of EMR in the gamma
range

●​ The rate of decay is directly proportional to the number

of radioactive nuclei present
𝑑𝑁
○​ 𝑑𝑡
=− λ𝑁
 −λ𝑡
○​ 𝑁𝑡 = 𝑁0𝑒 (𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (0, 𝑁0)
■​ 𝑁𝑡: 𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
■​ 𝑁0: 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
■​ 𝑡: 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
■​ λ: 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
●​ Half Life: time taken for radioactive sample to decay to
half its initial mass
○​ When 𝑡 = 𝑡1/2, 𝑁𝑡 = 1/2𝑁0
●​ [𝐴𝑙𝑔𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑎]
𝑙𝑛 2
■​ 𝑡1/2 = λ