UPSC EPFO COMPUTER

EBD_8100
CHAPTER
9COMPUTER
KNOWLEDGE OF COMPUTER
APPLICATIONS

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER of text documented images, audio clip, software programme

or other type of data.
C - Common; O - Operating; M - Machine; P - Particularly;
U - Used for; T - Trade; E - Education; R - Research. 2. Processing : Processing is the set of instructions given
by the user to the related data that was collected earlier
In this age of computers there is no such activity that cannot to output meaningful information. The computer does the
be achieved without computers. Computer has become an required processing by making the necessary calculations,
indispensable and multipurpose tool. We are breathing in the comparisons and decisions.
computer age and gradually computer has become such a desire 3. Information : Information is the end point or the final
necessity of life that it is difficult to imagine life without it. This output of any processed work. This meaningful output data
book will help you to gain an understanding of the basic as well is called information.
as advanced concepts of computers. It will cover a foundational
study of the computer hardware, software, operating systems, CHARACTERSTICS OF COMPUTER
Internet Technology, DBMS (Database Management system) & The major characteristics of computers are the following:
computer Network & Its security, or more. • Speed : A powerful computer is capable of executing about
3 million calculations per second.
CONCEPT OF COMPUTER SYSTEM • Accuracy : A computer’s accuracy is consistently high; if
A computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data there are errors, they are due to errors in instructions given
by the programmer.
as input from the user and processes this data under the control of
• Reliability : The output generated by the computer is very
set of instructions (called program) and gives the result (output) reliable as long as the data is reliable.
and saves output for the future reference and usage. • Memory/Storage Capacity : The computer can store large
volumes of data and makes the retrieval of data an easy task.
• Versatility: The computer can accomplish many different
things. It can accept information through various input-output
devices, perform arithmetic and logic operations, generate a
variety of outputs in a variety of forms, etc.
• Automation: Once the instructions are fed into computer it
works automatically without any human intervention.
• Diligence : A computer will never fail to perform its task
due to distraction or laziness.
• Convenience : Computers are usually easy to access, and
allow people to find information easily that without a would
be very difficult.
• Flexibility : Computers can be used for entertainment,
for business, by people who hold different ideals or who
To know about the working of a computer, first need to understand
have varied goals. Almost anyone can use a computer, and
various terms such as Data, Processing and Information. First of computers can be used to assist with almost any goal.
all, lets start with three basic terms:-
1. Data : Data is a collection of basic facts and figure without any GOALS OF COMPUTERS
sequence. This data is also called as raw data. When the data is 1. Problem-solving technique s using the computer.
collected as facts and figures, there is no meaning to it, at that 2. Analysis of complex problems and the synthesis of solutions.
time, for example, name of people, names of employees etc. 3. Comprehension of modern software engineering principles.
4. A vast breadth and depth of knowledge in the discipline of
In other words computer data is information processed or
computer science.
stored by a computer. This information may be in the form
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Languages according to Generations:-

GENERATION LANGUAGES

1st - Machine and Assembly language

2nd - Assembly language and high level languages (FORTRAN , COBOL)

3rd - High level languages (FORTRAN II - IV , COBOL , PASCAL , BASIC, ALGOL68)

4th - High level languages(FORTAN 77 , PASCAL , COBOL)

5th - High level languages(C , C++ ,JAVA , .NET)

Types of Computers
Five Types:
. Personal Computer
. Mini Computer
. Mainframes
. Super Computer
. Micro computer
1. Personal Computer:
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. PCs are based on
the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use
personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database
management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and surfing the
Internet.

2. Mini Computer:
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.
These were designed for specific tasks but have now lost popularity due to the advent of Pcs.
Popular Minicomputers:
 K-202
 Texas Instrument TI-990
 SDS-92
 IBM Midrange computers

3. Mainframes:
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or even thousands of
users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and supports many simultaneous
executions of programs.
Popular Mainframe computers:
 Fujitsu‘s ICL VME
 Hitachi‘s Z800

4. Super computer:
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are
employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of mathematical calculations (number
crunching).

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For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear
energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).
Popular Supercomputers:
 IBM‘s Sequoia, in United States
 Fujitsu‘s K Computer in Japan
 IBM‘s Mira in United States
 IBM‘s Super MUC in Germany
 NUDT Tianhe-1A in China

5. Microcomputer:
Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets & smartphones are all types of
microcomputers. The micro-computers are widely used & the fastest growing computers. These computers are the
cheapest among the other three types of computers. The Micro-computers are specially designed for general usage
like entertainment, education and work purposes. Well known manufacturers of Micro-computer are Dell, Apple,
Samsung, Sony&Toshiba.
Desktop computers, Gaming consoles, Sound & Navigation system of a car, Net books, Notebooks, PDA‘s, Tablet
PC‘s, Smart phones, Calculators are all type of Microcomputers.

All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic operations for
converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

Functions of Computer:
The computer are used today for an almost unlimited range of applications. However, irrespective of the
application for which a computer is used we can identify a few basic functions that are performed by all computers.
All the computer applications are make use of these basic function of computers in different ways and
combinations.
There are basically for basic functions of computers - input, storage, processing and output. These are described
below:

Input:
Receiving or accepting information from outside sources. The most common way of performing this function is
through the information entered through the keyboard and the click of mouse. Of course there are many other type
of devices for receiving such information - for example, the web cam. Computers are also able to receive
information stored in other devices like DVD disks and pen drives. Computers are also able to receive information
from other computers and similar devices. When we use computers for automatic control of machines and
processes, computers are also receive information directly from such equipments and processes.
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Storage:
Store information in the computer. The memory is stored in computer in in several different ways depending on
how the information is used. For simplicity we will classify in two broad categories. First is the memory in the
central processing unit of the computer, and second is the auxiliary memory. The auxiliary memory includes
devices such as fixed hard drives. The information stored in computer can also be divided broadly used in two
categories. The user data and the instructions used for internal operation and processing in the compute. These
instruction are what we call computer programs or software.
Processing:
This is really the core of computer operation. The computer processes the data that is fed to the computer by
various means and the data already contained in internal memory to produce the results that is the core of all
computer application.
Output:
The results of the processing are made available for use by any user or other devices. The most common ways of
producing such outputs are through computer monitor, speakers, and printers. When a computer is connected to
other devices, including through Internet, this output is in the form of electrical pulses. The output data can also be
recorded on to an external recording medium such as a DVD disk.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS :

1. First Generation- (1940-56) - Vacuum tubes - Batch processing OS

2. Second Generation- (1956-63) - Transistors - Multi bag / Time sharing OS
3. Third Generation - (1964-71) - Integrated Circuits -Timesharing/ Real time OS
4. Fourth Generation - (1971-80) - Microprocessors- Real time/ Multi programming OS
5. Fifth Generation- (1980- present)-Semi conductors- Real time/ Multi programming OS

Languages according to Generations:-

GENERATION LANGUAGES
1st - Machine and Assembly language
2nd - Assembly language and high level languages (FORTRAN, COBOL)
3rd - High level languages (FORTRAN II - IV, COBOL, PASCAL, BASIC, ALGOL68)
4th - High level languages (FORTAN 77, PASCAL, COBOL)
5th - High level languages(C , C++ ,JAVA , .NET)

Questions and Answers:-

1.This person created what is now known as the first computer program. The program was made to help
the Analytical Engine calculate numbers.
A. Charles Babbage
B. Konrad Apple
C. Ada Lovelace
D. William Zuse

2.Who invented the Internet?

A. Steve Jobs
B. More than one person
C. Al Gore
D. William Shockley

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7. Natural key:
A natural key (also known as business key) is type of unique key, found in relational model database design that is
formed of attributes that already exist in real world. It is used in business-related columns.
In other words, a natural key is a candidate key that has a logical relationship to the attributes within that row. A
natural key is sometimes called domain key.
Natural key is a unique key that cannot be repeated in any of the dataset.
Example: Finger prints, DNA, mobile number, these can‘t be ever be in any other data set.
8. Prime attributes:
The attributes which are part of candidate key are known as Prime attributes.
One liner:
1. Minimum set of attributes used to uniquely different records of the table is - candidate key.
2. The key which is unique but not null –Primary key.
3. The unique id which is used to refer the other table –foreign key.
4. Candidate key + Zero/more attributes –super key.
5. Minimal super key is a – candidate key.
6. The key which is unique and can be represented in other data set – Standard primary key.
7. A unique key that cannot be repeated in any of the data set –Natural key
8. A key is composed of more than one column –Composite key
9. The attributes which are part of candidate key are known as –Prime attributes

SQL (Structured Query Language)

Structured Query Language (SQL) is a widely-used programming language for working with relational databases.
SQL is specially designed programming language to regulate and manage the data stored in relational databases
(RDBMS).

Sub division in SQL:

1. DDL (Data Definition Language):
Defines structure of Database
2. DML (Data Manipulation Language):
Data is been entered
3. DCL (Data Control Language):
Data is been controlled
4. DQL (Data Query Language):
Data is been retrieved/fetched
5. TCL (Transaction Control Language):
About transactions

Data Definition Language (DDL)

The commands of DDL are:-
1. Create: A commonly used CREATE command is the CREATE TABLE command.
2. Alter: The ALTER statement modifies an existing database object.
3. Drop: The DROP statement destroys an existing database, table, index, or view.
4. Rename: The RENAME statement is used to rename a database table.
5. Truncate: The TRUNCATE statement is used to delete all data from a table. It's much faster than DELETE.
Data Manipulation Language:

The commands of DML are:

1. SELECT: retrieve data from the database.
2. INSERT: insert data into a table.
3. UPDATE: update existing data within table.

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4. DELETE: delete all records in the table,
5. MERGE: UPSERT operations (insert or update)
6. CALL: call a SQL or java program
7. LOCKTABLE: control concurrency

Data Control Language:

DCL used to control privilege in database.
To perform any operation in database, such as creating tables, sequences (or) views.

The commands of DCL are:

1. Grant: to allow specified users to perform specified tasks.
2. Revoke: to cancel previously granted or denied permissions.

Data Query Language:

It is the component of SQL statement that allows getting data from the database.
The command of DQL is:
1. Select: retrieve data from database.

Transaction Control Language:

Transaction Control Language (TCL) commands are used to manage transactions in database. These are used to
manage the changes made by DML statements. It also allows statements to be grouped together into logical
transactions.

The commands of TCL are:

1. Commit: permanently save any transaction into database.
2. Rollback: restores the database to its last committed state.
3. Save point: temporarily save any transaction into database.

One Liner:

1. Defines structure of database:DDL

2. Data is fetched: DQL
3. Structure will be modified: ALTER
4. Data will be modified: UPDATE
5. Restores the database to its last committed state: ROLLBACK
6. Take back permissions: REVOKE
7. Temporarily save any transaction: SAVE POINT
8. Gives user access: GRANT
9. Data will be fetched is for :SELECT COMMAND

ACID Properties in DBMS

A transaction is a single logical unit of work which accesses and possibly modifies the contents of a database.
Transactions access data using read and write operations.
In order to maintain consistency in a database, before and after transaction, certain properties are followed. These
are called ACID properties.

A- Atomicity
C- Consistency
I- Isolation
D- Durability

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1. Atomicity:
This update to the database is called a transaction and it either commits or aborts. This means that only a fragment
of the update cannot be placed into the database, should a problem occur with either the hardware or the software
involved. Features to consider for atomicity:
 a transaction is a unit of operation - either all the transaction's actions are completed or none are
 atomicity is maintained in the presence of deadlocks
 atomicity is maintained in the presence of database software failures
 atomicity is maintained in the presence of application software failures
 atomicity is maintained in the presence of CPU failures
 atomicity is maintained in the presence of disk failures
 atomicity can be turned off at the system level
 atomicity can be turned off at the session level

2. Consistency:
Consistency is the ACID property that ensures that any changes to values in an instance are consistent with
changes to other values in the same instance. A consistency constraint is a predicate on data which serves as a
precondition, post-condition, and transformation condition on any transaction.

3. Isolation:
The isolation portion of the ACID Properties is needed when there are concurrent transactions. Concurrent
transactions are transactions that occur at the same time, such as shared multiple users accessing shared objects.
This situation is illustrated at the top of the figure as activities occurring over time. The safeguards used by a
DBMS to prevent conflicts between concurrent transactions are a concept referred to as isolation.
Example:

An important concept to understanding isolation through transactions is serializability. Transactions are serializable
when the effect on the database is the same whether the transactions are executed in serial order or in an
interleaved fashion. As you can see at the top of the figure, Transactions 1 through Transaction 3 are executing
concurrently over time. The effect on the DBMS is that the transactions may execute in serial order based on
consistency and isolation requirements. If you look at the bottom of the figure, you can see several ways in which
these transactions may execute. It is important to note that a serialized execution does not imply the first
transactions will automatically be the ones that will terminate before other transactions in the serial order.

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2. In which Data model parent can have n- children?
Hierarchical data model
3. One to many is for:
Hierarchical data model
4. Which is designed to address the drawbacks of hierarchical model?
Network data model
5. Tables, relations, keys, attributes are established in:
Relational data model

Computer Architecture
Computer architecture defines the components and the relationship between them. It also describes how different
components interact with software to form a computer system.
The best known computer architecture is known as ―John Von Architecture‖ or ―Princeton Architecture‖,
introduced in 1948 by John Von Neumann. This architecture is still used by most of the computers today. Here is
the diagram of Architecture.

A basic computer system consists of the following components:-

1. CPU:
Central processing unit is that core element of a computer system that carries out instructions of a computer
program by performing basic arithmetic, logical, control and I/O operations.
2. Memory:
Every computer has 2 types of main memories - RAM and ROM
Random Access Memory can be read and written to anytime the CPU instructs it. Contents of RAM are erased
when the computer is turned off whereas Read Only Memory is pre-loaded with data and software that never
changes. ROM is typically used to store computer's initial start up instructions.
3. I/O unit:
I/P refers to the communication between a computer and outer world. Input are signals/data received by system and
Output are signals sent by it. Peripheral devices provide input/output to the system. Peripherals include input
devices like keyboard, mouse and output devices like display screen or printer. Hard disk and optical disk devices
act as both input and output devices.
4. Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU):
It is the most important component of a microprocessor that performs the arithmetical and logical operations like
AND, OR, NAND, NOR, Addition and Subtraction.
5. Control Unit:
Its the circuit that controls the flow of information through processor and coordinates the activities of other units
within it. With a regular processor, control unit performs tasks of fetching, decoding, managing execution and
storing results.
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6. Register Sets:
Register sets temporarily store data and program codes until they are sent to ALU or control section. More registers
per cpu results in programming tasks easily. Registers are measured by no of bits i.e 8 bit, 16 bit, 32 bit.

Important Terms
Mother Board-
It is the main Printed circuit board mounted the CPU. It is also known as Logic Board, Planar board and System
Board. It is found in general purpose as well as special purpose systems. It allows communication between
different components of the system such as memory, CPU, and other peripherals. It uses different buses to connect
dif7fe/5r3ent components.
BUS-
A bus is a set of wires used to connect different components of the system so that data/information can move from
one component to other component, where each wire can carry only a single bit.

There are two types of BUS according to connectivity:-

1) Internal Bus – It is also known as system bus, local bus, front side bus or Memory bus. It connects all the
internal components such as CPU and memory to the motherboard. It is also known as local bus as they are
intended to connect local
2) External Bus – It is also known as the expansion bus. It connects different external components like
peripherals, expansion slots, I/O Port and drive connections to the rest of the computer.

There are three types of bus according to their work:-

1) Data Bus- The data that is to be transferred is carried by data
2) Address Bus– The addresses of I/O devices and memory is carried by address bus
3) Control bus– The instructions/commands to access the memory or I/O devices are carried by control
One Liner:
1. The CU, ALU and Memory is collectively known as: Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2. It reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them into control signals: Control Unit
3. Logic Operations involve Boolean logic like: AND,OR,XOR,NOT
4. ALU performs two classes of operations: Arithmetic Logic
5. A high speed semiconductor which can speed up CPU is: Cache Memory
6. Register is a: Cache Memory

Introduction of Computer Number System

A set of values used to represent different quantities is known as Number System. For example, a number system
can be used to represent the number of students in a class or number of viewers watching a certain TV program etc.
The digital computer represents all kinds of data and information in binary numbers. It includes audio, graphics,
video, text and numbers. The total number of digits used in a number system is called its base or radix. The base is
written after the number as subscript.
Some important number systems are as follows.
 Decimal number system
 Binary number system
 Octal number system
 Hexadecimal number system

Decimal number System:

The Decimal Number System consists of ten digits from 0 to 9. These digits can be used to represent any numeric
value. The base of decimal number system is 10. It is the most widely used number system. The value represented
by individual digit depends on weight and position of the digit.

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Binary Number System:

Digital computer represents all kinds of data and information in the binary system. Binary Number System consists
of two digits 0 and 1. Its base is 2. Each digit or bit in binary number system can be 0 or 1. A combination of
binary numbers may be used to represent different quantities like 1001. The positional value of each digit in binary
number is twice the place value or face value of the digit of its right side. The weight of each position is a power of
2.

Octal Number System:

Octal Number System consists of eight digits from 0 to 7. The base of octal system is 8. Each digit position in this
system represents a power of 8. Any digit in this system is always less than 8. Octal number system is used as a
shorthand representation of long binary numbers. The number 6418 is not valid in this number system as 8 is not a
valid digit.

Hexadecimal Number System:

The Hexadecimal Number System consists of 16 digits from 0 to 9 and A to F. The alphabets A to F represent
decimal numbers from 10 to 15. The base of this number system is 16. Each digit position in hexadecimal system
represents a power of 16. The number 76416 is valid hexadecimal number. It is different from 76410 which is
seven hundred and sixty four. This number system provides shortcut method to represent long binary numbers.

Decimal System:
The decimal system consists of 10 numerals or symbols. These 10 symbols are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.
Right now you must be thinking, I learnt it by the first grade. But then there‘s more to learn in simpler topics.
The decimal system is also called base-10 system.
It is a positional-value system. It means the value of a digit depends on its position.
Example: Consider a decimal number 736. The digit 7 actually represents 7 hundreds, 3 represents 3 tens and 6
represents 6 units. Then 7 carries the most weight of the three digits, it is referred to as the most significant digit
(MSD). Then 2 carries the least weight, it is referred to as the least significant digit (LSD).
Note the concepts: most significant digit (MSD) and least significant digit (LSD)

Binary System:
Binary number system gained importance due to its application in the digital world. Computers run on digital
binary data. In binary system there are only two symbols 0 and 1. Still, with only 0 and 1 any number, how so ever
large can be represented.
Binary is also a positional number system.

In the binary system the term binary digit is often abbreviated to the term, bit. In other words, bit is a short form for
binary digit. The left most bit has the largest weight is the most significant bit (MSB). The right most bit has the
smallest weight is the least significant bit (LSB).

Example: 1010
The leftmost 1 is the most significant bit (MSB)
The rightmost 0 is the least significant bit (LSB).
There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from one base to another. We'll
demonstrate here the following:
Decimal to Other Base System:
Steps
Step 1 - Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.
Step 2 - Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of new base number.
Step 3 - Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.

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Step 4 - Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base number.
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the most significant digit (MSD) of the new base number.

Example:
Decimal Number: 2910
Calculating Binary Equivalent:

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that the first remainder
becomes the least significant digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes the most significant digit (MSD).
Decimal Number: 2910 = Binary Number: 111012.

Other base system to Decimal System:

Steps
Step 1 - Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the position of the digit and the
base of the number system).
Step 2 - Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the corresponding columns.
Step 3 - Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in decimal.

Example:
Binary Number: 111012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Other Base System to Non-Decimal System:

Steps
Step 1 - Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).
Step 2 - Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.
Example:
Octal Number: 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent:

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Privacy: The ability to keep things private/confidential.
Trust: we trust data from an individual or a host.
Authenticity: Are security credentials in order.
Integrity: Has the system been compromised /altered already.

Threats classified into one of the categories below:

Back doors: A back door in a computer system, a cryptosystem is any secret method of bypassing normal
authentication or security controls. They may exist for a number of reasons, including by original design or from
poor configuration.
Direct-access attacks: An unauthorized user gaining physical access to a computer is most likely able to directly
download data from it.
Eavesdropping: It is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private conversation, typically between hosts on a
network.
Spoofing: Spoofing of user identity describes a situation in which one person or program successfully
masquerades as another by falsifying data.
Tampering: It describes a malicious modification of products. So-called "Evil Maid" attacks and security services
planting of surveillance capability into routers.
Phishing: It is the attempt to acquire sensitive information such as usernames, passwords and credit card details
directly from users.

Computer Viruses:
1. Cluster viruses: This type of virus creates the illusion that the virus has infected every program on the disk.
2. Worms: its purpose is to duplicate itself in the host.
3. Bombs: it hides in the user‘s disk and is triggered by a specific event.
4. Trojan horses: it is a malicious program that appears harmless. These do not themselves on the host disk.
5. Stealth Viruses: These Viruses reside in the computer‘s memory and are hard to detect.
6. Macro viruses: it is designed to infect a specific file type.
7. Boot sector viruses: A boot sector virus infects the boot record of a hard disk. The virus allows the actual boot
sector data to be read as through a normal start-up were occurring.

The following are some well-known viruses.

1. CodeRed: It is a worm that infects a computer running Microsoft IIS server. This virus launched DOS attack on
White House‘s website. It allows the hacker to access the infected computer remotely.
2. Nimba: It is a worm that spreads itself using different methods. IT damages computer in different ways. It
modified files, alters security settings and degrades performance.
3. SirCam: It is distributed as an email attachment. It may delete files, degrade performance and send the files to
anyone.
4. Melisa: It is a virus that is distributed as an email attachment. IT disables different safeguards in MS Word. It
sends itself to 50 people if Microsoft Outlook is installed..
5.Ripper:It corrupts data from the hard disk.
6. MDMA:It is transferred from one MS Word file to other if both files are in memory.
7. Concept:It is also transferred as an email attachment. It saves the file in template directory instead of its original
location.
8. One_Half:It encrypts hard disk so only the virus may read the data. It displays One_Half on the screen when the
encryption is half completed.

Classification of hackers based on their attitude:

White Hat:

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A "White hat" hacker breaks security for non-malicious reasons, perhaps to test their own security system or while
working for a security company which makes security software. The term "white hat" in Internet slang refers to an
ethical hacker.
Black Hat:
A "Black hat" hacker is a hacker who "violates computer security for little reason beyond maliciousness or for
personal gain". Black hat hackers break into secure networks to destroy, modify, or steal data; or to make the
network unusable for those who are authorized to use the network. Black hat hackers are also referred to as the
"crackers" within the security industry and by modern programmers.
Grey Hat:
A grey hat hacker lies between a black hat and a white hat hacker . Grey hat hackers sometimes find the defect of a
system and publish the facts to the world instead of a group of people. Even though grey hat hackers may not
necessarily perform hacking for their personal gain, unauthorized access to a system can be considered illegal and
unethical.
Blue Hat:
A blue hat hacker is someone outside computer security consulting films who is used to bug-test a system prior to
its launch, looking for exploits so they can be closed.

Hardware and Software

What is HARDWARE?
All the things you can see & touch in a computer, called hardware e.g. keyboard, Mouse, Monitor, Printer, Disk
and Chips etc

What are different types of HARDWARE COMPONENTS?

Internal hardware components:
— CPU
— Mother Board
— RAM
— Sound Card
— Video Card
— Hard Drive
— DVD
External Hardware components:
— Keyboard
— Mouse
— Printer
— Scanner
— Monitor
— Speakers
What is SOFTWARE?
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All the things you can't see & touch but can feel &operate, called software. e.g. set of instructions that tell the
hardware what to do like web browser to access internet, games, MS-Office, Antivirus programs etc.
Types of software - Mainly two type of software are there
1- System Software
2- Application Software

What is System Software?

System software sits directly on top of your computer's hardware components (also referred to as its bare metal). It
includes the range of software you would install to your system that enables it to function. This includes the
operating system, drivers for your hardware devices, linkers and debuggers. Systems software can also be used for
managing computer resources. Systems software is designed to be used by the computer system itself, not human
users.
System software is designed to operate the computer hardware and to provide a platform for running application
software. Application software are designed to help the user to perform specific tasks like MS Word, Notepad,
Google Chrome, and Calculator.
e.g. Window XP, Window 7, Sound Drivers etc

Application Software:
Unlike systems software, applications software is designed to be used by end-users. Applications software, in
essence, sits on top of system software, as it is unable to run without the operating system and other utilities.
Applications software includes things like database programs, word processors and spreadsheets, e-mail
applications, computer games, graphics programs and such. Generally, people will refer to applications software as
software.
Application software is used to modify text, image, graphics etc.
There are many application Software‘s, Word Processing software, Database Software, Spreadsheet software,
Presentational Software, Educational Software etc to name a few.

Firmware and BIOS:

The operating system relies on a piece of programming called the BIOS (Basic Input Output System).It
is the link between the operating system software and the hardware. The BIOS is not actually software: it‘s a
program semi-permanently stored into one of the computer‘s main chips, and it is known as firmware. Firmware is
a combination of hardware and software.

Mobile Device Software:

Modern smart phones use both system and application software.
Mobile device application software or Apps allow users to perform specified tasks like games, social networking,
and messaging. They are also apps for word processing, presentation making, etc. Mobile devices use operating

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systems like Android (Google), iOS (Apple), Windows Phone (Microsoft), BlackBerry (Research in Motion), and
Symbian (Nokia).

MEMORY
The processor performs all the fundamental computation of the computer system. Other components contribute to
the computation by doing such things as storing data or moving data into and out of the processor. But the
processor is where the fundamental action takes place.
A processor chip has relatively little memory. It has only enough memory to hold a few instructions of a program
and the data they process. Complete programs and data sets are held in memory external to the processor.
This memory is of two fundamental types: main memory, and secondary memory.
Main memory is sometimes called volatile because it loses its information when power is removed. Secondary
memory is usually nonvolatile because it retains its information when power is removed. (However, it needs power
when information is stored into memory or retrieved from it.)
Main memory is sometimes called main storage and secondary memory is sometimes called secondary storage or
mass storage.
Main memory:
 closely connected to the processor.
 stored data are quickly and easily changed.
 holds the programs and data that the processor is actively working with.
 interacts with the processor millions of times per second.
 needs constant electric power to keep its information.
Secondary memory:
 connected to main memory through the bus and a controller.
 stored data are easily changed, but changes are slow compared to main memory.
 used for long-term storage of programs and data.
 before data and programs can be used, they must be copied from secondary memory into main
memory.
 does not need electric power to keep its information.
Main Memory:
Main memory is where programs and data are kept when the processor is actively using them. When programs and
data become active, they are copied from secondary memory into main memory where the processor can interact
with them. A copy remains in secondary memory.

Main memory is intimately connected to the processor, so moving instructions and data into and out of the
processor is very fast.
Main memory is sometimes called RAM. RAM stands for Random Access Memory. "Random" means that the
memory cells can be accessed in any order. However, properly speaking, "RAM" means the type of silicon chip
used to implement main memory.

Secondary Memory:
Secondary memory is where programs and data are kept on a long-term basis. Common secondary storage devices
are the hard disk and optical disks.
 The hard disk has enormous storage capacity compared to main memory.
 The hard disk is usually contained inside the case of a computer.
 The hard disk is used for long-term storage of programs and data.
 Data and programs on the hard disk are organized into files.
 A file is a collection of data on the disk that has a name.

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Question and Answer Session:

One Liner:
1. Which is fastest? Main memory or secondary memory?
Answer:Main memory.
2. Where is the word processor program that you are running located?
Answer: 1. In main memory.
2. Running programs are always located in main memory.
3. A permanent copy will also be in secondary memory on the hard disk.

3.Where are the characters you have typed?

Answer: 1. In main memory.
2. When you "save" your document, the characters are copied to a file on the hard disk.

4. Do you think that data transfer from the network is slower or faster than from main memory?
Answer:Data transfers from the network are much slower than from main memory and even slower than from hard
disk.

MEMORY UNITS
MEMORY – Memory is a data storage device in a computer system. The data is stored in binary form (0 to 1)
The computer data is made up of certain components basically called bits and bytes.

Basic components which constitute the data structures are explained as follows:
(A) BIT – It is the most basic information unit used in computing and formation theory.
A single bit is 1 or 0, a true or false or a ‗flag‘ which is on or off (use to distinguish two mutually exclusive states
from each other)
(B) NIBBLE – A nibble is the computing term for the aggregation of four bits or half an octet (an octet being an 8-
bit byte)
A Nibble contains four bits.
(C) BYTE – A byte is a collection of 8 bits. Eight-bit bytes also known as Octets, which can represent 256 values.
(D) WORD – A word is a string of bits stored in computer memory.

MEMORY MEASUREMENT:
The data is stored in the memory unit of CPU. The data storage is in binary digits 0 & 1
 1 Bit = 0 or 1
 8 Bits = 1 Byte
 1024 Byte = 1 Kilobyte (KB) (1 to 3 digits)
 1024 Kilobyte = 1 Megabyte (MB) (4 to 6 digits)
 1024 Megabyte = 1 Gigabyte (GB) (7 to 9 digits)
 1024 Gigabyte = 1 Terabyte (TB) (10 to 12 digits)

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 1024 Terabyte = 1 Petabyte (PB) (13 to 15 digits)
 1024 Petabyte = 1 Exabyte (EB) (16 to 18 digits)
 1024 Exabyte = 1 Zetabyte (ZB) (19 to 21 digits)
 1024 Zetabyte = 1 Yottabyte (YB) (25 to 27 digits)

The units of memory measurements are discussed below:

1. Kilobyte – A kilobyte is unit information or computer storage equal to 1024 bytes. It is commonly abbreviated
as KB.
2. Megabyte – A megabyte is unit of information or computer storage equal to 1024 kilobytes. It is commonly
abbreviated as MB.
3. Gigabyte – A gigabyte is unit of information or computer storage equal to 1024 megabytes. It is commonly
abbreviated as GB.
4. Terabyte – A terabyte is unit of information or computer storage equal to 1024 gigabytes. It is commonly
abbreviated as TB.
5. Petabyte – A Petabyte is unit of information or computer storage equal to 1024 Terabytes. It is commonly
abbreviated as PB.
6. Exabyte – An Exabyte is unit of information or computer storage equal to 1024 Petabytes. It is commonly
abbreviated as EB.
7. Zettabyte – A Zettabyte is unit of information or computer storage equal to 1024 Exabytes. It is commonly
abbreviated as ZB.
8. Yottabyte – A Yottabyte is unit of information or computer storage equal to 1024 Zettabytes. It is commonly
abbreviated as YB.

Some Abbreviations :-
 DVR : Digital Video Recorder
 EBCDIC : Extended Binary Coded decimal Interchange Code
 EDO : Extended Data Out
 EDSAC : Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator
 EGA : Enhanced Graphic Array/Exterior Gateway Protocol

MICROSOFT WORD
It is a word processor and offers a variety of features such as speed, editing, and formatting options. Some other
features include spell check, mail merge and link embedding. Another feature is word wrapping, which means that
the processor automatically adjusts all text within the specified margins.
(a) Microsoft word is an excellent word processor that allows the user to create letter, resume, report and
announcements.
(b) File Extension for MS Word: .doc or .docx

MICROSOFT WORD FEATURES:

Header and Footer: Header and footer is text or graphics that appear on the top and bottom of a page. Header and
footer contains the page number, the date of a company logo that is usually printed at the top or bottom of each
page in a document.
Title Bar: The Title bar shows the name of the file and name of the program. In this there are three buttons on the
right hand side: Minimize (to shrink the window down), Maximize (to make the window as large as it can be) and
Close (to close the window).
Menu Bar: The Menu Bar is placed below the Title bar and it consists of various commands. File Menu: From
File menu user can perform the functions such as Create a new document, open existing file, save files and print.
Home Tab: It provides options that can change the font, size, colour, alignment, bullets and numbering,
organization and style of the text.
Insert Tab: It provides the option to insert Tables, links picture, clipart and symbols.
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Page Layout Tab: It includes Themes, page setup, Page Background.
Ruler: It shows the width of the document which can be increased or decreased.
Workspace: It is the area where the text can be entered.
Thesaurus: It is used to find the synonym for a word in the document.
Spell check: It is used to check the spelling and grammar mistakes and also provide the possible alternative for
incorrectly spelt word.
List of Commonly used key that have special functions in MS Word:
1. Backspace key: This deletes letters backward.
2. Delete key: This deletes letter forward.
3. Shift key: This when press with another key will perform a secondary function.
4. Spacebar key: This enters the space between the words or letters.
5. Tab: This will indent what user type, or move the text to right. The default indent distance is usually ½ Inch.
6. Caps Lock: This key when pressed , will capitalized every letter
7. Control (Ctrl): This when pressed WITH another key, performs a shortcut.
8. Enter: This either gives a new line, or executes a command.
9. Arrow Keys: Used to navigate through a document or page.
MICROSOFT WORD SHORTCUTS:
1. Ctrl +N- Starts a new Blank Document
2. Ctrl +O- Display the open Dialog Box
3. Ctrl +W- Close the Active Document
4. Ctrl +S -Save a document
5. Ctrl +P- Display the print Dialog Box
6. Alt +Ctrl +I- Switch to and from Print Preview view
7. Alt +Ctrl +P- Switch to Print Layout View
8. Ctrl +F -Display the find dialog box
9. Ctrl +H -Display the Replace dialog box
10. Ctrl +G -Display the Go To dialog box
11. Ctrl +Z -Undoes the last action
12. Ctrl +C -Copy selected text and graphics to the office clipboard
13. Ctrl +X -Cut selected text and graphics to the office clipboard
14. Ctrl +V -Paste the post recent addition to the office Clipboard
15. Ctrl +F9 -Insert a Blank field
16. Shift +Enter -Start a new line in paragraph
17. Ctrl + Enter- Insert a page break
18. Ctrl + A -Selects the entire document
19. Ctrl + D -Opens the font dialog box to change the formatting of characters
20. Shift + F3 -Changes the case of letters
21. Ctrl + B -Applies or removes bold formatting
22. Ctrl + U -Applies or removes underlining
23. Ctrl + I- Applies or removes italics formatting
24. Ctrl + 1(one) -Sets a single line spacing
25. Ctrl + 2 -Sets a double line spacing
26. Ctrl + 5 -Sets 1.5 line spacing
27. Ctrl + 0(zero) -Adds or removes one line space preceding a paragraph
28. Ctrl + E -Switches a paragraph between centred and left alignment
29. Ctrl + J -Switches a paragraph between justified and left alignment
30. Ctrl + R -Switches a paragraph between Right and left alignment
31. Ctrl + L -Applies left alignment
32. Ctrl + M -Indents the paragraph from the left
33. Ctrl + T -Creates hanging Indent

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34. Ctrl + Q- Removes a paragraph formatting

MICROSOFT EXCEL
It is a spreadsheet program which is used to present and organize copious amounts of data in systematic manner. It
also includes performs includes performs basic arithmetic operations on data and creates graphs and charts based
on the same.

(a)Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet application.

(b)It is a part of MS Office.
(c)It features Calculation, graphic tools, Pivot tables and a macro programming language called Visual Basic for
Application (VBA).

MICROSOFT EXCEL FEATURES:

Worksheet: It is a grid of cells made up of horizontal rows and vertical columns. It contains 65536 rows and 256
columns.
Row Number: Each row is given a number.
Column Letter: Each column is given a letter starting from A, ,Z ,AA,..ZZ and so on.
Cell: It is basic unit of worksheet where numbers, text ,formulaeetc ., can be place.
Cell Pointer: It is a cell boundary that specifies which cell is active at that moment.
Current Cell: It is a cell which is active.
Range of Cell: It is a group of contiguous cells that forms a rectangular area in shape.
Work Book: A worksheet is a grid of cells made up of rows and columns.
Data in Worksheet: Three types of data can be entered numbers characters, text and formulae.
Formula: It is a sequence of values, cell address, names functions or operators in cell that produces a new value
form existing values.
Cell Referencing: Each cell in worksheet has a unique address, when cell address is referred in formulas it is
called Cell Referencing.
Relative Referencing: Cell Referencing in which the cells are refereed by their relative position in which
worksheet relative to a particular cell.
Absolute Referencing: Cell referencing in which the cells are referred by their fixed position in the worksheet.
Mixed Referencing: Combination of relative and absolute referencing.
Functions: Functions are predefined formulae that perform calculations by using specific values called arguments.
Structure: The structure of a function begins with the function name, followed by an opening parenthesis
argument for the function separated by commas and a closing parenthesis.
Charts: Charts are the pictorial representation of worksheet data.
Area chart: An area chart emphasizes the magnitude of change over time.
Column chart: A column chart shows data changes over a period of time.
Bar chart: It illustrates comparisons among individual items.
Line chart: It shows trends in data at equal intervals.

File Extensions:
1. Notepad: *.txt
2. Database: *.mdb
3. Executable: *.exe
4. Word document: *.doc / *.docx
5. Spreadsheet: *.xls
6. PowerPoint: *.ppt
7. Image: *.png / *.jpg / *.jpeg

Microsoft Excel Shortcuts:

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1. F2- Edit the select cell

2. F5- Go to the specific cell
3. F7- Spell check selected text and or document
4. F11 - Create a chart
5. Ctrl +Shift+ -Enter the current time
6. Ctrl+ -Enter the current date
7. Alt+Shift +F1- Insert a new worksheet
8. Shift+F3 -Open the excel formula window
9. Shift+F5 -Bring up search box
10. Ctrl+A- Select all the contents of the worksheet
11. Ctrl+B- Bold highlighted section
12. Ctrl+I- Italic highlighted section
13. Ctrl +K -Insert Link
14. Ctrl +U -Underline highlighted section
15. Ctrl +5- Strike through highlighted section
16. Ctrl+P- Bring up the control dialog box to begin printing
17. Ctrl +Z- Undo last section
18. Ctrl + F9- Minimize current window
19. Ctrl+ F10 -Minimize currently selected window
20. Ctrl +F6 -Switched between work books windows

Networking and Internet

Computer networking means communication between a group of two or more computer systems linked together.
Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software.
LANs and WANs were the original flavors of network design.

Local Area Network (LAN):

A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. It is a system in which computers are
interconnected and the geographical spread may be within a building to 1 kilometer.
TYPE OF LAN
 Star LAN
 Ring LAN
 Bus LAN
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
It is a data network designed for a town or city. This type of network is spread over a city. It connects an area
larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such as a city, with dedicated or high performance hardware.
Wide Area Network (WAN):
A WAN is a geographically dispersed collection of LANs. It is like the internet spans most of the world. In IP
networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and a WAN address.
TYPES OF WAN
 Public Networks
 Public Switched Telephone Networks (PSTN)
 Public Service Digital Network (PSDN)
INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK (ISDN)
 ISDN is used for voice, video and data services.
 It uses digital transmission.
 It combines both circuit and packet switching.
PRIVATE NETWORK

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Private Network provides services at various locations using private or leased circuits by using technology of its
choice.
It is mostly used to carry large volume of data at very high speed transmission.
It uses Modem's multiplexes and other communication devices.

Network Topology:
Topology is the geometric arrangement of a computer system. Each computer system in a topology is known as a
node. Network topology is determined only by the configuration of connections between nodes.
Bus Topology:
A bus topology is such that there is a single line to which all nodes are connected and the nodes connect only to
this bus.
Mesh Topology:
This type of network topology contains at least two nodes with two or more paths between them.
Ring Topology:
In this network topology, every node has exactly two branches connected to it. The ring is broken and cannot work
if one of the nodes on the ring fails.
Star Topology:
In this network topology, the peripheral nodes are connected to a central node, which rebroadcasts all
transmissions received from any peripheral node to all peripheral nodes on the network, including the originating
node.
Tree Topology:
This is a network topology in which nodes' are arranged as a tree. The function of the central node in this topology
may be distributed.
CLIENT-SERVER NETWORKING
It is a network application architecture which separates the client from the server.
It is a scalable architecture, where each computer or process on the network is either a client or a server.

 Features of Server- Features of Client

 Passive (Slave) -Active (Master)
 Waiting for requests -Sending request
 On getting requests serves them and sends the reply- Waits until the response comes

 The interaction between client and server is often described using sequence diagrams.
 Sequence diagrams are standardized in the UML.

PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKING
It is also known as P2P networking.
This computer network relies on computing power at the edges of a connection rather than in the network itself.
It is used for sharing content like audio, video, data or anything in digital format.
P2P network can also mean grid computing.

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking framework to implement protocols in layers,
with control passed from one layer to the next.

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Layer 7: Application layer:

The application layer supplies network services to end-user applications. It provides services for the application
program to ensure that effective communication with another application program in a network is possible.
Layer 6: Presentation layer:
It works as the translator for the network. This layer converts data from a format used by the application layer into
a common format at the sending station and converts the common format to a format known to the application
layer at the receiving station.

Layer 5: Session layer:

The session layer allows two application processes on different machines to establish, use and terminate a
connection, called a session.
Layer 4: Transport layer:
The transport layer ensures that message delivery is error-free, in sequence, and with no losses or duplication. It
relieves the higher layer protocols from any concern with the transfer of data between them and their peers.
Layer 3: Network layer:
The network layer provides data routing paths for network communication. Data is transferred in the form of
packets via logical network paths in an ordered format that the network layer controls.
Layer 2: Data link layer:
This layer sets up links across the physical network, putting packets (structured bit stream) into network frames.
This layer has two sub-layers, the Logical Link Control Layer and the Media Access Control Layer.

The Logical Link Control Layer (LLC) is concerned with managing traffic (flow and error control) over the
physical medium.
The Media Access Control (MAC) layer is responsible for moving data packets to and from one Network Interface
Card (NIC) to another across a shared channel.

Layer 1: Physical layer:

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The physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is concerned with the transmission and reception of the
unstructured raw bit stream over a physical medium. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data
on a carrier network.

IPv4 and IPv6 – The Internet Protocols in OSI

IPv4 and IPv6 are different versions of the Internet Protocol - Internet Protocol version
4 (IPv4), Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6). IPv6 is also called IPng (Internet Protocol
next generation)

Internet Technologies - Important Terms

1. Intranet: is a network of computers within an organization.

2. Extranet: is a network of computers between some related organizations.
3. Gateway: is a particular point in a network that acts as an entrance to another network. For example, the
‗payment gateway‘, if you‘ve done any internet payment transaction you would have seen that from the merchant‘s
site you are taken to a payment gateway, from where you are then taken to your bank‘s net banking site.
4. Firewall: is a program in charge of rejecting unwanted incoming connection requests. A server with a firewall
will keep other computers form connecting to the server. It is like a boundary wall to keep intruders at bay.
5. DNS: Domain name server – is a program which deals with computer addresses. You can look at it as a
telephone directory, but for the Internet; it translates user friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses.
Popular Domain names:

6. Flash: is an embedded animation software/program that displays small animations on web pages; like the how
many ducks can you shoot!?
7. URL: Uniform Resource Locater – is nothing but a web page‘s address, or in other words URL specifies the
address of every file on the internet.
URL has three parts
(i) the protocol to be used to access the file = {http://}
(ii) the IP address = {www.gmail}

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(iii) the domain name = {.com}
8. Browser: is the software or program that allows a computer to view web pages. Like Mozilla Firefox, Google
Chrome, Internet Explorer, Safari, Opera.
9. Web Crawler: is a program that visits web sites and reads their pages and other information in order to create
entries for a search engine index.
10. Search Engines: are special program running on a website which offers user results of simultaneous searches
of other websites for the required information. For example – Google
11. Traffic Congestion: is a phenomenon where too many users are connecting to the internet at the same time or
the internet service provider‘s cables are not able to support the user‘s maximum speed; it really is like the traffic
jam!
12. Digital Signature: also known as electronic signature is like an encryption technique for documents, which
guarantees authenticity of the document and helps combat digital forgeries and frauds.
13. Encryption/ Decryption: Encryption is a technique, derived from military use, to mask/disguise any
information, which cannot be read by anyone who does not have the password/key.
In other words, encryption is ‗encoding‘ any message/information so that only authorizes people can read it.
Encryption is done with a private key.
Thus, decryption is the ‗decoding‘ of the encoded message, with the help of a public key.

Internet Attack Methods:

a. Eavesdropping:
Interception of communications by an unauthorized party is called eavesdropping. Passive eavesdropping is when
the person only secretly listens to the networked messages. On the other hand, active eavesdropping is when the
intruder listens and inserts something into the communication stream. This can lead to the messages being
distorted. Sensitive information can be stolen this way.
b. Viruses:
Viruses are self-replication programs that use files to infect and propagate [8]. Once a file is opened, the virus will
activate within the system
c. Worms:
A worm is similar to a virus because they both are self-replicating, but the worm does not require a file to allow it
to propagate . There are two main types of worms, mass-mailing worms and network-aware worms. Mass mailing
worms use email as a means to infect other computers. Network aware worms are a major problem for the Internet
A network-aware worm selects a target and once the worm accesses the target host, it can infect it by means of a
Trojan or otherwise.
d. Trojans:
Trojans appear to be benign programs to the user, but will actually have some malicious purpose. Trojans usually
carry some payload such as a virus.
e. Phishing:
Phishing is an attempt to obtain confidential information from an individual, group, or organization. Phishers trick
users into disclosing personal data, such as credit card numbers, online banking credentials, and other sensitive
information.
f. IP Spoofing Attacks:
Spoofing means to have the address of the computer mirror the address of a trusted computer in order to gain
access to other computers. The identity of the intruder is hidden by different means making detection and
prevention difficult. With the current IP protocol technology, IP-spoofed packets cannot be eliminated.

Basic Networking Terms

INTERNET
The Internet is a global network of interconnected network, enabling users to share information along multiple
channels. A computer that connects to the internet can access information from a vast array of available servers and
other computers by moving information from them to the computer's local memory.

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SERVICES OF INTERNET
E-mail: The Internet enables user to exchange data/information and communicate via electronic media. E-mail
messages are usually encoded in American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) text.
Chat: Chat is the exchange of typed message by people. It enables people to 'talk not vocal' by typing and sending
the messages back and forth.
Video Conferencing: A service that allows a group of users to exchange video information over the Internet. It
includes an audio teleconference facility.

WIRELESS LAN
A Wireless LAN or WLAN is a Wireless Local Area Network that uses radio waves at its carrier - the last link
with the users is wireless, to give a network connection to all users in the surrounding area. Areas may range from
a single room to an entire office.
INTERNET PROTOCOL SUITE
The Internet protocol suite is the set of communications protocols that implement the protocol stock on which the
Internet and most commercial networks run.
FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL
FTP or File Transfer Protocol is a commonly used protocol for exchanging files over any network that supports the
TCP/IP protocol (such as the Internet or an Intranet). There are two computers involved in an FTP transfer-a server
and a client.
INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER
An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a business or organization that offers users access to the Internet and related
services. Many but not all ISPs are telephone companies.

NETWORK SERVICE PROVIDER

A Network Service Provider (NSP) is a business or organization that sells bandwidth or network access by
providing direct backbone access to the Internet and usually access to its Network Access Points (NAPs).
WEB SERVER
A web server is a program that using the client/server model and the World Wide Web's Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol (HTTP). Serves the files that form Web Pages to Web users (whose computers contains HTTP clients that
forward their requests). Client Server Client Server is a network architecture which separates the client from the
server.
PROXY SERVER
A Proxy Server is a computer that offers a computer network service to allow clients to make indirect network
connections to other network services.
WEBSITE
A Website is a collection of web pages, typically common to a particular domain name or sub-domain on the
World Wide Web on the Internet.
 Static Website
 Dynamic Website
WEB PAGE
A Web Page is a resource on the World Wide Web, usually in HTML/XHTML format with hypertext links to
enable navigation from one page or section to another. A web page can contain content which is able to be seen or
heard by the end user.
Dynamic Web Page: Dynamic Web Pages can be defined as Web Pages containing dynamic content (example-
images, text, form fields etc) that can change/move without the web page being reloaded.
HOME PAGE
 It is the first page that the link/site takes the user to.
 It most often refers to the initial or main web page of a website.

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 It is a personal web page, for example at a web hosting service or a university website that typically
is stored in the home directory of the user.

UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATOR

A Uniform Resource Locator CURL) is the another name for web address or website address. It is basically a
string of characters which refers to a resources on the Internet. e.g., the URL of 'Google' search engine is
'wwwgoogle.com '.
ANDROID (OPERATING SYSTEM)
Android is a mobile operating system initially developed by Android Inc. Android was purchased by Google in
2005. Android is based upon a modified version of the Linux Kernel. Android has a large community of
developers writing application programs Capps) that extend the functionality of the devices.
WIRELESS APPLICATION PROTOCOL (WAP)
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is an open international standard. A WAP browser is a commonly used Web
browser for small mobile devices such as cell phones.
WEB ADDRESSES
Web addresses start with the name of a protocol, which is called a HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol). HTTP
means that the resource in question will be found on a web server.

Operating Systems
It is a program with following features:
• An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software and the computer
hardware.
• It is an integrated set of specialized programs that are used to manage overall resources and operations of
the computer.
• It is specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all other programs that reside in the
computer, including application programs and other system software.

Characteristics of Operating System:

1. Memory Management — keeps tracks of primary memory i.e. what part of it is in use by whom, what part is
not in use etc. and allocates the memory when a process or program requests it.
2. Processor Management — allocates the processor(CPU) to a process and deallocates processor when it is no
longer required.
3. Device Management — keeps track of all devices. This is also called I/O controller that decides which process
gets the device, when, and for how much time.

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(e) User Interface: A user interface (UI) is the part of an operating system, program or device that the user uses to
input and receive data. A text user interface (TUI, see the image to the left below) shows text, and its commands
are usually written from the keyboard to the command line.
One liner:
1. Allocates and de allocates the processor (cpu) to a process: Processor Management
2. Keep track of time and resources: Job accounting
3. Allocates and de allocates the resources: File Management
4. Records delays between request for a service and from the system: Control System Performance
5. Production of dumb , traces, error messages : Error detecting aids
6. Interface between a user and a computer: Operating System
7. The software which manages the hardware is: Operating system

Functions of Operating System:

1. Boot up the computer:
The process of starting or restarting a computer is known as booting. A cold boot is when you turn on a computer
that has been turned off completely. A warm boot is the process when you restart the computer using OS i.e restart
by Ctrl+Alt+Del or boot from sleep mode.
2. Basic computer tasks:
It performs basic tasks such as managing the peripheral devices. These days most OSs use support plug and play
feature i.e a printer for example will be detected and configured automatically without any manual intervention.
3. Provides a user interface:
Two main types of UIs are: command line and GUI. With command line, user types commands on terminal to
performs various tasks. With GUI, user interacts using a mouse, icons and menus.
4. Handling of System Resources:
OS handles system resources such as computer's memory and sharing of CPU time by various applications or
peripheral devices. It ensures each application gets necessary resources it needs to perform effectively.
5. File management:
OS handles the organization and tracking of files and directories. It keeps track of user's activity as far as file
creation, updating, deletion or movement is concerned.
Two main types of file systems are:

File Allocation Table (FAT/FAT32) - It uses a file allocation table maintained by OS on a hard disk that provides
a map of clusters (logical units of storage) that a file has been stored in.
New Technology file system (NTFS) - File system introduced by Microsoft. It also allows permissions (read,
write, execute) to be set for individual files and directories.

Types of Operating systems:

1. Single user, single task OS:
It is designed in a way that one user can effectively do one thing at a time.
E.g. - Palm OS for palm handheld devices.
2. Single user, multi tasking OS:
It allows a single user run several programs at the same time. Personal computers/ Laptops are mostly used with
this kind of OS.
E.g - MS windows or Apple's MacOs platforms. (You see you can write a blog and listen to music side by side
when the downloading is on at back end- multi tasking!!!)
3. Multi user OS:
It allows many different users to take advantage of computer's resources simultaneously. OS must allocate
resources in a way that a problem with one user doesn't affect the entire community of users. Main purpose is to
maximize the resources.
E.g. Mainframe systems.

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4. Real time OS:
It controls the environment as it has a data processing system. Time taken by system to respond to an input and
display the result is called a response time. It uses an advanced algorithm for scheduling.
5. Time sharing OS:
It enables many people located at various terminals, to use the system, at a particular time. In other words, its a
logical extension of multiprogramming. The main purpose is to minimize response time.
6. Distributed OS:
Distributed systems use a number of central processors to serve multiple real time applications and different users.
Data processing jobs are distributed among processors.
7. Network OS:
This OS runs on a server. It is responsible for manaing data, users, groups, security, applications and other
networking functions. It allows shared file and printer access among multiple computers in a network.
E.g. Microsoft Windows Server 2003/2008, oivell NetWare.
8. Embedded OS:
Its a specialized OS for use in computers which are built into larger systems. It is part of different kind of machine.
E.g. - Computers in cars, traffic lights, GPS navigation system, elevators, ATMs etc.
As compared to a general purpose OS, embedded OS has limited functions but that single function/application is
crucial to its operation.
9. Mobile OS:
Its an OS specially designed to run on mobile devices such as smartphones, PDAs.
E.g.- Android, iOS etc.

One liner:
According to the functionality of Operating System, there are different types available that are divided into
following types –
a) Multi-user Operating System
b) Multi threading Operating System
c) Multi-Tasking Operating System
d) Multiprocessing Operating System
e) Real time Operating System
i. Multi-user permits more than one user to execute multiple programs at a single time.
ii. Multiprocessing allows one program to run on different CPUs.
iii. Multi threading permits many small parts of a single program to execute simultaneously.
iv. Multitasking gives support to many tasks so that they can run concurrently.
v. Real-time Operating System gives a response to input given by the user in real time or instantly.
vi. Boot: When computer starts, the operating system is first loaded (as it is essential for running all other
programs), this process is known as booting.
vii. Cold Boot: When you turn the computer ON from an OFF position.
viii. Warm Boot: When you reset the computer that is already ON.

Important Abbreviations and Short forms for Bank Exams

 Al – Artificial intelligence  BASIC - Beginner‘s All-purpose Symbolic
 ALGOL – Algorithmic Language Instruction Code
 ARP – Address resolution Protocol  BIOS – Basic Input Output System
 ASCII – American Standard Code for  Bit – Binary Digit
Information Interchange  BSNL – Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited
 BINAC - Binary Automatic Computer  CC – Carbon Copy
 BCC – Blind Carbon Copy  CAD – Computer Aided Design
 Bin – Binary  COBOL – Common Business Oriented
Language

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 CD – Compact Disc  IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol
 CRT – Cathode Ray Tube  ISP - Internet Service Provider
 CDR – Compact Disc Recordable  JPEG - Joint Photographic Experts Group
 CDROM – Compact Disc Read Only Memory  Kb - Kilobit
 CDRW – Compact Disc Rewritable  KB - Kilobyte
 CDR/W – Compact Disk Read/Write  KHz - Kilohertz
 DBA – Data Base Administrator  Kbps - Kilobit Per Second
 DBMS – Data Base Management System  LCD – Liquid Crystal Display
 DNS – Domain Name System  LED – Light Emitting Diode
 DPI – Dots Per Inch  LPI – Lines Per Inch
 DRAM – Dynamic Random Access Memory  LIS – Large Scale Integration
 DVD – Digital Video Disc/Digital Versatile  Mb – Megabit
Disc  MB – Megabyte
 DVDR – DVD Recordable  MPEG – Moving Picture Experts Group
 DVDROM – DVD Read Only Memory  MMS – Multimedia Message Service
 DVDRW – DVD Rewritable  MICR – Magnetic Ink Character reader
 DVR – Digital Video Recorder  MIPS – Million Instructions Per Second
 DOS – Disk Operating System  NIC – Network Interface Card
 EBCDIC – Extended Binary Coded Decimal  NOS – Network Operating System
Interchange Code  OMR – Optical Mark Reader
 e-Commerce – Electronic Commerce  OOP – Object Oriented Programming
 EDP – Electronic Data Processing  OSS – Open Source Software
 EEPROM – Electrically Erasable  PAN – Personal Area Network
Programmable Read Only Memory  PC – Personal Computer
 ELM/e-Mail – Electronic Mail  PDA - Personal Digital Assistant
 ENIAC - Electronic Numerical Integrator and  PDF – Portable Document Format
Computer  POS – Point Of Sale
 EOF - End Of File  PNG - Portable Network Graphics
 EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only  PPM – Pages Per Minute
Memory  PPP – Point-to-Point Protocol
 EXE - Executable  PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory
 FAX - Far Away Xerox/ facsimile  PSTN – Public Switched Telephone Network
 FDC - Floppy Disk Controller  POST – Power On Self Test
 FDD - Floppy Disk Drive  PING – Packet Internet Gopher
 FORTRAN - Formula Translation  RAM – Random Access Memory
 FS - File System  RDBMS – Relational Data Base Management
 FTP - File Transfer Protocol System
 Gb - Gigabit  RIP – Routing Information Protocol
 GB - Gigabyte  RTF – Rich Text Format
 GIF - Graphics Interchange Format  SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
 GSM - Global System for Mobile  SQL – Structured Query Language
Communication  SRAM – Static Random Access Memory
 HDD - Hard Disk Drive  SNMP – Simple Network Management
 HP - Hewlett Packard Protocol
 HTML - Hyper Text Markup Language  SIM – Subscriber Identification Module
 HTTP - Hyper Text Transfer Protocol  TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
 IBM - International Business Machine  TB – Tera Bytes
 IM - Instant Message  UPS – Uninterrupted Power Supply
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 URI – Uniform Resource Identifier  Wi-Fi – Wireless Fidelity
 URL – Uniform Resource Locator  WLAN – Wireless Local Area Network
 USB - Universal Serial Bus  WPA – Wi-Fi Protected Access
 ULSI - Ultra Large Scale Integration  WWW – World Wide Web
 UNIVAC - Universal Automatic Computer  WORM – Write Once Read Many
 VAR – Variable  XHTML – eXtensibleHyper text Markup
 VGA – Video Graphics Array Language
 VSNL – Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited  XML - eXtensible Markup language
 VDU – Visual Display Unit  ZB – Zeta Byte

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Knowledge Of Computer Applications D-289

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
There are five Generation of Computer, these are :

Generation of
Computer

First Second Third Forth Fifth

Generation Generation Generation Generation Generation

ENIA-C Honey well 400 IBM 360/370 Apple II, VAX-9000, IBM, Pentium
EDVA-C CDC 1604 CDC 6600 CRAY 1/2 PARAM,
IBMM 701 IBM 1400, PDP 8/11 IBM (PC) (SUPER COMPUTER
UNIVAC-1 IBM 7030 UNIV AC 1108 HP 9845
IBM 7094 UNIVAC AC 9000
FCL 1901

A. First Generation of Computers (1942-1959) Disadvantages :

The beginning of commercial computer age is from UNIVAC • Cooling system was required
(Universal Automatic Computer). The first generation computers • Constant maintenance was required
were used during 1942-1959. They were based on vacuum • Only used for specific purposes
tubes. Examples of first generation computers are ENIVAC and • Costly and not versatile
UNIVAC-1.
C. Third Generation Computers (1965-1975)
Advantages :
• Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component available The Third generation computers used the integrated circuits
during those days. (IC). The first IC was invented and used in 1961. The size of an
IC is about ¼ square inch. A single IC chip may contain thousands
• Vacuum tube technology made possible to make electronic of transistors. The computer became smaller in size, faster, more
digital computers. reliable and less expensive. The examples of third generation
• These computers could calculate data in millisecond. computers are IBM 370, IBM System/360, UNIVAC 1108 and
Disadvantages : UNIVAC AC 9000 etc.
• The computers were very large in size.
An integrated circuit (IC), sometimes called a chip or microchip,
• They consumed a large amount of energy.
is a semiconductor wafer on which thousands or millions of tiny
• Non-portable. resistors, capacitors, and transistors are fabricated.
• Limited commercial use.
Advantages :
• Very slow speed.
• Smaller in size as compared to previous generations.
• Used machine language only.
• Used magnetic drums which provide very less data storage. • More reliable.
• Used less energy.
B. Second Generation Computers (1959-1965) • Better speed and could calculate data in nanoseconds.
The second generation computers used transistors. The size of Disadvantages :
the computers was decreased by replacing vacuum tubes with • Air conditioning was required.
transistors. The examples of second generation computers are • Highly sophisticated technology required for the
IBM 7094 series, IBM 1400 series and CDC 1604 etc. manufacturing of IC chips.
Advantages :
D. Fourth Generation Computers (1975-1988)
• Smaller in size as compared to the first generation computers.
• Used less energy and were not heated. The fourth generation computers started with the invention of
• Better speed and could calculate data in microseconds Microprocessor. The Microprocessor contains thousands of ICs.
• Used faster peripherals like tape drives, magnetic disks, The LSI (Large Scale Integration) circuit and VLSI (Very Large
printer etc. Scale Integration) circuit was designed. It greatly reduced the
• Used Assembly language instead of Machine language. size of computer. The size of modern Microprocessors is usually
 EBD_8100
D-290 Knowledge Of Computer Applications

one square inch. It can contain millions of electronic circuits. The Disadvantages :
examples of fourth generation computers are Apple Macintosh • The latest technology is required for manufacturing of
& IBM PC. Microprocessors.
Advantages : E. Fifth Generation Computers (1988 to Present)
• More powerful and reliable than previous generations.
Scientists are working hard on the 5th generation computers
• Small in size
• Fast processing power with less power consumption with quite a few breakthroughs. It is based on the technique of
• Fan for heat discharging and thus to keep cold. Artificial Intelligence (AI). Computers can understand spoken
• Cheapest among all generations words & imitate human reasoning. IBM Watson computer is one
• All types of High level languages can be used in this type example that outsmarts Harvard University Students.
of computers
CLASSFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computer

Analog Hybrid Digital

Computer Computer Computer

Voltmeter Ammeter Convertible

Computer Computer Laptop or Computer

Purpose wise Computer Memory size &

Performance wise Computer

Special General
Purpose Purpose
Computer Computer

EMBEDDED MICRO MINI MAIN FRAME SUPER

COMPUTER COMPUTER COMPUTER COMPUTER COMPUTER

PDA(Personal digital Desktop Work Stations

Assistants Computer) Computer Computer

Computers can be classified according to the following types:

(a) Analog Today the digital computers have replaced the analog ones.
Examples of digital computers are desktop , personal computers,
The analog computers are computer systems that measure workstations,tablet PC etc
variations in quantities such as temperature, voltage, speed, etc.
Analog computers are known to measure the data that varies (c) Hybrid
continuously. Other examples of analog computers include Hybrid computers as the name suggests are a good mix of analog
Voltmeter and Ammeter. as well as digital computers, using an analog computer front-end,
which is then fed into a digital computer’s repetitive process.
(b) Digital Hybrid computers are used for scientific calculations, in defence
Digital computers are the computer systems that count things by and systems.
manipulation of certain discontinuous numbers and letters through
representation of binary digits (also called bits) in contrast to DIGITAL COMPUTER ARE DIVIDED INTO TWO PART
analog computers that measures the variations in quantities). In (1) Based on Purpose
other words texts and graphics are treated numerically. (2) Based on Memory size and Performance
Knowledge Of Computer Applications D-291

1. Based on Purpose Modern mainframe design is generally defined by the following

features:
On the basis of purpose, computers are categorised as follows –
• High reliability and security
(i) General Purpose • Extensive input-output facilities with the ability to offload
These computers are designed to work on different types of to separate engines
applications. In these types of computers the programs are not • Strict backward compatibility with older version of software
stored permanently rather programs are input at the time of their
execution. Personal computers, including desktops, notebooks, (iv) Supercomputer
smart phones and tablets, are all examples of general-purpose Supercomputer is a term used for one of the fastest computers that
computers. Various tasks can be accomplished by using general exist today. They are deployed for specialized applications that
purpose computers : For example writing and editing (word require processing of highly critical data and immense amounts
processing), manipulating different facts and figures in various of mathematical calculations. E.g. :- Weather forecasting requires
databases, tracking manufacturing inventory, making scientific a supercomputer.
calculations, controlling organization’s security system, electricity
consumption, building temperature etc. • PARAM is a series of supercomputers designed and
assembled by the Centre for Development of Advanced
(ii) Special Purpose Computing (C-DAC) in Pune, India. The latest machine
Special-Purpose computers are task specific computers and are in the series is the PARAM Yuva II.
designed to solve a particular problem. They are also known as • China’s vast Tianhe-2 is the fastest supercomputer in the
dedicated computers, because these computers are dedicated to world.
perform a single particular task repetitively. Examples of such
computer systems include the traffic control system ,they are PERSONAL COMPUTERS
also used in video games ,navigational systems in an aircraft,
weather forecasting, satellite launch tracking, oil exploration, Personal Computers are computers that are designed for an
and in automotive industries, keeping time in a digital watch, or individual user. These computers are small and a relatively
Robot helicopter. cheaper. In price, personal computers can range anywhere from
a few hundred pounds to over five thousand pounds. Personal
2. Based on Memory Size and Performance Computers use the microprocessor technology as they enable
Computers can be classified by memory size and performance manufacturers to put an entire CPU onto one chip. They serve
myriad purposes and can be put to use by various businesses for
as follows –
word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running
(i) Micro Computer spreadsheet and database management applications. People across
A microcomputer is a computer that uses a microprocessor as its the globe use internet for playing games,surfing net and other
central processing unit. Microcomputers are physically smaller online applications at their homes and personal use.
in size as compared to mainframe and minicomputers. Many
microcomputers when equipped with a keyboard and screen for Types of Personal Computers
input and output respectively can be used as personal computers Personal computers can be classified on the basis of its size .There
(in the generic sense) .Microcomputers are easier to use and also are two basic types of the traditional designs i.e the desktop
inexpensive as the memory used by them i.e microprocessors models and tower models. There are several variations on these
and semi conductors have become cheaper in the last few years. two basic types also.
E.g. : The various micro computers widely available are IBM
pcs , APPLE mac etc.the small types of pcs like the palmtop and (i) Tower model
handheld are now becoming available. This model of personal computer refers to a computer in which
the power supply, motherboard, and other mass storage devices
(ii) Minicomputer are stacked on top of each other in a cabinet.
It is a midsize computer. In the past few years the difference
between large minicomputers and small mainframes has decreased (ii) Desktop model
significantly just like the distinction between small minicomputers Desktop model means computer that are designed to fit comfortably
and workstations. A minicomputer can support upto 200 users at on top of a desk, with the monitor sitting on top of the computer.
the same time. Desktop model computers as compared to the tower model are
E.g. : The various machines widely available are vax series 8200 broad and low, whereas tower model computers are narrow and tall.
and 8300, honeywell(xps-100), icl’s series 36 level 20,50,60
(iii) Notebook computer
galaxy-21, hcl-4, nelco-5000 and others.
Also called ultra book. These are extremely popular because they
(iii) Mainframe are extremely lightweight and portable. Because of their small size
Mainframe computers known as the “Big Iron” are computers that ,typically less than 6 pounds or lesser than that,they have become
are used primarily by corporate and governmental organizations . so popular. These flat-panel technologies can produce a lightweight
 EBD_8100
D-292 Knowledge Of Computer Applications

and non-bulky display screen. The quality of notebook display 2. Providing online education : Computers not only strengthen
screens also differs considerably. Modern notebook computers are the traditional education system but also provide a new mode of
very similar to personal computers in terms of computing power. pursuing educational courses and degrees. This mode is called
(iv) Laptop computer as online training mode of education. Online education system
offers several benefits to the students which they can’t avail in
Laptop are now a days also called notebook computers .These
traditional education system.
are small and portable .You can make them sit on your lap and
work on them. 3. Helps in research work : Computers help students of
schools, colleges and universities in their research works.
(v) Subnotebook computer Gone are the days when students would go to libraries,
Subnotebook computers are portable computers that are even and other Knowledge processing units to complete their
lighter and smaller than a full-sized notebook computer. They research work. With the help of computers students now
are light weight because they use a small keyboard and screen as pursue their research work with ease and get ample amount
compared to a notebook computer.
of information for the same with easy clicks.
(vi) Hand-held computer
B. In the Field of Office
These computers are portable enough to be carried in one’s hand.
They are extremely convenient for use but due to extremely small 1. Document Management system : Document Management
size of their keyboards and screens they have still not succeeded system consists of different applications like word
in to replacing notebook computers. processing, desktop publishing, spreadsheets etc.
• Word Processing : is used to create documents
(vii) Palmtop electronically. It is used to produce high-quality letters,
proposals, reports and brochures etc.
These computers as the name suggest fit in your palm. Due to extremely
• Desktop Publishing : is used to make these documents
small size their use is limited to phone books and calendars.
attractive with photos and graphics etc. it is used to
(viii) PDA publish the documents.
• Spreadsheet Application : is used to maintain records
PDA’s have electronic pens rather than keyboards for inputs unlike and calculate expenses, profits and losses. It is also used to
laptop. They also incorporate handwriting recognition features. perform mathematical, statistical and logical processing.
and voice recognition technologies i.e can also react to voice 2. Office Support System : It is used to coordinate and
input . PDAs are also called palmtops, hand-held computers and manage the activities of a workgroup. The members of a
pocket computers. workgroup can share their work and coordinate with one
(ix) Smart phones another. Groupware and desktop organizers are examples
of this system.
Smart phones are cellular phones that function both as a phone
and a small pc. They may use a pen or may have a small keyboard. C. In the Field of Medicine
They can be connected to the internet using wifi (wireless fidelity). 1. Hospital Administration : Hospital is an important
Apple, Samsung, Sony are some manufacturers of smart phones. organization. We can use computer for the administration
of a hospital. We can computerize the accounting, payroll
USES OF COMPUTERS and stock system of the hospital. We can keep the record of
Computers have their application or utility everywhere. Some of different medicines, their distribution and use in different
the prominent areas of computer applications are: wards etc.
2. Recording Medical History : Computer can be used to
A. In the Field of Education store medical history of patients. We can store important
Computers have taken the education systems in the entire world to facts about patients in computer we can keep record if his
past treatment, suggested medicines and their results. Such
a different level altogether. Following are the uses of computers
systems can be very effective and helpful for doctors.
in education-
3. Monitoring systems : Some serious patients must be
1. Making classrooms effective : The traditional classes have monitored continuously. Monitoring is needed especially
become modern and high-tech with the advent of computers. in operation theatres and intensive care units. Many
Students now see multimedia presentations, clips, images, computerized device are used to monitor the blood pressure,
etc. with the help of computers. This gives them a better heartbeat and brain of the patients.
experience of education as compared to the monotonous 4. Life Support System : life support systems are used to
blackboard teaching. This way, the power of students to help the disabled persons. Many devices are used that help
remember or recollect the taught concepts increases as the deaf person to hear, scientists are trying to create a device
classroom learning becomes interesting. to help blind person to see.
Knowledge Of Computer Applications D-293

5. Diagnosis of Diseases : Different software are available In this media the sender and receiver are directly connected
to store data about different diseases and their symptoms. and the information is send (guided) through it.
Diagnosis of disease is possible by entering the symptoms • Unguided Media -Wireless or open air space is said to be
of a patient. Different computerized devices are used in unguided media, because there is no connectivity between
laboratories for different tests of blood. the sender and receiver. Information is spread over the air,
and anyone including the actual recipient may collect the
D. In the Field of Defence information.
There are many uses computers in defence such as:
1. Computers are used to track incoming missiles and help slew VARIOUS TYPES OF GUIDED OR WIRED
weapons systems onto the incoming target to destroy them.
TECHNOLOGIES
2. Computers are used in helping the military find out
where all their assets are (Situational Awareness) and in 1. Ethernet Cable or Twisted Pair Cable : A twisted pair
Communications/Battle Management Systems. cable is made of two plastic insulated copper wires twisted
3. Computers are used in the logistic and ordering functions together to form a single media, which are surrounded by
of getting equipment to and around the battlefield. an insulating material and outer layer called jacket.
4. Computers are used in tanks and planes and ships to target Out of these two wires only one carries actual signal and another
enemy forces, help run the platform and more recently to is used for ground reference. The twists between wires is helpful
help diagnose any problems with the platforms. in reducing noise (electromagnetic interference) and crosstalk.
It is used as a short distance communication. E.g. Local Area
5. Computers are used as gateways between different computer
networks used twisted pair cable.
networks and to host security functions (crypto systems).
There are two types of twisted pair cables available:
COMPUTER NETWORKS (a) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable -STP cables comes
with twisted wire pair covered in metal foil. This
BASIC COMMUNICATION MODES OF OPERATION makes it more indifferent to noise and crosstalk.
There are three basic modes of operation that can exist for any (b) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable -UTP has seven
network connection, communications channel, or interface. categories, each suitable for specific use. In computer
1. Simplex Operation : In simplex operation, a network cable networks, Cat-5, Cat-5e and Cat-6 cables are mostly
or communications channel can only send information in used. UTP cables are connected by RJ45 connectors.
one direction; it’s a “one-way street”. 2. Coaxial Cable : Coaxial cables has two wires of copper.
2. Half-Duplex Operation : Technologies that employ half- The core wire lies in center and is made of solid conductor.
duplex operation are capable of sending information in both Core is enclosed in an insulating sheath. Over the sheath the
directions between two nodes, but only one direction or the second wire is wrapped around and that too in turn encased
other can be utilized at a time. This is a fairly common mode by insulator sheath. This all is covered by plastic cover.
of operation when there is only a single network medium Because of its structure coax cables are capable of carrying
(cable, radio frequency and so forth) between devices. high frequency signals than that of twisted pair cables. The
3. Full-Duplex Operation : In full-duplex operation, a wrapped structure provides it a good shield against noise and
connection between two devices is capable of sending data cross talk. Coaxial cables provide high bandwidth rates of
in both directions simultaneously. Full-duplex channels can up to 450 mbps. There are three categories of Coax cables
be constructed either as a pair of simplex links (as described namely, RG-59 (Cable TV), RG-58 (Thin Ethernet) and
above) or using one channel designed to permit bidirectional RG-11 (Thick Ethernet. RG stands for Radio Government.
simultaneous transmissions. A full-duplex link can only Cables are connected using BNC connector and BNC-T.
connect two devices, so many such links are required if BNC terminator is used to terminate the wire at the far ends.
multiple devices are to be connected together. 3. Power Lines : Power Line communication is Layer-1
(Physical Layer) technology which uses power cables to
COMMUNICATION MEDIUM transmit data signals. Send in PLC modulates data and sent
over the cables. The receiver on the other end de-modulates
The Communication Medium plays an important role in Networks.
the data and interprets. Because power lines are widely
If the medium works well and properly, then the speed of
deployed, PLC can make all powered devices controlled
transferring data is good but if the medium is not working properly,
and monitored. PLC works in half-duplex. Two types of
then your data would be delayed or would not be sent or even can
PLC exists:
be lost during transmission. In Computer Networks, we call this
speed of transmitting data, as date rate. The medium over which Narrow band PLC - Narrow band PLC provides lower data
the information between two computer systems is sent, called rates up to 100s of kbps, as they work at lower frequencies
Transmission Media. (3-5000 kHz). But can be spread over several kilometers.
Broad band PLC - Broadband PLC provides higher data rates
Transmission media comes in two forms:
up to 100s of Mbps and works at higher frequencies (1.8 –
• Guided Media - All communication wires/cables comes into 250 MHz). But cannot be much extended as Narrowband
this type of media, such as UTP, Coaxial and Fiber Optics. PLC.
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4. Fiber Optics : Fiber Optic works on the properties of light. lines, both sender and receiver must be aligned to be strictly
When light ray hits at critical angle it tends to refracts at 90 in line-of-sight. Microwaves can have wavelength ranging
degree. This property has been used in fiber optic. The core from 1 mm – 1 meter and frequency ranging from 300 MHz
of fiber optic cable is made of high quality glass or plastic.
to 300 GHz.Microwave antennas concentrate the waves
From one end of it light is emitted, it travels through it
and at the other end light detector detects light stream and making a beam of it. Microwaves are higher frequencies
converts it to electric data form. Fiber Optic provides the and do not penetrate wall like obstacles. Microwaves
highest mode of speed. It comes in two modes: transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions
(a) Single mode fiber - Single mode fiber can carries single ray and the frequency it is using.
of light. 4. Infrared Transmission : Infrared waves lies in between
(b) Multimode fiber- Multimode is capable of carrying multiple visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has wavelength
beams of light. of 700 nm to 1 mm and frequency ranges from 300 GHz
Fiber Optic also comes in unidirectional and bidirectional
to 430 THz. Infrared waves are used for very short range
capabilities. To connect and access Fiber Optic special type
of connectors are used. communication purposes such as television and it’s remote.
Optical fibers allow transmission over longer distance at Infrared travels in a straight line so they are directional by
higher bandwidth which is not affected by electromagnetic nature. Because of high frequency range, Infrared do not
field. The speed of optical fiber is hundred of times faster cross wall like obstacles.
than coaxial cable. E.g. Wavelength Division Multiplexing 5. Light Transmission : Highest most electromagnetic spectrum
and SONET network. which can be used for data transmission is light or optical
VARIOUS TYPES OF UNGUIDED OR WIRELESS signaling. This is achieved by means of LASER. Because
of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in straight
TECHNOLOGIES line. So the sender and receiver must be in the line-of-sight.
1. Wireless Transmission : Wireless transmission is a form Because laser transmission is unidirectional, at both ends of
of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no communication laser and photo-detectors needs to be installed.
physical link established between two or more devices, Laser beam is generally 1mm wide so it is a work of precision
communicating wearilessly. Wireless signals are spread to align two far receptors each pointing to lasers source.
over in the air and are received and interpret by appropriate
antennas. When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit CLIENT-SERVER MODEL
of a computer or wireless device, it converts the digital In client-server model, any process can act as Server or Client.
data into wireless signals and spread all over within its This not the machine or size of the machine or its computing
frequency range. The receptor on the other end receives power which makes it server but it is the feature of serving request
these signals and converts them back to digital data. A little that makes it server.
part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless Client-server architecture (client/server) is a network architecture
transmission. in which each computer or process on the network is either
2. Radio Transmission : Radio frequency is easier to generate a client or a server. Servers are powerful computers or processes
and because of its large wavelength it can penetrate through dedicated to managing disk drives (file servers), printers (print
walls and alike structures. Radio waves can have wavelength servers), or network traffic (network servers ). Clients are PCs
from 1 mm – 100,000 km and have frequency ranging from or workstations on which users run applications. Clients rely on
3 Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz (Extremely servers for resources, such as files, devices, and even processing
High Frequency). Radio frequencies are sub-divided into six power.
bands. Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through
walls whereas higher RF travel in straight line and bounces PEER TO PEER MODEL
back. The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply Another type of network architecture is known as a peer-to-peer
as it covers longer distance. High frequency radio waves architecture because each node has equivalent responsibilities.
have more power. Lower frequencies like (VLF, LF, MF This computer network series on computing power at the
bands) can travel on the ground up to 1000 kilometers, over edges of a connection rather than in the network itself.
the earth’s surface. Peer to Peer computing or Networking is a distributed
3. Microwave Transmission : Electromagnetic waves above application architecture that partitions tasks or work loads
100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over between Peers, Peers are equal privileged and equivalent
them can be sent by beaming those waves towards one participants in the Application Architecture so this Network
particular station. Because Microwaves travels in straight is known as peer to peer architecture.
Knowledge Of Computer Applications D-295

BASICS OF INTERNET TECHNOLOGY 5. Real time Updates : There are various websites on the
internet which provides you with the real time updates
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer in every field be it in business, sports, finance, politics,
networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite(TCP/IP) entertainment and others. Many a time the decisions are
to link various billion devices worldwide. It is an international taken on the real time updates that are happening in various
network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, parts of the world and this is where internet is very essential
academic, business, and government packet switched networks, and helpful.
linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical
networking technologies. The Internet carries a wide range of INTERNET CONNECTIONS
information resources and services, such as the inter-linked While determining which type of Internet connection is right for
hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web you or your family, it’s important to make sure the difference
(WWW), the infrastructure to support email, and peer-to-peer between each connection. In today’s age, there are numerous ways
to connect laptops, desktops, mobile phones, gaming consoles,
networks for file sharing and telephony.
e-readers and tablets to the Internet. Some of the most widely
USES AND WORKING OF INTERNET used Internet connections are described below.
Internet is today one of the most important part of our daily life. 1. Dial-Up : Dial-up connections require users to link their
phone line to a computer in order to access the Internet. This
There are large numbers of things that can be done using the
particular type of connection also referred to as analog does
internet and so it is very important. You can say that with the not permit users to make or receive phone calls through their
progress in the internet we are progressing in every sphere of life home phone service while using the Internet.
as it not only makes our tasks easier but also saves a lot of time. 2. Broadband : This high-speed Internet connection is provided
1. Communication : Earlier the communication used to be a through either cable or telephone companies. One of the
daunting task but all that chanced once internet came into fastest options available, broadband Internet uses multiple
the life of the common people. Now people can not only data channels to send large quantities of information.
chat but can also do the video conferencing. It has become The term broadband is shorthand for broad bandwidth.
extremely easy to contact the loved ones who are in some Broadband Internet connections such as DSL and cable are
other part of the world. Communication is the most important considered high-bandwidth connections. Although many
gift that the internet has given to the common man. Email, DSL connections can be considered broadband, not all
social networking sites are some of the prime example of broadband connections are DSL.
it. • DSL : DSL which stands for Digital Subscriber Line,
2. Research : In order to do research you need to go through uses existing 2-wire copper telephone line connected
hundreds of books as well as the references and that was to one’s home so service is delivered at the same time
one of the most difficult jobs to do earlier. Since the internet as landline telephone service. Customers can still place
came into life, everything is available just a click away. You calls while surfing the Internet.
just have to search for the concerned topic and you will • Cable : Cable Internet connection is a form of broadband
get hundreds of references that may be beneficial for your access. Through use of a cable modem, users can access the
research. And since internet is here to make your research Internet over cable TV lines. Cable modems can provide
public, you can then benefit a large amount of people from extremely fast access to the Internet.
the research work that you have done. 3. Wireless Connection : Wireless Internet enables wireless
3. Education : There are a number of books, reference books, connectivity to the Internet via radio waves rather than
online help centres, expert’s views and other study oriented wires on a person’s home computer, laptop, smart phone
material on the internet that can make the learning process or similar mobile device.
very easier as well as a fun learning experience. There Some ways to connect the internet wirelessly are:
are lots and lots of websites which are related to different • Wireless (WiFi) : wireless fidelity (wifi) allows high
topic. You can visit them and can gain endless amount of speed internet connections without use the use of
knowledge that you wish to have. With the use of internet cable or wires radio frequency bands are used in place
for education, you are non-longer dependent on some other of telephone or cable networks. One of the greatest
person to come and teach you. There are various number advantages of wireless Internet connections is the
of tutorials available over the internet using which you can “always-on” connection that can be accessed from any
learn so many thing very easily. location that falls within network coverage. Wireless
4. Financial Transaction : Now you don’t need to stand in connections are made possible through the use of a
the queue at the branch of your particular bank rather you modem, which picks up Internet signals and sends them
can just log in on to the bank website with the credential that to other devices.
has been provided to you by the bank and then can do any • Mobile : Many cell phone and smart phone providers
transaction related to finance at your will. With the ability offer voice plans with Internet access. Mobile Internet
to do the financial transaction easily over the internet you connections provide good speeds and allow you to
can purchase or sell items so easily.
access the Internet on the go.
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• Hotspots : Hot-spots are sites that offer Internet access (UTP). All media are functionally equivalent. The main difference
over a wireless local area network (WLAN) by way is in convenience and cost of installation and maintenance.
of a router that then connects to an Internet service Converters from one media to another operate at this level.
provider. Hot-spots utilize Wi-Fi technology, which Layer 2 – Data Link - Data Link layer defines the format of
allows electronic devices to connect to the Internet or data on the network. A network data frame, aka packet, includes
exchange data wirelessly through radio waves. Hotspots checksum, source and destination address, and data. The largest
can be phone-based or free-standing, commercial or packet that can be sent through a data link layer defines the
free to the public. Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU). The data link layer handles
• Satellite : In certain areas where broadband connection the physical and logical connections to the packet’s destination,
using a network interface. A host connected to an Ethernet would
is not yet offered, a satellite Internet option may be
have an Ethernet interface to handle connections to the outside
available. Similar to wireless access, satellite connection
world, and a loopback interface to send packets to itself. Ethernet
utilizes a modem. addresses a host using a unique, 48-bit address called its Ethernet
• ISDN : ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) address or Media Access Control (MAC) address. MAC addresses
allows users to send data, voice and video content over are usually represented as six colon-separated pairs of hex digits,
digital telephone lines or standard telephone wires. The e.g., 8:0:20:11:ac:85. This number is unique and is associated
installation of an ISDN adapter is required at both ends with a particular Ethernet device. Hosts with multiple network
of the transmission—on the part of the user as well as interfaces should use the same MAC address on each. The data
the Internet access provider. link layer’s protocol-specific header specifies the MAC address of
the packet’s source and destination. When a packet is sent to all
There are quite a few other Internet connection options hosts (broadcast), a special MAC address (ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff) is used.
available, including T-1 lines, T-3 lines, OC (Optical Layer 3 – Network- NFS uses Internetwork Protocol (IP) as its
Carrier) and other DSL technologies. network layer interface. IP is responsible for routing, directing
datagrams from one network to another. The network layer may
INTERNET CONNECTING PROTOCOLS have to break large datagrams, larger than MTU, into smaller
A protocol is set of rules that define how computers will act packets and host receiving the packet will have to reassemble
when talking to each other. A protocol is the special set of rules the fragmented datagram. The Internetwork Protocol identifies
that end points in a telecommunication connection use when each host with a 32-bit IP address. IP addresses are written as
they communicate. Protocols specify interactions between the four dot-separated decimal numbers between 0 and 255, e.g.,
communicating entities. 129.79.16.40. The leading 1-3 bytes of the IP identify the network
and the remaining bytes identify the host on that network.
TCP (TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL)
Even though IP packets are addressed using IP addresses, hardware
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a standard that defines addresses must be used to actually transport data from one host to
how to establish and maintain a network conversation via which
another. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to map
application programs can exchange data. TCP works with the
Internet Protocol (IP), which defines how computers send packets the IP address to it hardware address.
of data to each other. Together, TCP and IP are the basic rules Layer 4 - Transport - Transport layer subdivides user-buffer into
defining the Internet. network-buffer sized datagrams and enforces desired transmission
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, which means a connection control. Two transport protocols, Transmission Control Protocol
is established and maintained until the application programs at (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), sits at the transport
each end have finished exchanging messages. It determines how to layer. Reliability and speed are the primary difference between
break application data into packets that networks can deliver, sends these two protocols. TCP establishes connections between two
packets to and accepts packets from the network layer, manages hosts on the network through ‘sockets’ which are determined by
flow control, and—because it is meant to provide error-free data the IP address and port number. TCP keeps track of the packet
transmission—handles retransmission of dropped or garbled delivery order and the packets that must be resent. Maintaining this
packets as well as acknowledgement of all packets that arrive. information for each connection makes TCP a stateful protocol.
UDP on the other hand provides a low overhead transmission
ISO/OSI NETWORK MODEL service, but with less error checking. NFS is built on top of UDP
because of its speed and statelessness. Statelessness simplifies
The standard model for networking protocols and distributed the crash recovery.
applications is the International Standard Organization’s Open
Layer 5 - Session - The session protocol defines the format of
System Interconnect (ISO/OSI) model. It defines seven network
the data sent over the connections. The NFS uses the Remote
layers. Procedure Call (RPC) for its session protocol. RPC may be built
Layer 1 – Physical - Physical layer defines the cable or physical on either TCP or UDP. Login sessions uses TCP whereas NFS
medium itself, e.g., thinnet, thicknet, unshielded twisted pairs and broadcast use UDP.
Knowledge Of Computer Applications D-297

Layer 6 - Presentation - External Data Representation (XDR) sits FTP is built on a client-server architecture and uses separate
at the presentation level. It converts local representation of data to control and data connections between the client and the server.
its canonical form and vice versa. The canonical uses a standard FTP users may authenticate themselves using a clear-text sign-in
protocol, normally in the form of a username and password, but
byte ordering and structure packing convention, independent of
can connect anonymously if the server is configured to allow it.
the host. For secure transmission that protects the user name and password,
Layer 7 - Application - Provides network services to the end- and encrypts the content, FTP is often secured with SSL/TLS
users. Mail, ftp, telnet, DNS, NIS, NFS are examples of network (FTPS). SSH File Transfer Protocol (SFTP) is sometimes also
applications. used instead, but is technologically different.
Hypertext : Generally, any text that contains “links” to other
TCP/IP NETWORK MODEL documents - words or phrases in the document that can be chosen
by a reader which cause another document to be retrieved and
TCP/IP is designed around a simple four-layer scheme. It does omit
displayed.
some features found under the OSI model. Also it combines the
Hyperlinks : An element in an electronic document that links
features of some adjacent OSI layers and splits other layers apart. to another place in the same document or to an entirely different
The four network layers defined by TCP/IP model are as follows. document.
Layer 1 – Link - This layer defines the network hardware and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
device drivers.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the underlying protocol
Layer 2 – Network- This layer is used for basic communication,
used by the World Wide Web. HTTP defines how messages are
addressing and routing. TCP/IP uses IP and ICMP protocols at
formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web servers and
the network layer.
browsers should take in response to various commands. For
Layer 3 – Transport - Handles communication among programs example, when you enter a URL in your browser, this actually
on a network. TCP and UDP falls within this layer. sends an HTTP command to the Web server directing it to fetch
Layer 4 – Application - End-user applications reside at this layer. and transmit the requested Web page. The protocol for moving
Commonly used applications include NFS, DNS, arp, rlogin, talk, hypertext files across the Internet. Requires HTTP client program
ftp, ntp and traceroute. on one end, and HTTP server program on the other end. HTTP
is most important protocol used in World Wide Web (WWW).
INTERNET PROTOCOL HyperText Markup Language (HTML)
The Internet protocols are the world’s most popular open-system HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is the set of markup symbols
(nonproprietary) protocol suite because they can be used to or codes inserted in a file intended for display on a World Wide
Web browser page. The <html> tag tells the browser that this is
communicate across any set of interconnected networks and are an HTML document. The <html> tag represents the root of an
equally well suited for LAN and WAN communications. The HTML document.
Internet protocols consist of a suite of communication protocols, of
which the two best known are the Transmission Control Protocol WEB BROWSER
(TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP). The Internet protocol suite
A web browser is an interface that helps a computer user gain
not only includes lower-layer protocols (such as TCP and IP), access to all the content that is on the Internet and the hard disk
but it also specifies common applications such as electronic mail, of the computer. It can view images, text documents, audio and
terminal emulation, and file transfer. video files, games, etc. More than one web browser can also be
IP Addresses (Internet Protocol) installed on a single computer. The user can navigate through
files, folders and websites with the help of a browser. When the
The IP, which stands for Internet protocol, is an identifier which browser is used for browsing web pages, the pages may contain
sends and receives information across the Internet. It is made of certain links which can be opened in a new browser. Multiple tabs
4 octets consisting of 32 numbers between 0 and 255, separated and windows of the same browser can also be opened.
by periods. Whenever you are browsing the web or sending an Some popular Web Browsers:
email, an IP address (assigned to your computer) is required. Internet Explorer : Internet Explorer (IE) is a product
Characteristics of IP address: from software giant Microsoft. This is the most commonly used
• Unique browser in the universe
Safari : Safari is a web browser developed by Apple Inc. and
• No two machines have same IP address
included in Mac OS X. It was first released as a public beta in
January 2003. Safari has very good support for latest technologies
FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL like XHTML, CSS2 etc.
The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol Firefox : Firefox is a browser derived from Mozilla. It was
used to transfer computer files from one host to another host over released in 2004 and has grown to be the second most popular
a TCP-based network, such as the Internet. browser on the Internet.
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Opera : Opera is smaller and faster than most other browsers, WEB PAGES
yet it is full- featured. Fast, user-friendly, with keyboard interface, A webpage is an independent page of a Website. For example
multiple windows, zoom functions, and more. Ideal for newcomers a webpage would be the testimonials page. A web page can be
to the Internet, school children, handicap and as a front-end for accessed by typically one URL in a browser and that page can
CD-Rom and kiosks. be copied and or send to a friend for review whereas websites
Google Chrome : This web browser was developed by are collections of multiple page that must be navigated to view
Google. Its beta and commercial versions were released in other content.
September 2008 for Microsoft Windows. It has soon become the A web browser displays a web page on a monitor or mobile
fourth-most widely used device. The web page is what displays, but the term also refers to
a computer file, usually written in HTML or comparable markup
DOMAIN NAME language. Web browsers coordinate the various web resource
It is the unique name that identifies an Internet site. Domain elements for the written web page, such as style sheets, scripts
and images, to present the web page.
Names always have two or more parts, separated by dots. The
part on the left is the most specific, the part on the right is the A static web page is delivered exactly as stored, as web content
most general. A given machine can have more than one Domain in the web server’s file system, while a dynamic web page is
name but a given Domain Name points to only one machine. For generated by a web application that is driven by server-side
example: google.com etc. software or client-side scripting.

Domain abbreviation
HOME PAGE
Domain are organised by the type of organisations and by country.
The home page is the first page that a visitor discovers when he
A three letter abbreviation indicating the organisation and usually
wants to visit your site. There is usually just one.
two letter abbreviation indicating the country name. Most common
abbreviations for organisation are –
WEB ADDRESS/URLS (UNIFORM RESOURCE
.org Organisation
.net Network LOCATOR)
.com Commercial A URL (Uniform Resource Locator; also known as a web address)
.edu Education is a distinct web address on the Internet for a web page, a PDF
.gov Government file or any other file format available. It is easy for humans to
.mil Military remember URLs but the computer cannot “understand” this format.
For example, the URL of a web page may be www.xyz.com, and
Some domain abbreviations for country are : its IP address 123.456.789.011.
.in India Syntax:
.an Australia
.fr France Every HTTP URL consists of the following, in the given order:
.nz New Zealand • the scheme name (commonly called protocol)
.uk United kingdom • a colon, two slashes
• a host, normally given as a domain name but sometimes as
Domain Name System (DNS) a literal IP address
The DNS stores and associates many types of information with • optionally a colon followed by a port number
domain names, but most importantly, it translates domain names • the full path of the resource
(computer host name) to IP address. It also lists mail exchange
series accepting E-mail for each domain. WEB SERVER
WWW (WORLD WIDE WEB) A web server is a computer system that processes requests via
The World Wide Web (abbreviated as WWW or W3 commonly HTTP, the basic network protocol used to distribute information
known as the Web) is a system of interlinked hypertext documents on the World Wide Web. The term can refer either to the entire
that are accessed via the Internet. With a web browser, one can system, or specifically to the software that accepts and supervises
view web pages that may contain text, images, videos, and other the HTTP requests. The most common use of web servers is
multimedia and navigate between them via hyperlinks. to host websites, but there are other uses such as gaming, data
storage, running enterprise applications, handling email, FTP, or
WEBSITE other web uses.
A website is a collection of webpages that are under 1 domain Three of the most popular web servers on the web are:
(such as google.com). For example if there is a company that owns • Apache HTTP Server
abccompany.com then this website will have several Webpages like
Home, About Us, Contact Us, Testimonials, Products, Services, Apache HTTP Server (also referred to as simply “Apache”)
FAQ’s, and others. All of these pages together make up a Website. has, at the time of writing, been the most popular web server
Knowledge Of Computer Applications D-299

on the web since 1996. Apache is developed and maintained Email Address : An email address is made up of two parts:
by the Apache Software Foundation, which consists of a the user ID, i.e. your account name, and the domain name,
decentralized team of developers. The software is produced i.e. the Internet name of the computer where your mail is
under the Apache licence, which makes it free and open sent. The two parts are separated by a @. For example, the
source. instructor’s email address is: [email protected].
Apache is available for a range of operating systems, including
2. Wireless Application Protocol(WaP) : Short for the
Unix, Linux, Novell Netware, Windows, Mac OS X, Solaris,
and FreeBSD. Wireless Application Protocol, a secure specification that
allows users to access information instantly via handheld
• Microsoft Internet Information Services (IIS) wireless devices such as mobile phones, pagers, two-way
IIS is, at the time of writing, the second most popular web radios, smartphones and communicators.
server on the web. It is however, gaining market share, and WAP supports most wireless networks. These include
if the current trend continues, it won’t be long before it CDPD, CDMA, GSM, PDC, PHS, TDMA, FLEX, ReFLEX,
overtakes Apache.
iDEN, TETRA, DECT, DataTAC, and Mobitex.
IIS comes as an optional component of most Windows
operating systems. You can install IIS by using Add/Remove 3. Voip : A Voice over IP call, or VoIP call, utilizes packet-
Windows Components fromAdd or Remove Programs in the switched Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) or Internet
Control Panel. telephony as opposed to the circuit-switched telephony
used by the traditional Public Switched Telephone Network
• Sun Java System Web Server
(PSTN). The advantage to VoIP phone calls is that unlike
Based on the Sun One Web Server, the Sun Java System Web
regular long-distance calls, calls made through a VoIP phone
Server is designed for medium to large business applications.
Sun Java System Web Server is available for most operating service are free – there are no fees beyond the cost of your
systems. Internet access.
Also referred to as online phones or Internet phones, a
Difference between Web Server and Application Server
VoIP phone can be a physical telephone with built-in IP
A Web server can be either a computer program or a computer
running a program that is responsible for accepting HTTP technology and an RJ-45 Ethernet connector instead of the
requests from clients, serving back HTTP responses along with RJ-11 phone connector found in standard phones, or it can
optional data contents, which usually are web pages such as be a voice-capable computer that uses VoIP hardware such
HTML documents and linked objects on it. as MagicJack or VoIP software like Skype
An application server is the kind of software engine that will 4. Online banking : Online banking is an electronic payment
deliver various applications to another device. It is the kind of system that enables customers of a financial institution to
computer found in an office or university network that allows
conduct financial transactions on a website operated by the
everyone in the network to run software off of the same machine.
institution, such as a retail bank, virtual bank, credit union or
SERVICES OF INTERNET building society. Online banking is also referred as Internet
banking, e-banking, virtual banking and by other terms.
1. E-MAIL (Electronic Mail) : E-MAIL is the electronic
equivalent of sending a letter. 5. E-commerce : E-commerce (electronic commerce or
Email consists of two parts, 1) the header, which contains EC) is the buying and selling of goods and services, or the
information about where the message will be sent, and 2) transmitting of funds or data, over an electronic network,
the body, or message. primarily the Internet.
First, the person goes to the head of the email message and 6. M-commerce : M-commerce stands for Mobile Commerce
types in: wherein commercial transactions are done using cellular or
• the email addresses of the person(s) to receive it, i.e. mobile phones that have access to the Internet.
the To:
• the sender’s email addresses, i.e. the From: Difference between M- Commerce and E- Commerce
• the sender may want the email reply sent elsewhere, 1. M-commerce and E-commerce are business transactions
i.e. Reply to: done online.
• the email addresses of the person(s) to receive the Cc: 2. M-commerce stands for Mobile Commerce while
and Bcc: copies (normally this is used to create file and E-commerce stands for Electronic Commerce.
information copies),
3. M-commerce uses mobile devices for commercial
• the Subject: which tells the receiver of the email what the
transactions while E-commerce uses computers.
message is about.The user uses the Compose function
of the particular email system included in the account 4. M-commerce is available anyplace you go, even if there is
and types in a text message, as one would use a word no Internet. For E-commerce, you still need to go to a place
processor to create a document. where there is Internet to access your online transactions
Knowledge Of Computer Applications D-301

ISO bytes, depending on network hardware media, but the packets are
normally less than 1500 bytes long.
The International Organization for Standardization; An organization
that has defined a different set of network protocols, called the ISO/ PASSWORD
OSI protocols. In theory, the ISO/OSI protocols will eventually
A code used to gain access to a locked system. Good passwords
replace the Internet protocols. When and if this will actually
contain letters and non-letters and are not simple combinations
happen is a hotly debated topic.
such as “shanti8”. A good password might be: Albert12@45$
INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP)
PPP
An organization that provides connections to a part of Internet. If
(Point to Point Protocol) – most well known as a protocol that
you want to connect you company’s network, or even your personal
allows a computer to use a regular phone line and a modem to
computer, to the Internet, you have to talk to a “service provider”.
make a TCP/IP connection and thus be really and truly on the
Also commonly known as ISP (Internet Service Provider).E.g.
Airtel, MTNL etc. Internet. PPP is gradually replacing SLIP for this purpose.

KILOBYTE SEARCH ENGINE

A thousand bytes. Actually, usually, 1024 bytes. An automatized way to index and find documents on the internet.
Search engines will “crawl,” or explore, the internet and index
LEASED LINE every file they find. Examples of search engines are www.google.
A permanently-connected private telephone line between two com and www.bing.com.
locations. Leased lines are typically used to connect a moderate- TELNET
sized local network to an Internet service provider.
The command and program used to login from one Internet site
MODEM to another. The Telnet command/program gets you to the “login”
(Modulator, DEModulator) – a piece of equipment that connects a prompt of another host.
computer to a data transmission line (typically a telephone line of UDP
some sort). Presently the modems transfer data at speeds ranging
from 1200 to 33,600 bits per second. There are also modems (The User Datagram Protocol) – Another of the protocols on which
providing higher speeds and supporting other media. These are the Internet is based. For the techies, UDP is a connectionless
used for special purposes – for example, to connect a large local unreliable protocol. If you’re not techie don’t let the word
network to its network provider over a leased line. “unreliable” worry you.

NIC USENET
(Network Information Center) – Generally, any office that handles A world wide system of discussion groups, with comments passed
information for a network a network. The most famous of these on among hundreds of thousands of machines. Not all Usenet machines
the Internet is the InterNIC, which is where new domain names are on the Internet, may be half. Usenet is completely decentralized,
are registered. with over 15,000 discussion areas, called news groups.

NFS MICROSOFT OFFICE

(Network File System) – A set of protocols that allows you to use Microsoft Office is an office suite of desktop applications, servers
files on other network machines as if they were local. So rather and services for Microsoft Windows and OS X operating systems.
than using FTP to transfer a file to your local computer, you can It was first announced by Bill Gates of Microsoft on 1 August 1988
read it, write it or edit it on the remote computer – using the same at COMDEX in Las Vegas.
commands that you’d use locally. NFS was originally developed
by SUN Microsystem, Inc. and is currently in widespread use. BASICS OF MICROSOFT WORD
NETWORK Microsoft Word is the word processor component of Microsoft
Anytime you connected two or more computers together so that Office that allows users the ability to create and save documents.
they can share resources you have a computer network. Connect A word document can be a letter, report, or even a web page.
two or more network together you have internet. How to Start the MS Word Program
Click Start → All Programs → Microsoft Office → Microsoft Word
OCTET
File format for document created in word is .docx or.doc
Internet standard-monger’s lingo for a set of 8 bits, i.e., a byte.
PACKET SOME IMPORTANT MICROSOFT TERMINOLOGY
Microsoft Outlook
A bundle of data. On the Internet, data is broken up into small
chunks, called “packet”; each packet traverses the network Its is a personal information manager from Microsoft, available
independently. Packet sizes can vary from roughly 40 to 32,000 as a part of the Microsoft Office suite.
 EBD_8100
D-302 Knowledge Of Computer Applications

Although often used mainly as an email application, it also includes New Creates a new document
a calendar, task manager, contact manager, note taking, journal,
and web browsing. Open Opens an existing document form disk
It can be used as a stand-alone application, or can work with Save Saves the open document to disk
Microsoft Exchange Server and Microsoft SharePoint Server Save As Saves the open document to disk under a
for multiple users in an organization, such as shared mailboxes different name
and calendars, Exchange public folders, SharePoint lists, and Print Prints the open document
meeting schedules.
Prepare Prepares the document for distribution, through
Microsoft OneNote such tasks as adding a signature on encryption
Microsoft OneNote was included in all Microsoft Office offerings Send Sends the document to another user by email
before eventually becoming completely free of charge. OneNote or fax
is available as a web application on Office Online, a Windows Publish Makes the document publicly available via a
desktop app, a mobile app for Windows Phone, iOS, Android, and document serve or a public web space
Symbian, and a Metro-style app for Windows 8 or later.
Close Exits the open document.
Microsoft OneNote is a freeware note-taking program. It gathers
notes (handwritten or typed), drawings, screen clipping-sand
2. RIBBON
audio commentaries. However, OneNote eventually became a
core component of Microsoft Office; with the release of Microsoft The Ribbon is located at the top of the screen and stretches
Office 2013. across the window. The Ribbon is organized into 8 different
Microsoft Office Sway Tabs; File, Home, Insert, Page Lausert, References, Mailings,
Review, and View. Each Tab has several Groups, where
Microsoft office Sway released by Microsoft in August 2015,
Sways is stored on Microsoft’s server and are tied to the user’s similar tools and features are found.
Microsoft account. They can be viewed and edited from any web 3. TAB STOP
browser with a web app available in Office Online. They can also
be accessed using apps for Windows 10 and iOS. Additional apps A tab stop is a term used to describe the location the cursor
are currently in development for Android and Windows 10 Mobile. stops after the tab key is pressed. Tab stops are used in word
Microsoft office, Sway allows users who have a Microsoft account processors to enable users to align text by pressing the tab
to combine text and media to create a presentable website. Users can key. In Microsoft Word, the tab selector, also called the tab
pull content locally from the device in use, or from internet sources indicator, is a button to the left of the ruler that supplies the
such as Bing, Facebook, One-Drive, and YouTube. user with a variety of tab marker options.

Microsoft Office 2010 Types of tab stops–

Below are explanations of each of the five different tab stops.
Microsoft Office 2010 (code named Office 14) is a version of
the Microsoft Office productivity suite for Microsoft Windows. 1. Left - Text is extended to the right of the tab.
It is the successor to Microsoft Office 2007 and the predecessor 2. Center - Text is centered in the middle of the tab.
to Microsoft Office 2013. Office 2010 includes extended file 3. Right - Text is extended to the left of the tab.
format support, user interface improvements, and a changed user
experience. 4. Decimal - Text before the decimal point extends to the
A 64-bit version of Office 2010 is available, but not for Windows XP left and text after the decimal point extends to the right.
or Windows Server 2003. It is the first version of the productivity 5. Bar - A vertical bar is shown on the tab.
suite to ship in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions.
Office 2010 marks the debut of Office Web Apps, online versions 4. RULER
of Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and OneNote that work in web The ruler is a measurement tool found in MS word that allow
browsers. Office Starter 2010, a new edition of Office, replaced the user to align graphics, text, tables, or other elements on
the low-end home productivity software, Microsoft Works. a page. When enabled the horizontal ruler appears at the top
Office 2010 is the first version to require product activation for volume of the document, and the vertical ruler is on the left-side of
licensing editions. Unlike previous versions of the productivity the document.
suite, every application in Office 2010 features the ribbon as its user
primary user interface. Mainstream support ended on October 13, 5. STATUS BAR
2015; extended support ends on October 13, 2020. The status bar, which is a horizontal area at the bottom of the
document window in Microsoft Word, provides information
PARTS OF WORD WINDOW about the current state of what user are viewing in the window
1. OFFICE BUTTON and any other contextual information.It shows the Page
number(Shows the page number) and Number of words in
It is located in upper left button corner of the office. the document itself.
The options available in the Office Button menu are :
Knowledge Of Computer Applications D-303

6. TITLE BAR Shortcut Description

The title bar is a bar located along the top of a window or a Ctrl + <left arrow> Moves one word to the left.
dialog box that displays the name of the window or software
program being used. Ctrl + <right arrow> Moves one word to the right.
Ctrl + <up arrow> Moves to the beginning of the line or paragraph.
7. QUICK ACCESS TOOLBAR Ctrl + <down arrow> Moves to the end of the paragraph.
Abbreviated as QAT is a toolbar menu that appears in Microsoft Ctrl + Del Deletes word to right of cursor.
Word in the top left corner of the window. The Quick Access
Toolbar gives user quick access to commonly used features Ctrl + Backspace Deletes word to left of cursor.
such as the Save feature. Clicking on the Quick Access Toolbar Ctrl + End Moves the cursor to the end of the
down arrow gives user the ability to customize the Quick document.
Access Toolbar and add and remove any of the commands Ctrl + Home Moves the cursor to the beginning of the
shown in the toolbar. document.
MICROSOFT WORD SHORT CUTS Ctrl + Spacebar Reset highlighted text to the default font.
Shortcut Description Alt + Ctrl + F2 Open new document.
Ctrl + 0 Adds or removes 6 pts of spacing before Ctrl + F2 Display the print preview.
a paragraph. Ctrl + Shift + F12 Prints the document.
Ctrl + A Select all contents of the page. F1 Open Help.
Ctrl + B Bold highlighted selection. F4 Repeat the last action performed
Ctrl + C Copy selected text. F5 Open the Find, Replace, and Go To
Ctrl + D Open the font preferences window. window in Microsoft Word.
Ctrl + E Aligns the line or selected text to the F7 Spellcheck and grammar check selected
center of the screen. text or document.
Ctrl + F Open find box. F12 Save As.
Ctrl + I Italic highlighted selection. Shift + F3 Change the text in Microsoft Word from
uppercase to lowercase or a capital letter
Ctrl + J Aligns the selected text or line to justify at the beginning of every word.
the screen.
Shift + F12 Save the open document. Just like Ctrl + S.
Ctrl + K Insert link.
Shift + Enter Create a soft break instead of a new paragraph.
Ctrl + L Aligns the line or selected text to the left
Shift + Insert Paste.
of the screen.
Shift + Alt + D Insert the current date.
Ctrl + M Indent the paragraph.
Shift + Alt + T Insert the current time.
Ctrl + P Open the print window.
Ctrl + R Aligns the line or selected text to the right In addition to the above shortcut keys, users can also use their
of the screen. mouse to perform some common actions. Below some are
Ctrl + S Save the open document. Just like Shift + F12. examples of mouse shortcuts.
Ctrl + T Create a hanging indent. Mouse shortcuts Description
Ctrl + U Underline the selected text. Click, hold, and drag Selects text from where user click and
Ctrl + V Paste. hold to the point user drag and let go.
Ctrl + X Cut selected text. Double-click If double-clicking a word, selects the
complete word.
Ctrl + Y Redo the last action performed.
Double-click Double-clicking on the left, center,
Ctrl + Z Undo last action.
or right of a blank line makes the
Ctrl + Shift + L Quickly create a bullet point. alignment of the text left, center, or
Ctrl + Shift + F Change the font. right aligned.
Ctrl + Shift + > Increase selected font +1pts up to 12pt Double-click Double-clicking anywhere after text
and then increase font +2pts. on a line will set a tab stop.
Ctrl + ] Increase selected font +1pts. Triple-click Selects the line or paragraph of the
Ctrl + Shift + < Decrease selected font -1pts if 12pt or lower; text that the mouse triple-clicked on.
if above 12, decreases font by +2pt. Ctrl + Mouse wheel Zooms in and out of document.
Ctrl + [ Decrease selected font -1pts.
 EBD_8100
D-304 Knowledge Of Computer Applications

BASICS OF MICROSOFT EXCEL default worksheet, “Sheet2”, “Sheet3”, and an additional tab
that allows user to add additional sheets to the Excel file.
Microsoft excel is among the most widely used in various business
fieds. A lot of fields these days require basic Excel skills. These 8. Zoom Slider
basic Excel skills are – familiarity with Excel ribbons & UI, ability Located in the bottom right corner of the Excel screen, the
to enter and format data, calculate totals & summaries through zoom slider is used to change the magnification of a worksheet
different kinds of formulas, highlighting of data that meets certain by dragging the slider box back and forth or by clicking on
conditions, creating simple reports & charts, understanding the the Zoom Out and Zoom In buttons located at either end of
importance of keyboard shortcuts & productivity tricks. the slider.
How to Start the MS Excel Program 9. Name box
Click Start -> All Programs-> Microsoft Office->Microsoft Excel Microsoft Excel, the Name Box is the box to the left of the
formula bar that displays the cell that is currently selected in
File format for the sheets created is .xlsx or .xls
the spreadsheet. If a name is defined for a cell that is selected,
PARTS OF THE EXCEL WINDOW the Name Box displays the name of the cell. User can use
the Name Box to define a name for a selected cell as well.
Besides the usual window components (close box, title bar, scroll The picture shows an example of the Name box in Microsoft
bars, etc.), an Excel window has several unique elements identified Excel.
in the figure below. Some important terms in excel
There are some important areas in the screen: Row Numbers : Rows run horizontally in a worksheet and are
1. Office logo button identified by a number in the row header.
It is at the top left corner contains many commands for the Column Letter : Columns run vertically on a worksheet and
document such as New, Open, Save, Save as, Print and Close. each one is identified by a letter in the column header.
Together a column letter and a row number create a cell reference.
2. Quick Access Toolbar
Each cell in the worksheet can be identified by this combination
A small toolbar next to the Office button contains shortcuts of letters and numbers such as A1, F456, or AA34.
for some of the most common commands such as Save, Undo,
Macros - An Excel macro is a set of instructions that can be
and Redo buttons.
triggered by a keyboard shortcut, toolbar button or an icon in
3. Ribbon a spreadsheet.
Tabs are part of the horizontal ribbon menu that contains Macros - are used to eliminate the need to repeat the steps of
links to various features of the program. Each tab - such as common tasks over and over.
Home, Page Layout, and Formulas - contains a number of Tasks such as:
related features and options that are activated by clicking on
• adding or removing rows and columns
the appropriate icon.
• protecting or unprotecting worksheets
4. Formula Bar • selecting a range of cells
This is where any calculations or formulas user would like • adding the current date to a spreadsheet
to write will appear. This is used to start building formulas.
5. Spreadsheet Grid In Microsoft Office 2010 version, Office tab is replaced by File tab.
This is where all user numbers, data, charts & drawings
are present. Each Excel file can contain several sheets. But
CHARTS
the spreadsheet grid shows few rows & columns of active Charts are visual representations of worksheet data. Charts often
spreadsheet. To see more rows or columns user can use the makes it easier to understand the data in a worksheet because users
scroll bars to the left or at bottom. can easily pick out patterns and trends illustrated in the chart that
are otherwise difficult to see.
6. Status bar
This tells us what is going on with Excel at any time. User A chart is a made-up of many parts. Following are the parts of charts:
can tell if Excel is busy calculating a formula, creating a pivot • Chart Area : The chart area in a document or spreadsheet
report or recording a macro by just looking at the status bar. contains the chart, graph, headers and a legend providing
The status bar also shows quick summaries of selected cells information on the various lines or colors in the chart. The
(count, sum, average, minimum or maximum values). User chart area is usually is total region surrounded the chart.
can change this by right clicking on it and choosing which • Plot Area : This is the area where chart data is plotted. The
summaries to show. plot area on a 2-D chart contains the data markers, gridlines,
data labels, trendlines, and optional chart items placed in the
7. Sheet Tab chart area. The plot area on a 3-D chart contains all the above
In Microsoft Excel, a sheet, sheet tab, or worksheet tab is the items plus the walls, floor, axes, axis titles, and tick-mark
current worksheet that is being displayed. Every Excel file is labels in the chart.
capable of having multiple worksheets, and after opening an
• Chart title : The descriptive text aimes at helping user
Excel file, user will see multiple sheet tabs as shown in the
identify the chart.
picture. By default, user have three sheet tabs “Sheet1” the
Knowledge Of Computer Applications D-305

• Axis Title : These are the titles given to three axis i.e. X,Y,Z. • 3-D line : 3-D line charts show each row or column of
• Legend : The Legend helps to identify various plotted data series. data as a 3-D ribbon. A 3-D line chart has horizontal,
• Gridlines : There are horizontal and vertical lines which vertical, and depth axes that user can modify.
inserted in the chart to enhance its readability. • Pie charts : Data that is arranged in one column or row only
• Data Label : It provides additional information about a on a worksheet can be plotted in a pie chart. Pie charts show
data marker. the size of items in one data series, proportional to the sum
of the items. The data points in a pie chart are displayed as
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CHARTS SERVE DIFFERENT a percentage of the whole pie.
• Bar charts : Data that is arranged in columns or rows on a
PURPOSES worksheet can be plotted in a bar chart. Bar charts illustrate
• Column charts : Data that is arranged in columns or rows comparisons among individual items.
on a worksheet can be plotted in a column chart. Column • Area charts : Data that is arranged in columns or rows
charts are useful for showing data changes over a period of on a worksheet can be plotted in an area chart. Area charts
time or for illustrating comparisons among items. emphasize the magnitude of change over time, and can be
In column charts, categories are typically organized along used to draw attention to the total value across a trend. For
the horizontal axis and along the vertical axis. example, data that represents profit over time can be plotted
in an area chart to emphasize the total profit.
Column charts have the following chart subtypes: • XY (scatter) charts : Data that is arranged in columns and
• Clustered column and clustered column in 3-D: rows on a worksheet can be plotted in an xy (scatter) chart.
Clustered column charts compare values across Scatter charts show the relationships among the numeric
categories. A clustered column chart displays values values in several data series, or plots two groups of numbers
in 2-D vertical rectangles. A clustered column in 3-D as one series of xy coordinates.
chart displays the data by using a 3-D perspective only.
• A scatter chart has two value axes, showing one set of
• Stacked column and stacked column in 3-D: Stacked
numeric data along the horizontal axis (x-axis) and another
column charts show the relationship of individual items
along the vertical axis (y-axis). It combines these values into
to the whole, comparing the contribution of each value
single data points and displays them in irregular intervals,
to a total across categories. A stacked column chart
or clusters. Scatter charts are typically used for displaying
displays values in 2-D vertical stacked rectangles. A
and comparing numeric values, such as scientific, statistical,
3-D stacked column chart displays the data by using a
and engineering data.
3-D perspective only.
• 3-D column : 3-D column charts use three axes that
user can modify (a horizontal axis, a vertical axis, and MICROSOFT EXCEL SHORTCUTS
a depth axis), and they compare data points along the Below is a listing of all the major shortcut keys usable in Microsoft
horizontal and the depth axes. Excel. See the computer shortcut page if user are looking for
• Line charts : Data that is arranged in columns or rows on shortcut keys used in other programs.
a worksheet can be plotted in a line chart. Line charts can Shortcut Description
display continuous data over time, set against a common scale,
F2 Edit the selected cell.
and are therefore ideal for showing trends in data at equal
intervals. In a line chart, category data is distributed evenly F3 After a name has been created, F3 will
along the horizontal axis, and all value data is distributed paste names.
evenly along the vertical axis. F4 Repeat last action. For example, if user
Line charts have the following chart subtypes: changed the color of text in another cell,
• Line and line with markers : Displayed with markers pressing F4 will change the text in cell
to indicate individual data values, or without, line charts to the same color.
are useful to show trends over time or ordered categories, F5 Go to a specific cell. For example, C6.
especially when there are many data points and the order F7 Spell check selected text or document.
in which they are presented is important. If there are F11 Create chart from selected data.
many categories or the values are approximate, use a
Ctrl + Shift + ; Enter the current time.
line chart without markers.
• Stacked line and stacked line with markers : Ctrl + ; Enter the current date.
Displayed with markers to indicate individual data Alt + Shift + F1 Insert New Worksheet.
values, or without, stacked line charts can be used to Alt + Enter While typing text in a cell, pressing Alt +
show the trend of the contribution of each value over Enter will move to the next line, allowing
time or ordered categories, but because it is not easy to for multiple lines of text in one cell.
see that the lines are stacked, consider using a different Shift + F3 Open the Excel formula window.
line chart type or a stacked area chart instead. Shift + F5 Bring up search box.
 EBD_8100
D-306 Knowledge Of Computer Applications

Ctrl + 1 Open the Format Cells window. ALT + F11 Toggle between the Visual Basic editor
Ctrl + A Select all contents of the worksheet. and the Access Database window.
Ctrl + B Bold highlighted selection. SHIFT + F10 Display the shortcut menu (ie: popup menu).

Ctrl + I Italic highlighted selection. Shortcut Keys For Entering Data In A Datasheet/Form
Ctrl + K Insert link. The following is a list of shortcuts or hot keys for entering data
in a Datasheet/Form:
Ctrl + S Save the open worksheet.
Key Sequence Description
Ctrl + U Underline highlighted selection.
CTRL + PLUS SIGN (+) Add a new record.
Ctrl + P Bring up the print dialog box to begin
CTRL + MINUS SIGN (or
the printing process. Delete the current record.
older)
Ctrl + Z Undo last action.
CTRL + SEMICOLON (;) Insert the current date.
Ctrl + F3 Open Excel Name Manager.
CTRL + COLON (:) Insert the current time.
Ctrl + F9 Minimize current window.
CTRL + ALT+SPACEBAR Insert the default value for
Ctrl + F10 Maximize currently selected window. the field.
Ctrl + Page up Move between work sheets in the same CTRL + ENTER Insert a new line.
document.
SHIFT + ENTER Save changes to the current record.
Ctrl + Page down Move between work sheets in the same
Toggle between the values in
document. SPACEBAR
a check box or radio button.
Ctrl + Tab Move between Two or more open Excel
SHORTCUT KEYS FOR WORKING WITH TEXT/DATA
files.
The following is a list of shortcuts or hot keys for working with
Alt + = Create a formula to sum all of the above text/data in Access:
cells. General
Ctrl + ‘ Insert the value of the above cell into Key Sequence Description
the cell currently selected.
F7 Check spelling.
Ctrl + Arrow key Move to next section of text.
CTRL + C Copy the selection to the Clipboard.
Ctrl + Space Select entire column.
Paste the contents of the Clipboard
Shift + Space Select entire row. CTRL + V
to where the insertion point is.
Ctrl + - Delete the selected column or row. Cut the selection and copy it to the
CTRL + X
Ctrl + Shift + = Insert a new column or row. Clipboard.
Ctrl + Home Move to cell A1. CTRL + Z Undo typing.
CTRL + DELETE Delete all characters to the right of
MS ACCESS : SHORTCUTS the insertion point.
CTRL + SEMICOLON (;) Insert the current date.
The following is a list of general shortcuts or hotkeys in Access :
CTRL + COLON (:) Insert the current time.
Key Sequence Description
CTRL + ALT +
F1 Display the Microsoft Access Help. Insert the default value for the field.
SPACEBAR
This may be context-sensitive help
ESC Undo changes in the current field.
depending on what you are positioned on.
Press ESC a second time to undo
F11 Display the Database window. changes to the current record.
F12 Open the Save As dialog box. SHIFT + F2 Open the Zoom box to enter large
CTRL + N Open a new database. amounts of data that can not be
properly displayed in a small
CTRL + O Open an existing database. control.
CTRL + P Print the current or selected object.
Finding and Replacing Text
CTRL + S Save the current database object.
CTRL + W Close the active window. Key Sequence Description
Open the Find tab on the Find and Replace
ALT + SPACEBAR Display the Control menu. CTRL + F
dialog box.
Knowledge Of Computer Applications D-307

Open the Replace tab on the Find and Replace File format for the slides created is .pptx or ppt.
CTRL + H
dialog box. MS– Power Point Shortcuts
Find the next occurrence of the value entered
SHIFT + F4 in the Find and Replace dialog box when the Shortcut Keys Description
dialog box is closed. F5 View the Slide Show
Selecting Text in A Field Shift + Ctrl + Selects all text form the cursor to the sart of
Home the active text box
Key Sequence Description Shift + Ctrl + Selects all text form the cursor to the end of
Extends selection one End the active text box
SHIFT + RIGHT ARROW
character to the right.
Spacebar or click Moves to next slide or next animation
Extends selection one the mouse
SHIFT + LEFT ARROW
character to the left.
Extends selection one word S Stop the show press S again to restrat the show
CTRL + SHIFT + RIGHT ARROW
to the right. Esc End the side show
Extends selection one word
CTRL + SHIFT + LEFT ARROW Ctrl + A Select all items on the page or the active
to the left.
text box
Moving The Insertion Point in A Field Ctrl + B Applies bold to the select text
Ctrl + D Duplicates the selected object
Key Sequence Description
RIGHT ARROW Move one character to the right. Ctrl + F Opens the find dialog box
LEFT ARROW Move one character to the left. Ctrl + G Opens the grids and guies dialog box
CTRL + RIGHT ARROW Move one word to the right.
Ctrl + H Opens the replace dialog box
CTRL + LEFT ARROW Move one word to the left.
Move to the end of the field, Ctrl + I Applies Italics to the selected text
END
in a single-line field. Ctrl + M Inserts a new slide
Move to the beginning of the
HOME Ctrl + N Opens a new blank presentations
field, in a single-line field.
Move to the end of the field, Ctrl + O Opens the open dialog box
CTRL + END
in a multi-line field.
Ctrl + T Opens the font dialog box
Move to the beginning of the
CTRL + HOME Ctrl + U Applies underlining to the selected text Paste
field, in a multi-line field.
Ctrl + V Paste
BASICS OF MICROSOFT POWERPOINT
Ctrl + W Closes the presentation
PowerPoint is a program to help create and present presentations.
Ctrl + Y Repeats the last comand entered
This handout introduces the basic features of Microsoft PowerPoint
and covers the basics of creating simple presentations and Home Moves cursor to beginning of current line of text
editing and formatting the PowerPoint slides. PowerPoint 2007 End Moves cursor to end of current line of text
is a presentation software application from Microsoft. With
PowerPoint, user can easily create slide shows, presentations, and Ctrl + Home Moves cursor in beginning of presentations
multimedia applications. Teachers, Trainers and other presenters Ctrl + End Moves cursor to end of presentation
can use slide shows to illustrate their presentations.
Shift + Click Selects more than one slide in a presentation
How to start MS-Powerpoint– each side
Click start → All programs → Microsoft Office → Microsoft
Shift + F1 Help
Powerpoint