Contents

Section 1: Fundamentals of Hardware and Software ................................................................................ 1

Objective 1.1: Describe a general-purpose computer system.................................................................. 1

Objective 1.2: Explain the functions of the major hardware components of a computer system. ......... 2

Objective 1.3: Outline the functions and uses of primary storage devices. ............................................. 4

Objective 1.4: Manipulate units of storage. ............................................................................................. 5

Objective 1.5: Compare the types of secondary storage media w.r.t. portability, speed and capacity... 6

Objective 1.6: Use terms associated with storage devices. ...................................................................... 6

Objective 1.7: Explain the uses of various input devices and media ...................................................... 15

Objective 1.8: State the types and functions of output devices. ............................................................ 20

Objective 1.9: Describe how data are stored and manipulated within the computer. .......................... 25

Objective 1.10: Interpret the hardware specifications of a computer system. ...................................... 33

Objective 1.11: Distinguish between system programs and application programs. .............................. 35

Objective 1.12: Explain the functions of the Operating Systems. .......................................................... 38

Objective 1.13: Distinguish among multitasking, multiprocessing and multiprogramming. ................. 38

Objective 1.14: Explain the different types of processing modes. ......................................................... 39

Objective 1.15: Distinguish between types of user interface. ................................................................ 40

Section 1: Fundamentals of Hardware and Software

Objective 1.1: Describe a general-purpose computer system.

Content: Major functions of systems: input, processing, output, storage

Notes: The major functions of a general-purpose system

The major functions of a general-purpose system are:

• Input: involves obtaining data for processing

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 • Processing: involves the manipulation of data to produce information. Manipulation
means multiplying, adding, subtracting, dividing, sorting etc.
• Output: involves sending information to users.
• Storage: involves keeping the data on electronic storage.

Objective 1.2: Explain the functions of the major hardware components of a computer
system.

Content: CPU, CU, ALU; main memory, secondary storage, input and output devices

Notes: The major hardware components of a computer system

The major hardware components of a computer system are shown in the diagram below.

CPU

CU
Input devices Output devices

ALU

Main Memory

Secondary Storage

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is also called the processor. It takes raw data, follows a set of instructions (programs)
and converts it into information. The CPU consists of two smaller units known as the control
unit (CU) and the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU).

Control Unit (CU)

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 This is the main part of the CPU. It directs and coordinates all activities within the CPU. It
determines the sequence in which instructions are executed. The CU executes an instruction by
performing the following steps:
1. Fetching the instructions from memory
2. Decoding the instructions
3. Fetching the data required by the instructions from memory
4. Sending the data and instructions to the ALU for processing
5. Sending the data to memory after processing

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The ALU performs all the arithmetic and logic functions in a computer. The arithmetic
operations include addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (*) and division (/).

The logic functions are comparisons, such as

1. Equal to (=) 6. Greater than or equal to (>=)
2. Not equal to (≠) 7. AND
3. Less than (<) 8. OR
4. Greater than (>) 9. NOT
5. Less than or equal to (<=)

Main Memory
Main memory is also called computer memory, immediate access storage (IMAS/IAS) or primary storage. This
unit of memory is directly accessible to the CPU. It holds data and instructions that the computer is processing
at the time.

Secondary Storage
Secondary storage is also called auxiliary storage, backing storage or disk storage. These devices are used to
store data and instructions when they are not being processed. Secondary storage is more permanent than
main memory, since data and instructions are not lost when the power is turned off. It is also much cheaper
than primary storage and is unlimited since you can have as much of it as you can afford. The most commonly
used auxiliary storage devices are magnetic storage (tapes and disks), optical storage (CD ROM, CD-R, DVD-
ROM, DVD-R and DVD-RW and solid state memory (flash memory and USB drives).

Peripheral Devices
Peripheral devices are any device controlled or monitored by the CPU. It includes both input and output
devices.
Input Devices

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Input devices are any device that is used to put data and instructions into the computer. Some commonly
used input devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick, digital camera, scanners, barcode readers and magnetic
strips.

Output Devices
Output devices are any device that is used to get information out of a computer. Some commonly used output
devices are VDU or monitor, printer, plotter, speakers and multimedia projector.

Objective 1.3: Outline the functions and uses of primary storage devices.

Content: PROM, EPROM, RAM, ROM

Notes: Primary Storage

This is a group of silicon chips that resides on the computer’s motherboard (main circuit board). Primary
storage consists of two types of memory chips: RAM and ROM chips. A memory chip is an integrated circuit
(IC) made up of millions of transistors and capacitors.

RAM
This chip is used to hold data and instructions (programs) temporarily while processing is taking place using
that data and program. It also holds the data that results from processing – data that is waiting to be output or
stored in a secondary storage device. RAM is volatile i.e. it is temporary and changeable. If the power is turned
off or the computer is rebooted (started up again) all the information held in RAM will be lost.

ROM
This chip holds data and instructions necessary for starting up the computer when it is switched on. It is used
to store system-level programs such as the BIOS (Basic Input Output System) program.

Variations of ROM
Programmable ROM (PROM)
This type of ROM can be programmed only once using special equipment. It is useful for companies that want
to make their own ROMs from software they write themselves. If they change their code they can create new
PROMs without requiring a ROM manufacturer.

Erasable programmable ROM (EPROM)

This type of ROM can be erased and reprogrammed, which makes it more useful than a PROM. EPROM chips
are programmed in the same way as PROM chips. Data is erased from this chip by exposing it to ultraviolet
light of a specific frequency for a specified period of time.

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Objective 1.4: Manipulate units of storage.

Content: Bistable devices, bit, byte, kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte, terabyte, word, word size

Notes: Units of Storage

Memory is made up of bistable devices. Bistable means the components that make up memory can be set to
one of two states either on or off. These two states are represented using binary digits- 0 for off and 1 for on.
As such, the smallest unit of storage of memory is called a binary digit (bit). The amount of data and
instructions that can be stored in primary storage or secondary storage media is measured in bytes.

Byte
A byte is made up of a combination of 8 bits and has the capacity to represent one character i.e. a letter, a
number, a symbol, a punctuation mark or a blank space.

Word
A word is the amount of bits the computer can process in one operation.

Word size
A word size or word length is the number of bits in a word.

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Larger Units of Storage

Name Symbol Number of bytes Equal to

Kilobyte KB 1024 1024 bytes

Megabyte MB 1048576 1024 KB

Gigabyte GB 1073741824 1024 MB

Terabyte TB 1099511627776 1024 GB

Petabyte PB 1125899906842624 1024 TB

Exabyte EB 1152921504606846976 1024 PB

Zettabyte ZB 1180591620717411303424 1024 EB

Yottabyte YB 1208925819614629174706176 1024 ZB

Objective 1.5: Compare the types of secondary storage media w.r.t. portability, speed and capacity.

Objective 1.6: Use terms associated with storage devices.

Content: Magnetic tape, floppy disk, hard disk (fixed head, moving head, external), optical disks (CD,
DVD), flash drive, flash memory cards, sequential access, direct access, sectors, tracks,
read/write head; device interfaces such as : SCSI, IDE, SATA

Notes: Secondary Storage Media

Secondary storage devices are chosen for a particular use based on their:
• Storage capacity (how much data the device can store)
• Access speed ( the time needed to locate the data and transmit it to the CPU)
• Portability ( ability to be easily removed and used on another system)
• Cost
• Size (necessary for storage on shelves or portability)

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Magnetic tape
A magnetic tape looks like an audiocassette tape. Tapes may come in different sizes. It is used mainly to
backup hard disks because it can store large amounts of data at a low cost. Accessing data on a tape is very
slow since data is stored sequentially. Sequentially means that data is retrieved in the order which it was
stored. As of 2008, the highest capacity tape cartridges can store 1 TB of data. A tape drive is used to read
data from and write data to the tape. The tape drive may be external or built into the system unit.

Magnetic disks (Floppy disk, Hard disk)

All magnetic disks provide direct access to stored data. This means that you can go directly to specific piece of
data without having to access any other either before or after the data you want.

Floppy disk

This is also called a diskette. It is a removable, flexible plastic disk, coated with a magnetisable material. The
disk is held in a plastic case, usually 3.5 inches by 3.5 inches in dimension. The plastic case protects the disk
from dust and grease. The floppy disk is used to store and transfer small amounts of data between computers.
A 3.5 inch floppy disk holds up to 1.44 MB of data.

Data and information is written to or read from the disk by a read/write head in the disk drive held in the
system unit. Data is stored on both sides of a diskette on tracks and sectors. Tracks are a set of numbered
concentric rings. The tracks are also divided into wedge shaped pieces known as sectors, which are also
numbered. A sector is the amount of data that can be read from or written to a disk by the computer in one
read/write operation.

Sector

Track

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Before data is stored on a floppy disk, it needs to be formatted. Formatting means writing electronic
information on the disk so that the computer can recognize the disk as a valid storage device where data can
be stored. Most floppy disks are already formatted when they are purchased. If a diskette is formatted after
data has been stored to it, the information will be deleted.

Hard disk

A hard disk is a thin but rigid, inflexible disk made of highly polished metal. The surface of each side of the disk
(also called platters) is covered with a substance that can be magnetized. As of April 2009, the highest capacity
HDDs is 2 TB. There are different types of disk: moveable head, fixed head and external. Moveable head hard
disks have one read/write head per disk. Fixed head disks have a read/write head for every track on the disk.

The access time (time to get data) from a spinning disk with one read/write head is a combination of:

• Seek time – how long it takes the head to get to the right track;

• Rotational delay or latency time – how long it takes for the data to rotate under the head; and

• Transmission time – the time taken to read the data and transmit it to the CPU.

Consequently, the access time for a fixed disk is less than that of a moveable disk, since each track has a
read/write head and this eliminates the seek time.

The external and removeable hard disks are portable hard disks that are connected to the system unit.
External hard disks have very large storage capacities, up to 1.5 TB currently. They are used mainly by very
large computers. Hard disks are more reliable than floppy disks since its platters are fixed and seal in a unit.
Hard disks can store much more data than floppy disk and optical disks and access and transmission of data is
faster.

Like floppy disks, a hard disk must also be formatted before any data can be stored on it. Formatting sets up
the tracks, sectors and cylinders. A cylinder is made up of all the tracks of the same number from all the disks
that make up the hard disk.

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Optical Disks

Optical disks are disks that are read by laser lights. They are made from plastic. The data is stored on layers
inside the plastic. CDs and DVDs are the two main types of optical disks.

Compact Disc

A Compact Disc (CD) is an optical disc used to store digital data. The physical dimension of a CD is 12 cm or
occasionally 8 cm in diameter. CDs can hold up to 750 MB. They are three types of CDs: CD-ROM, CD-R and
CD-RW.

CD-ROM (read only)

This type of CD is used for:

• Storing multimedia (text, graphics, sound and videos).
• Storing software packages for sale or distribution e.g. application software packages such as
encyclopedias, word processors, training programs, games and graphics packages.

CD-R (recordable)

This type of CD is used for:

• Storing large volumes of data that does not need to change e.g music CDs.

CD-RW (re-writeable)

This type of CD is used for:

• Storing large volumes of data that change frequently e.g backups copies

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DVD

"Digital Versatile Disc" commonly called “DVD” is an optical disc storage media that can be used for storing
movies with high video and sound quality. DVDs look like compact discs, their physical dimensions are the
same (12 cm or occasionally 8 cm in diameter). DVDs are encoded in a different format to CDs and they have a
much higher density (more data is stored per unit area). Some DVDs are double sided i.e. they can hold data
on both sides. DVDs can hold between 4.7 GB and 17 GB of data. Three types of DVDs are the DVD-ROM (read
only), DVD-R (recordable) and DVD-RW (rewritable).

USB interface

USB Flash drive

USB Flash drives are storage devices which consist of a small circuit board encased in a plastic or metal casing
built with a USB interface. They are typically small, lightweight, removable and rewritable. As of November
2006 to present, memory capacities for USB Flash drives range from 32 MB up to 64 GB. Flash drives are more

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compact, generally faster, hold more data and may be more reliable (due to their lack of moving parts) than
floppy disks.

Common uses

1. Personal data transport

The most common use of flash drives is by individuals to transport and store personal files such as
documents, pictures and video.

2. Computer repair
Flash drives are used to transfer recovery and antivirus software to infected PCs.

3. System administration
Flash drives are used by system and network administrators, who load them with configuration
information and software used for system maintenance, troubleshooting, and recovery.

4. Application carriers
Flash drives are used to carry applications that run on the server computer without requiring
installation.

Flash Memory Cards

These come in the form of a card shaped like a stick of chewing gum, with dimensions 21.5 x 50 x 2.8 mm and
storage capacities up to 64 GB. They are a special type of EEPROM that can be erased and reprogrammed in
blocks instead of one byte at a time. They are used in PDAs (personal digital assistants), laptop computers,
digital audio players, digital cameras, mobile phones and video game consoles.

Storage Device – Capacity, Advantages and Disadvantages

Storage Device Storage Advantages Disadvantages

capacity

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Magnetic tape Up to 1 TB • Easy to transport and store • Provides sequential access to
• Cheap data stored
• Mostly used for backup or • Limited shelf-life (2 years)
archives • Must be stored in a suitable
environment (smoke, dust,
temperature and humidity
must be carefully controlled)
• Difficult to update files (cannot
make changes to a record
without writing over the entire
tape)
Floppy disk 1.44 MB • Provides direct access to • Small storage capacity
data stored (unsuitable for storing files
• Small and very portable containing graphics)
• Easy to store • Limited shelf-life (2 years)
• Suitable for backing up • Slow to read/write speeds
small files
• Data security (e.g. you can
store small files that you
don’t want other computer
users to see)
Fixed hard disks Up to 2 TB • Direct access • Not portable
• Fast data transfer speeds
• Vast storage capacity
Removable hard Up to 1.5 TB • Direct access • computer must have a USB port
disks • Fast data transfer speeds
• Vast storage capacity
compared to diskettes
• portable
Optical disks CD: up to • Direct access • Data on CD-ROMs cannot be
8MB • Fast data transfer speeds changed
• Vast storage capacity • Access times are slower than
DVD : up to compared to diskettes hard drives
17 GB • Portable
• Can be cleaned easily with
a soft cloth
• Unaffected by magnetic
fields

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 Flash memory Up to 64 GB • Physically very small • May need special software to
• Highly portable be used with PCs
• High data transfer speed to • Limited storage compared to
PCs CD or DVD
• Large storage capacity
compared to diskettes
• Direct access
USB drive Up to 256 GB • Easy to use • May not be easily read with
• Convenient (small size – computers using Windows 98
can be placed in a pocket or older operating systems
or on a key chain)
• Large storage capacity
compared to diskettes
• Highly compatible - ‘plug
and play’ (no software
needed)
• Fast access, direct access
• Password protection
• Disk write protection
switch (prevents data from
being accidentally written
over)

Notes: Device Interfaces

These are connectors and cables used to transfer data from the CPU to input, output and storage devices.
There are different standards or technologies used to design these devices. Three main standards used are:

1. SCSI
2. IDE
3. SATA

Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

It is a set of standards for physically connecting and transferring data between computers and peripheral
devices. SCSI is most commonly used for hard disks and tape drives, but can connect a wide range of other
devices, including scanners and CD drives.

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 SCSI Ribbon cables Two SCSI Connectors

Intelligent Drive Electronics or Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE)

This interface is used specifically for mass storage devices, in which the controller is integrated into the disk or
CD-ROM drive.

A device controller is a part of a computer system that interprets the signals going to, and coming from the
CPU processor. There are many device controllers in a computer system. Any device connected to the
computer is connected by a plug and socket, and the socket is connected to a device controller. Device
controllers play an important role in order to operate that device. It’s just like a bridge between the device
and operating system.

IDE port connector IDE motherboard connectors

Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA)

This is a computer bus primarily designed for the transfer of data between a computer and mass storage
devices such as hard disks drives and optical drives.

A computer bus (often simply called Bus) is a part of some computers used to transfer data, signals or power
between some of the components that make up a computer. Computer buses are used to:

• Link between the CPU and on-board Memory.

• Link between multiple CPUs in a multi-CPU system
• Link the Arithmetic logic unit to the rest of the CPU
• Connect hard drives, graphics cards, etc to the main system.
• Connect SATA, USB and Firewire.
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 SATA power cable SATA ports on a motherboard

Objective 1.7: Explain the uses of various input devices and media

Content: Optical mark reader(OMR), character readers(OCR, MICR), mouse, joystick, barcode reader,
document scanner, light pen, touch terminals, Voice Data Entry/voice recognition, graphics tablets, point of
sale(POS), keyboard, digital camera, biometric systems, sensors, remote control, sound capture, pointing
devices, webcam

Notes: Input Devices

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR detects the position of marks on paper. The marks must be made in pre-defined positions. The OMR
detects the intensity of the light reflected from these marks. The computer records the position of the marks
and analyses it determine the meaning of the data e.g. right or wrong answer on a multiple choice quiz. OMRs
are used for correcting multiple choice examinations, analyzing data from surveys, counting election ballots
and validating lottery tickets.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

MICR is mainly used by the banking industry to read cheques. Cheques have the following information
encoded in them:

• The cheque number

• The bank branch number
• The customer’s account number
• The amount of money written on the cheque

The amount is written using special magnetic ink which contains iron oxide. The characters on the cheque are
written in a special font and are recognized electronically as it passes through the device. The MICR can only
recognize a specific font and a limited number of characters.

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Advantages of the MICR:

• Documents are difficult to forge

• Documents can still be read after being folded, soiled etc.

Disadvantages of the MICR:

• MICR readers are expensive

• The system can accept only a few characters

Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

This is an optical scanner which utilizes special software to read characters from paper. The shapes of different
characters are detected by shining light on them from a photo-electric device and sensing the patterns of
reflected light. The reader software allows each character pattern to be compared with a set of stored
patterns until the closest match is found. The match is then translated into text in the computer so that it can
be manipulated by the user. It is used in the legal service, postal service, utility and financial companies and by
immigration officers at airports.

Advantages of the OCR

• OCR is suitable for converting large volumes of printed data into electronic text on the computer so
that it can be manipulated. It is great for archiving books, documents etc

Disadvantages of the OCR

• OCR has difficulty understanding handwritten text if the letters are not properly formed. OCR has
difficulty recognizing unusual fonts.

Mouse

The mouse has a ball underneath, which rolls and determines the direction of the cursor, and buttons which
allow the user to make selections. Some mice (plural of mouse) have a scroll wheel that allows you to scroll
through long documents. In addition to moving the cursor, the mouse is used to select and open documents or
programs, move icons from one place to another on the screen, select options from a menu, position the
cursor when preparing and editing documents, and for drawing lines and sizing graphic objects such as
pictures.

Joystick

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This device is used to control movement of the cursor or other objects on the screen by operating a small
lever. It is used mainly for playing games, but it is also used with scanners at hospitals.

Barcode Readers

Barcodes are read by a scanner in which a laser beam scans the barcode and the light is reflected back into the
scanner. The information received by the scanner is sent for processing. Barcode readers give fast error-free
data entry into the computer. It is a fast method of recording the sales of items. Barcode readers are used in
supermarkets, libraries, research, airports, postal services and warehouses.

Document Scanners

These scan text and pictures into the computer. There are many types of scanners:

1. Flatbed scanner: the picture is placed on a flat surface and the image is captured, similarly to how a
photocopying machine works.
2. Handheld scanner: the picture is read while the user drags the scanner over it. The quality of the image
provided by this scanner is poor, but it is useful for quick data capture.
3. Drum scanner: the document to be scanned is mounted on a glass cylinder. These are used in
publishing industry (magazines, books) to capture images with high detail.
4. Sheet-fed scanner: the sheet that contains the image is fed through rollers and the picture is scanned
as the paper passes through.

Light pen

This is shaped like a pen and is connected to a VDU/monitor. It allows you to point and make selections more
accurately on a screen. The tip of the light pen contains a light-sensitive element which, when placed against
the screen, detects the light from the screen and enables the computer to identify the location of the pen on
the screen. Making selections with a light is far more accurate than using your finger to make selections on a
touch sensitive screen. They also allow you to draw directly on the screen. However they are not as accurate
as a digitizing tablet and drawing can become uncomfortable.

Touch Terminal

A touch terminal, also known as a touch screen is a light-sensitive screen that detect when a person touches it,
as well as the area of the screen that was touched. Various options are displayed on the screen and the user
presses the one they want. Touch screens are used on ATMs, microwave ovens, cash registers, at airports,
fast-food outlets, theatre booking offices, etc.

Advantages of the Touch Terminal

• The user can select the option very quickly.

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 • The user does not require any training to use it.

Disadvantages of the Touch Terminal

• The system is expensive.

• It is limited to certain applications.

Voice Data Entry/voice recognition

This type of system requires the use of a microphone. It accepts the spoken word as input data or commands.
The computer is programmed to recognize certain patterns of speech. The microphone is used to code human
speech into a sequence of electronic signals. These signals are compared to a set of stored patterns. If they
match, the command or data being entered is accepted by the computer and processed. Voice commands can
be used to control machines or even enter documents in a word processor. It is very useful for physically
disabled persons.

Advantages of the Voice Data Entry

• No typing is required

• The system can be used remotely e.g. by telephone

Disadvantages of the Voice Data Entry

• Recognition of words is still relatively slow since human speech can vary in tone and emphasis of
various parts of words and phrases.

• The system is not suitable for use in noisy places.

• You may need to program (train) the system to understand your particular voice patterns.

Digitizing tablet

This device looks like a small chalkboard. The tablet detects and transfers drawings made on it to the screen.
The drawings are made with either a stylus (pen-like pointing device) or a puck (mouse-like device). Graphics
tablets are used by architects, mapmakers, artists and designers to create sketches and drawings on the
computer.

Point of Sale (POS)

This is the combination of a barcode reader and computerized cash register. It is usually found in retail outlets.
The barcode reader scans in information from the sale transaction and this is recorded in a centralized
computer which is connected to the cash register. The information collected can also be used for stock control
and sales analysis.

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Advantages of the POS

• Customers get quicker and more accurate service, which improves efficiency.

• Supermarkets can get instant or continuous stock checks

• Saves on paper

Disadvantages of the POS

• Barcodes cannot be read by humans

Keyboard

This device is used to enter text data or characters e.g. letters, symbols, numbers and commands specific to a
program.

Digital cameras

This camera captures an image and stores it in memory within the camera. The camera has a sensor that
converts the light into electrical charges. The processor in the camera converts this information into digital
data and stores it on a flash RAM card. The digital images can then be uploaded from the camera to a
computer where they can be displayed, manipulated or printed. The memory can be erased so that more
images can be captured. Unlike normal RAM memory the RAM card is non-volatile. The resolution of the
camera is measured in pixels. The more pixels a camera has the greater the detail captured.

Advantages of a Digital Camera

• Photos can be shown on a small screen on the camera, and resized and erased so that you can choose
to store only the images that you want.

Disadvantages of a digital Camera

• It is relatively easy to lose or erase the camera’s memory card e.g. accidentally passing it through an
airport x-ray machine.

Biometric Systems

Biometric refers to the science of identifying an individual through their body characteristics such as face
geometry and hand geometry e.g. fingerprints, iris or retinal scans, vein and voice patterns. All these forms of
identifying an individual can be input into a computer system set up for security purposes allowing access to
buildings and bank accounts etc.

Sensors

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Chemical or physical changes in humans and their environment can be converted to electrical signals using
sensors that pass data to a computer, where it is analysed, stored and manipulated by specialized software.
These sensors are useful in medicine, environmental planning and preservation, weather reporting etc.
Sensors can be used to measure things such as heat, light, sound, pressure, strain, acidity(pH), oxygen
concentration, humidity, pulse, water level, water flow, speed, tilt or even a door or valve opening or closing.

Remote Control

A remote control emits a beam of infra-red light that carries data signals. They are used to input data to
televisions, stereo systems, VCRs, DVD players and by computers as a wireless means of communication.

Sound Capture

Microphones are used for sound capture. All modern computers contain built-in microphones and sound cards
to allow voice or music to be recorded. The sound card digitizes the data into a form that the computer can
understand.

Pointing devices

These devices are used by graphical operating systems such as Windows to show the movement of the pointer
or the cursor, and enable the control and selection of objects on the display screen. This group of devices
includes the mouse, trackball, pointing stick, touchpad, joystick, light pen, digitizing tablet and touch screen.

Webcam

A webcam is a video capture device connected to a computer or computer network, often using a USB port or,
if connected to a network, Ethernet or Wi-Fi. Their most popular use is for video telephony, permitting a
computer to act as a videophone or video conferencing station. This camera is used to record and edit video
images (i.e. moving or still images). The images are stored in a format that can be displayed on a web page.
Web cams are used in video conferencing. It is also useful in security surveillance.

Objective 1.8: State the types and functions of output devices.

Content: Visual display unit (VDU): resolution, types, sizes; printers: impact and non-impact,
types(character, line, page, laser, inkjet, dot matrix); Characteristics: speed, quality, storage
capacity; plotters; audio output devices(speakers, headphones, earphones); microfilm,
hardcopy, softcopy, human readable, machine readable

Notes: Output devices

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Output devices are equipment used to get information or any other response out of the computer. If the
output can be read by human beings it is said to be human readable. If the output cannot be understood by
humans it is said to be machine readable. Examples of output devices are display screens, speakers, printers,
video graphics card, audio card (sound card) and plotters.

There are two types of output:

1. Softcopy output
2. Hardcopy output

Softcopy output is temporary output e.g. information displayed on a screen or in voice or audio form through
speakers. This kind of output disappears when the computer is switched off since the screen or the speakers
need the computer to work.

Hardcopy output is permanent output e.g. information printed onto paper or film. It is tangible – you can hold
it in your hands.

Softcopy output devices

Display Screens

Display screens (simply screens) are also called monitors or Visual Display Units (VDU). These are used to
output still or moving pictures. There are two types of display screens:

1. Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT): these screens looks like a standard television set.
2. Flat Panel displays: these screens are used mainly with portable computers like laptops, in some
desktop computers and even in the latest television sets. There are two (2) types of flat panel display
screens:
a. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
b. Plasma Display

Screens can come in different sizes e.g. 14 inch or 17 inch. They can be either colour or monochrome.
Monochrome means black and white.

Images and text are formed by many tiny dots of coloured light called pixels. A pixel is short for picture
element. A pixel is the smallest unit on the display screen.

The number of pixels determines the resolution of the screen.

Resolution is the clearness or sharpness of an image on a screen. The more pixels there are on screen, the
greater the resolution. Some common resolutions are:

21
 • VGA (Video Graphics Array) = 640 x 480 pixels
• SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array) = 800 x 600 pixels
• XGA/XVGA (Extended Graphics Array/ Extended Video Graphics Array) = 1024 x 768 pixels
• SXGA (Super Extended Graphics Array) = 1280 x 1024 pixels
• UXGA (Ultra Extended Graphics Array) = 1600 x 1200 pixels

A video graphics card is also called a video display adapter. It determines the resolution, number of colours,
and speed with which images appear on the screen.

Audio Output Devices

Speakers, headphones and earphones are used to output sound. The quality of the sound depends on the type
of system used, the size of the speakers and the computer’s audio card. An audio card is used to process
sound in the computer.

Hardcopy output devices

Printers

One way of classifying printers is as:

• Character printers: these print one character at a time similar to a typewriter. They are slow.
• Line printers: They print a line at a time. Multiple hammer-like keys forming a line of text hit the page
at one time. They are much faster than character printers and are used to print large volumes. They
print a limited number of characters and do not print graphics.
• Page printers: these print a whole page at a time. They are therefore even faster and deal with very
large volumes of printed output.

Another way of classifying printers is as:

1. Impact printers
2. Non-impact printers

Impact printers use a printing mechanism called a print head. They make their output by pressing the print
head against a ribbon, which then hits the paper. The main types of impact printers are dot matrix, daisy
wheel and drum, chain or band printers.

Dot matrix printers (character printers)

Characteristics:

• Characters are formed from a matrix of dots.

• The speed is usually 30 – 550 characters per second (cps)
22
 • It is very noisy
• It is relatively fast
• The print obtained is usually poor.
• They are useful for low-quality carbon copy prints or printing on continuous sheets of paper e.g.
invoices (bills).
• They are not good for printing shaded graphics or photographs.

Daisy wheel printers (character printers)

Characteristics:

• It is very noisy
• Printing is slow (less than 90 cps).
• The text is generally crisp and clean.
• The size and font produced can only be changed by using a different daisy, as the characters on the
wheel are fixed.

N.B. This printer is obsolete

Drum, chain or band printer (line printers)

Characteristics:

• They are fast (2500 lines per minute.

• They are used to print large volumes of information.

Non-impact printers are faster, quieter and produce better quality print than impact printers. Unlike the
impact printer, the printing mechanism makes no contact with the paper. The main types of non-impact
printers are laser printers, inkjet printers and thermal printers.

Thermal printers (character printers)

There are two types of thermal printers:

• Direct Thermal printer: this printer uses heated pins to form the characters. These pins come into
contact with special heat-sensitive paper to form darkened dots when the pins reached a specific
temperature, thus shaping the characters. The pins actually burn the dots into the specially coated
paper. Exposure to sunlight and heat tends to darken the thermal paper. The print quality is poor.
• Thermal wax transfer printer: the print head of this printer melts a wax-based ink from a transfer
ribbon onto paper. This printer does not require special paper.

23
 Thermal printers are used in portable calculators, fax machines and some ATMs (automated teller
machines).

Inkjet printers (line printers)

Inkjet printers produce their output by spraying small droplets of ink at high speed into paper, in a pattern.
These printers can print in both black-and-white and colour. They used at home and small offices. The print
quality is good but not as good as the laser printer. Inkjet printers can also produce both text and graphics.
They are cheaper than laser printers.

Laser printers (page printers)

These use a process similar to that of a photocopying machine. They are used in large companies or
institutions such as schools. They can also be found in modern offices. A laser beam and dry powdered ink
called toner produces a very fine dot matrix pattern. This pattern is transferred to the page and then fused
onto it by heat and pressure. These printers can print in black and white or colour. These printers can produce
more than 40 pages per minute (ppm). The print quality is very good. Laser printers produce both text and
graphics. They are very expensive.

Plotters

Plotters use different printing processes e.g. some work like an inkjet printer and others use the same method
as laser printers. They are used to produce documents with high quality graphics in a variety of colours e.g.
maps, architectural drawings and charts. They can print on large sheets of paper. There are three main types
of plotters:

• Pen plotters: these use a mechanical arm or rail that holds a pen which can be moved across the page.
• Inkjet plotters: these work in the same way as inkjet printers by spraying ink onto the paper.
• Electrostatic plotters: these work in the same way as laser printers.

COM (Computer Output on Microfilm/Microfiche)

COM is a method that is used to store computer documents by reducing them in size to fit on very small
photographic sheets of film. They are used to store large volumes of data. These sheets can be read using a
special magnifying machine. Microfilm is a roll of film and microfiche is a rectangular sheet of film on which
many frames/pages of information can be stored.

24
Objective 1.9: Describe how data are stored and manipulated within the computer.

Content: Binary, octal and hexadecimal number systems; binary addition and subtraction. Integers
(positive and negative); sign and magnitude, BCD, two’s complement; representation of
characters, ASCII.

Notes: Data Representation and Storage

The binary system is used by computers to represent data. This number system uses two digits, 0 and 1. These
two binary digits are known as bits (short for binary digits). Different ways are used to store data based on its
medium and type.

Representing Numbers

The number of bits used to represent a number determines the range/number of values that can be
represented. For example, a single bit can represent one of two values, 0 or 1. Therefore the number of values
a bit can store is two, 0 and 1. Likewise, a group of two bits can be used to represent one of four values, 00,
01, 10 or 11. Therefore the number of values two bits can store is four. To determine how many values any
number of bits can store, the following formula is used 2n, where n represents the number of bits being used.
Therefore, a group of three bits can represent 23 values, i.e. 8 values, which are 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101,
110 or 111.
Converting decimal to binary

This involves dividing the decimal (base 10) number by 2 and recording the remainders until the result is zero,
then writing out the remainders from left to right but starting from the bottom up.

2 1510

2 7R1

2 3R1
1510 = 11112
2 1R1

0R1

Representing a number using a bit pattern of a given size

25
 A number can be represented using bit patterns of different sizes. For example, the 4-bit representation of 15
is 1111 and the 8-bit representation of 15 is 00001111. Zeroes are added to the left of the binary conversion
of the number to make up the number of bits required. The zeroes do not change the value of the number.
(N.B. The number must be within the range of values that can be represented, using that number of bits.)

Converting a binary number to decimal (base 10)

Find the sum of the values of each digit in the binary number. For example, 101102 to decimal

24 23 22 21 20

Place value 16 8 4 2 1

1 0 1 1 0
Binary digits

• The value of each digit is the digit multiplied by its place value i.e. 1x16=16, 0x8=0, 1x4=4, 1x2=2, 0x1=0
• The sum of the values is 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0 = 2210

Therefore 101102 is 2210.

Adding binary numbers

To add two binary numbers use the following points:

(a) 02 (b) 02 (c) 12

+ 02 + 12 + 02

02 12 12

(d) 12 (e) 12

+ 12 + 12

102 + 12

112

26
For example, 10112 + 00112

1 1

1 0 1 12

+ 0 0 1 12

1 1 1 02

Representing Signed Integers

Signed integers are positive or negative whole numbers. In binary there are many ways of representing signed
number. Four common methods are:

1. Sign and magnitude

2. Ones complement

3. Two’s complement

4. Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

Sign and Magnitude

In this method the leftmost bit is used to represent the sign (positive or negative) and the remaining bits
represent the magnitude. A 0 bit indicates that the number is positive (+) and a 1 bit indicates that the
number is negative (-). N.B. The integer zero is neither negative nor positive, but is represented using all
zeroes.

Example, if asked:

Give the 8-bit representation of -3510 using sign and magnitude.

Solution: 1. Find the binary of 3510 => 1000112

2. Add two zeroes to the left to get 8 bits => 00100011 2

3. Change the leftmost bit to a 1 since you need to represent -3510

One’s Complement

Positive numbers are represented as unsigned binary. The negative numbers are represented by flipping all
the digits in the binary equivalent of the number. This means replacing all the zero bits with one bits and
27
replacing all the one bits with zero bits. N.B. The number should be expressed in the bit pattern size required
before the bits are interchanged.

Example, if asked:

Give the 8-bit representation of 1310 using one’s complement.

Solution: 1. Find the binary of 1310 => 11012

2. Add four zeroes to the left to get 8 bits => 000011012

3. Interchange 1 bits for 0 bits and vice versa => 111100102

Two’s Complement

This is the most common method used to represent signed numbers. Positive numbers are represented as
unsigned binary. To represent a negative number using this method, begin by finding the one’s complement of
the number, then add 12 to the result.

Example, if asked:

Give the 8-bit representation of -710 using two’s complement.

Solution: 1. Find the binary of 710 => 01112

2. Add four zeroes to the left to get 8 bits => 000001112

3. Interchange 1 bits for 0 bits and vice versa => 111110002

4. Add 12 to the result => 111110002 + 12 = 111110012

Sometimes in using two’s complement, results end up with one bit too many. This is dealt with by discarding
the leftmost bit.

Subtracting in Binary Using Two’s Complement

To subtract numbers in binary, find the negative of representation of the number being subtracted, using
two’s complement. Then add it to the number that it is being subtracted from.

Example, if asked:

Subtract 01102 from 10012

Solution: 1. Express 10012 - 01102 as 10012 + (-01102)

2. Find the two’s complement representation of -01102 => 10012 + 12 = 10102

3. Add 10012 to 10102 => 100112

28
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

In this method each digit of a number is represented as its four- bit binary code. The sign of a number is
represented using a 4-bit code also. The 4-bit representation of positive(+) is 1010 and negative(-) is 1011. The
sign code is placed to the left of all other bits.

Example, if asked:

What is the BCD representation of -25610?

Solution: 1. Find the 4-bit representation of each digit => 2 = 0010, 5 = 0101 and 6 = 0110

2. Put each 4-bit representation together => 0010010101102

3. Attach the sign code to the left of the result above => 10110010010101102

Representing Numbers Using the Octal and Hexadecimal Number System

The Octal and Hexadecimal Number Systems were developed to deal with concerns programmers had when
representing data in binary. There was often the tendency to make transposition errors and calculation errors
because of the many zeroes and ones. In addition, representing data in binary requires a lot of storage.

Octal (Base 8)

This system uses the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.

Converting From Binary to Octal

This can be done by:

1. Separating the binary number into groups of three (3) bits starting from the right; then

2. Convert each group of bits to find its decimal equivalent.

Example, if asked:

1. Convert 0011011012 to octal.

Solution: 1. Separate the binary number into groups of 3 bits, from the right => 001 101 101

2. Convert each group to decimal => 1 5 5

Therefore, 0011011012 = 1558

2. Convert 22410 to octal

29
Solution: 1. Convert 22410 to binary => 111000002

2. Separate into groups of 3 bits => 11 100 000

3. Convert each group to decimal => 3 4 0

Therefore, 22410 = 3408

Converting From Octal To Decimal

The method is the same as converting from binary to decimal. The only difference is the place values are
found using powers of 8.

For example, 2138 to decimal

82 81 80

64 8 1

2 1 3

• The value of each digit is the digit multiplied by its place value i.e. 2x64=128, 1x8=8, 3x1=3
• The sum of the values is 128 + 8 + 3 = 13910

Therefore 2138 is 13910.

Hexadecimal

This is a base 16 numbering system; it uses 16 symbols (the digits 0-9 and the letters A to F).

30
 Hexadecimal Table

Decimal Hexadecimal
Numbers Numbers

0 0

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

7 7

8 8

9 9

10 A

11 B

12 C

13 D

14 E

15 F

Converting From Binary to Hexadecimal

This can be done by:

3. Separating the binary number into nibbles (4 bits) starting from the right; then

4. Convert each nibble to its decimal equivalent.

Example 1 Convert 2410 to hexadecimal (use 8 bits).

31
Solution: 1. Convert 2410 into binary =>000110002

2. Separate the binary number into nibbles, from the right => 0001 1000

3. Convert each nibble to its decimal equivalent => 1816

Therefore, 2410 = 1816

Example 2 Convert 22410 hexadecimal (use 8 bits).

Solution: 1. Convert 22410 into binary =>111000002

2. Separate the binary number into nibbles, from the right => 1110 0000

3. Convert each nibble to its decimal equivalent => 1410 010

4. Since 1410 is represented as E

Then, 22410 = E016

Representing Characters

Data that is represented in computers is made up of characters. Characters include:

• Numbers (0 to 9)

• Alphabetic (lowercase letters and uppercase letters)

• Special characters (punctuation marks : , $ / etc.)

• Control characters (backspace, delete, insert etc.)

All the characters that a computer can store and process are called the character set of the computer.
Different types of computers may have slightly different character sets, depending on their operating system.
Each character is represented by a code consisting of eight bits, called the character code. The most common
code used is the American standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). This code uses seven bits to
represent each character plus an extra bit called the parity bit which is added to help ensure data integrity.

The standard ASCII code defines 128 character codes (0 to 127) where the first 32 are control codes. A control
code is a non-printable code that is used to tell the computer to carry out a command. Programmers use these
codes to assign commands they may want to personalize in computer.

32
 ASCII Table

Objective 1.10: Interpret the hardware specifications of a computer system.

Content: CPU type and speed; memory: capacity, type, word size, speed. Hard drive: capacity, speed;
firewire, expansion slots, ports.

Notes: Computer Specifications

33
Use the following to guide you when required to interpret computer specifications:

CPU:

• Types:
o Make / Brand: Intel or AMD
o Models: Pentium, Athlon, Celeron, Duron etc.
• Speed: Gigahertz (GHz) ranging from 4 GHz up
• word size: How many bits it can input/output and process at a time, 32-bit or 64-bit

Hard Disk Drive (HDD):

• interface connector/controller: PATA Parallel ATA or SATA Serial ATA

• Capacity: Gigabytes(GB) ranging from 80GB to 500GB
▪ Speed: Revolutions /rotations per minute (rpm) usually 7200 rpm for desktops and 5400 rpm
for laptops

Memory:

• Types of Random Access Memory (RAM):

o DDR: Double Data Rate
o DIMMs: Dual In-line Memory Modules
o DDR3: Double Data Rate type 3
o DDR2: Double Data Rate type 2
o SDRAM: Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
• Capacity: Gigabytes(GB) ranging from 2 GB up
• Speed: Megahertz (MHz) ranging from 533 MHz and up

Expansion slots: Slots on motherboard used to attach additional devices. Examples are

• PCI slots (Peripheral Component Interconnect) for attaching general hardware

• AGP slot (Accelerated Graphics Port or Advanced Graphics Port) for attaching video cards

Ports: An interface on a computer to which you can connect a device. There are several types. Some
types are specific to certain devices. Some of them are:

• Serial • PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory

• Parallel Card International Association).
• USB (Universal Serial Bus) • PCI
• FireWire • PS/2
• Audio • Ethernet

34
Objective 1.11: Distinguish between system programs and application programs.

Content: systems software: operating systems, translators, utilities; Application software:

general purpose, special purpose, custom written, customized, integrated
software

Notes: Software

Software is the name given to all programs that computers use to perform different tasks.

Types of software

There are two main categories of software:

1) Application software 2) System software

Application software:

Application software can also be referred to as Application packages. These programs are
developed to perform specific tasks or solve a particular problem. Application software includes
entertainment software such as games, home or personal software such as CD-ROM
encyclopedias, productivity software such as word processing, spreadsheet packages and
graphics. Application packages can also be grouped as follows:

1) General purpose software

2) Integrated software
3) Specialized software
4) Customized software
5) Custom written or tailor-made software
General purpose software:

This is software that is not written for any specific business. It can be used to suit specific needs
e.g. a teacher can use a spreadsheet package to prepare students` end of term grades reports
and the same spreadsheet software can be used by a salary clerk to prepare pay sheets and

35
bills. General purpose software is also called “off the shelf” software. They are well tested and
are usually relatively cheap.

Three commonly used general purpose packages are:

1) Word processing packages

2) Spreadsheet packages
3) Database packages
Word processing packages:

These packages are also called word processors. They allow you to prepare documents such as
letters, reports, memos, books or any type of correspondence on a computer. Some popular
word processors available are Microsoft Word, Lotus Word Pro and Word Perfect.

Spreadsheet packages:

These packages allow you to organize information into rows and columns so that it can be
operated on easily. It enables you to store numerical data. Some common spreadsheet
packages in use today are Microsoft Excel, Lotus 123 and Quarto Pro.

Database software:

These programs allow you to organize and store related data together, so that specific pieces of
information can be retrieved easily and quickly. Some common database packages in use today
are Microsoft Access, Oracle and MySQL.

Integrated Software:

An integrated software package offers many single purpose programs together as one. These
packages allow data to be transferred easily between the programs. A basic integrated package
may contain a word processor, spreadsheet, database, communication and graphics
presentation program. Examples of integrated software are Microsoft office, Microsoft works,
Lotus SmartSuite and ClarisWorks.

36
Specialized software:

This is software that is written for a specific task. These programs provide features for the
purpose for which they were designed e.g. AutoCAD which was designed specifically to draw
engineering and architectural designs.

Customized software

This is general purpose software which has been modified to meet the needs of its users
(company or individual) better. This is done by writing short programs called macros and adding
them to the general purpose software.

Custom written software:

This is software that has been created to meet the unique requirements of a particular
individual or company. It may be created by individuals within the company or given to a
software house to be created. A software house is a company that specializes in writing
software.

System software

These are programs that manage and support the resources and operation of the computer
system. They enable the running of application software and the management of the system
resources. System software includes operating systems, utility programs and language
translators.

Operating system (OS):

An operating system is a set of programs that controls the operation of a computer. The
computer cannot work without the operating system software. As soon as the computer is
switched on the operating software on the computer is activated and loaded into main
memory. The process of loading the operating system software into memory is called booting.
Some operating systems used in computers are Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, Linux,
UNIX and the Macintosh Operating System (e.g. MAC 0SX).
37
Language Translators

A translator is a program that translates one programming language instruction(s) into another
programming language instruction(s) without the loss of original meaning. Examples of
translators are interpreters and compilers.

Utility Programs

These allow a user to perform maintenance-type tasks usually related to managing the
computer, its devices, or its programs. Most operating systems include several utility programs
for managing disk drives, printer and other devices and media. Examples of utility programs
are:

Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are broken across several
locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.

Disk checkers can scan the contents of a hard disk to find files or areas that are corrupted in
some way, or were not correctly saved, and eliminate them for a more efficiently operating
hard drive.

Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.

Objective 1.12: Explain the functions of the Operating Systems.

Objective 1.13: Distinguish among multitasking, multiprocessing and

multiprogramming.
Content: File management, memory management, security, device management,
input/output management, user interface, process management

Notes: Functions of the Operating Systems

The operating system has several functions:

1. Managing computer resources: it allows software and hardware to communicate with

each other and manages the use of input and output devices.

38
 2. Managing files and memory: It keeps track of the locations where programs and data
are stored within the computer’s memory and on secondary storage devices. It is also
responsible for the copying, deleting, renaming and backing-up of files.
3. Maintaining security: It prevents unauthorized users from accessing a computer. A
register of all the users’ names and passwords are kept so that anyone who tries to
access the computer must have their username and password verified before they are
allowed to access the computer. It also keeps a record of who accessed the computer,
the length of time it was used by that user and what they did.
4. Managing tasks (processes): It allows the computer to facilitate multitasking,
multiprogramming and multiprocessing. Multitasking allows the computer to appear to
perform many tasks simultaneously (at the same time) e.g. you can play music and type
your IT project at the same time. Multiprogramming allows the computer to appear to
run more than one program at the same time, although at a specific time the CPU is
dealing with only one instruction for one of the several programs being run.
Multiprocessing allows more than one program to run at the same time by linking two
or more computers or processors which can then work on different programs or
different parts of the same program at the same time.

Objective 1.14: Explain the different types of processing modes.

Content: Batch processing, real-time, on-line, time-sharing.

Notes: Processing modes

The OS also facilitates different processing mode that are selected based on its suitability for
the job to be performed. There are four modes of processing:

(1) Time –sharing: this mode is used in multi-access systems where a single CPU is
shared by several users using individual terminals. This method of processing makes

39
 the user believe they have continuous access to the CPU when in fact each user is
given a time slice (small amount of processing time) in turn. This mode of processing
is used at universities where students and lecturers are allowed access to a central
CPU on a mainframe via different terminals throughout the campus.
(2) Batch processing: in this mode the programs and data are collected together in a
batch queue before processing starts. The program and data collected is called a job.
Usually jobs are stored during working time and executed when the computer is
least in use (during the night). This is done in this manner since it does not require
human interaction during processing, once the batch starts it continues until it is
done or an error occurs. This mode is suited for payroll processing, processing utility
bills and credit card billing.
(3) Real-time processing: in this mode the system is automatically updated when a
change or transaction is made. It is interactive, allowing the user and the system to
be in constant communication with up-to-date information. This mode is suitable for
stock systems, airline booking systems, electronic funds transfer systems and control
systems.
(4) Online processing: a system in this mode has access to a network. Unlike the real-
time processing system, an online processing system is not updated automatically,
so information is not always current and must be updated frequently.
(5) Providing a user interface: It allows the user to communicate or interact with the
computer.

Objective 1.15: Distinguish between types of user interface.

Content: Software interface: Command driven, graphical user interface (GUI) , menu
driven (pull-down, pop-up, icons). Hardware interface: touch screens, non-visual
interface, sensors, Braille keyboards

Notes: User Interfaces

40
There are three (3) types of software user interfaces:

1. Command driven interface: This type of interface is used in a DOS operating system. To
communicate with the computer, the user has to type a command in codes or words
when prompt on the display screen. E.g. C :\> dir tells the OS to list all the files on the
hard drive.
2. Menu driven interface: to communicate the user can either use the mouse or arrow
keys to make a selection from a menu which contains commands e.g. Print, Save As,
Open. There are two (2) types of menus:
Pull-down menu – usually drops down from the menu bar when it is clicked.

Pop-up menu – pops up from nowhere when the right mouse button is clicked.

3. Graphical user interface (GUI): This interface is also called WIMP (windows, icons,
menus and pointing devices). To communicate with the user, it uses buttons, icons,
menus and keystrokes to choose commands, start programs and see lists of files and
other options. Icons are small pictures that represent programs, folders, files, tasks etc.
In a The GUI all objects that are related to each other are shown in a window. More
than one window can be opened on the desktop at the same time. The desktop is
common visual background which appears on the display screen when the computer
has finished booting.
Hardware user interfaces:
Touch screens
To communicate with the computer, the user touches the display of the device by a finger or
stylus. This interface incorporates aspects of GUI and allows the user to make selections and
send commands by touching icons on the screen. The interface is used for both input and
output, since you view information and the options available to you on the screen.
Non-visual interfaces
This type of interface utilizes audio (sound) and gestures (head, hand and device) to send
commands and make selections.

41
Sensors
This type of interface utilizes changes (chemical or physical) in the environment to
communicate with the computer.
Braille keyboards
This device aids the blind in communicating with the computer. The keys have raised dots
which represent different characters.

42
Contents
Section 2: Problem-solving and program design ....................................................................................... 2
Objective 2.1: Outline the steps in problem solving. ........................................................................... 2
Objective 2.2: Decompose a simple problem into its significant parts. ............................................... 2
Objective 2.3: Distinguish between variables and constants............................................................... 4
Objective 2.4: Use appropriate data types........................................................................................... 4
Objective 2.5: Explain the concept of algorithms ............................................................................... 7
Objective 2.6: Identify ways of representing algorithms .................................................................... 7
Objective 2.7: Develop algorithms to solve simple problems ............................................................. 7
Objective 2.8 Test algorithms for correctness ................................................................................. 23
Section 2: Problem-solving and program design

Objective 2.1: Outline the steps in problem solving.

Objective 2.2: Decompose a simple problem into its significant parts.

Content Definition of the problem; propose and evaluate solutions; Determination of the
most efficient solution; develop and represent algorithm; test and validate the
solution; decompose a problem into input, processing, output and storage.

The steps in problem solving

The steps in problem solving are:
1. Definition of the problem
2. Propose and evaluate solutions
3. Determination of the most efficient solution
4. Develop and represent algorithm
5. Test and validate the solution

Definition of the problem

Defining the problem is the first step towards solving a problem. It is the most important step
since it leads to a clearer understanding of what is given and what is required. If the
programmer does not fully understand what is required, then he/she cannot produce the
desired solution. This step involves decomposing the problem into three key components:
1. Inputs: what is given (source data)
2. Outputs: the expected results
3. Processing: the tasks/actions that must be performed
To do this, a defining diagram is used. A defining diagram is a table with three columns labeled
to represent the components.

Inputs can be identified by the keywords that precede them. These are: GIVEN, ENTER, READ,
or ACCEPT.

Outputs can be identified by the keywords: PRINT, DISPLAY, FIND, PRODUCE, or OUTPUT.
Processing can be determined by asking;
“What do I have to do with the inputs in order to produce the desired output?” The
actions/tasks determined must be listed in a logical sequential order.

Example:
Given two numbers find and print their product.

Defining diagram:
INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

2 numbers say num1, num2 1. Read two numbers PRODUCT

2. Find the product

3. Print the product

Proposing and Evaluating Solutions

Proposing a solution
The second step in solving a problem is ‘Proposing and Evaluating Solutions’. After defining the
problem, you would know what needs to be done. In this step, you figure out how to do it,
bearing in mind that a problem can have many different solutions. Initially, go through each
step of the solution manually (by hand) using sample input data to see if the solution provides
the desired outcome. Then review it to see how you can make it more efficient. After
completing the manual solution to the problem the next step is to write the solution as a
sequence of instructions.
Example:
Start
Read first number, call it num1
Read second number, call it num2
Multiply num1 by num2
Print product
Stop
Objective 2.3: Distinguish between variables and constants

Variables
In processing data, values that are manipulated need to be stored in a memory location.
Because of the large number of storage location in memory, we need to have an identifier to
label each location. Depending on if the value changes during the execution of the instructions,
it is called a variable. If the value does not change it is called a constant.

Choosing Identifier Names

Choose names that reflect the kind of data that is being stored. It helps any reader to
understand the solution better, if the identifier reflects what they store. For example, the
variable name product indicates that the value stored in that memory location is a product. If
instead, X was used, this does not convey the contents of that memory location to the reader of
the solution, and it will make debugging and program maintenance more difficult. Most
programming languages have strict rules regarding identifier names, for example, in Pascal,
they must begin with a letter or underscore; they can be a combination of letters and digits or
underscore and the length cannot exceed 31 characters.

Objective 2.4: Use appropriate data types

Each piece of data stored in memory is of a specific data type. In programming there are five (5)
basic data types.

Data Type Description Examples

Integer Positive and negative whole numbers including zero 23,-45, 0

Real All numbers including fractions 15.7, -19.25, 8

Character Any key on the keyboard ‘A’, ‘z’, ‘8’, ‘?’

String Characters put together ‘Hello world’, ‘Marcus’

Boolean True or False TRUE or FALSE

Evaluating solutions
There are many ways to solve some problems. Usually, the initial solution may not be the most
efficient solution. As such, in solving any problem you must explore alternative solutions to
come up with the best (most efficient) solution.

Some points to consider when developing alternative solutions are:

• Can the result be derived differently?
• Can the solution be made more general? E.g. Would it work if there were more inputs –
100 numbers instead of 3 numbers?
• Can the solution be used for a similar problem? E.g. To find the average mark in the
results from a test or average temperature for the month.
• Can you reduce the number of steps and still maintain the logic?
• Can you make it more robust? Would it work properly if incorrect data is entered?

E.g. Given three numbers find and print their average.

Initial solution:
Start
Get first number, call it num1
Get second number, call it num2
Get third number, call it num3
Add num1 to num2 to num3, storing in sum
Divide sum by 3, storing in average
Print average
Stop

First alternative solution:

Start
Get num1, num2, num3
Sum = num1 + num2 + num3
Average = Sum ÷ 3
Print average
Stop

N.B. two steps were removed but the logic is maintained.

Second alternative solution:

 Start
Get num1, num2, num3
Average = (num1 + num2 + num3) ÷ 3
Print average
Stop

N.B. One more step and a variable is removed but the logic is maintained. The solution is more
efficient since less memory is required, less CPU time is required and the program executes
faster since there are fewer instructions to be executed.

Third alternative solution:

Start
N= 3
Sum = 0
Repeat N times
Get number
Add number to sum
End Repeat
Average = sum ÷ N
Print Average
Stop

N.B. This solution is more general. It can easily be adapted to find the average of any amount of
numbers by changing the value of N. It utilizes less memory since a single variable is used to
hold every number that will be entered.

Initializing variables
In the last solution given above, the variable sum was given the value 0. This is referred to as
initialization. This means giving the variable an initial or starting value. Sometimes it is
necessary to give variables a starting value. This ensures that any data previously stored in that
memory location, from a previous operation, is erased and not used mistakenly in a new
operation.

Initialization is also necessary whenever a value needs to be incremented (added to by a value,

usually one). For example in adding the numbers entered in the solution above. The statement
“Add number to sum” is translated to the computer as “sum = sum + num” therefore if the
variable sum has a value stored from a previous operation, the resultant value of sum would be
incorrect.
Use the following rule to determine when to initialize a variable:

If a variable appears on the right hand side of an assignment statement before a value
is assigned to it, then it must be assigned an initial value before the assignment
statement is executed.

Determining the Most Efficient Solution

After evaluating and refining the solution, the next step is to choose the most efficient solution.
Use the following attributes to determine the most efficient solution:
1. It should be maintainable (i.e. easy to read and upgrade, if necessary).
2. Should use memory efficiently
3. Should be robust (be able to check for invalid input data)

Objective 2.5: Explain the concept of algorithms

Objective 2.6: Identify ways of representing algorithms

Objective 2.7: Develop algorithms to solve simple problems

Develop and represent the solution as an algorithm

An algorithm is a sequence of precise instructions which, if followed, produces a solution to a
given problem in a finite amount of time.

Algorithms can be represented using pseudocode or a flowchart. It cannot be executed by the

computer. Pseudocode uses English–like statements that models or resembles a programming
language. A flowchart uses geometrical objects.
Algorithmic Structure

Terminator: Start of statement(s)

Declaration: Initialization of variables, if necessary
Body: Sequence of steps
Terminator: End of statement(s)

E.g.
Start {terminator}
sum = 0
{Declaration}
count = 0
Repeat
Read num
count = count + 1
{Body}
sum = sum + num
Until count > 10
Print sum
Stop {terminator}

Control Structures
In programming, control structures are used to represent logic. There are different types of
control structures: sequential, selection and loop (repetition). Just like a program, the body of
an algorithm is made up of various control structures.

Sequential structures include:

• Input statements: these accept data entered into the computer and store the value in
the location with the given variable name e.g.
input name
get num1, num2
read price and tax_rate
accept option
• Output statements: these display/output data that is in the computer’s memory e.g.
Output Sum
Print total_cost
Display “ Enter student’s name”
Write sum, average
• Assignment statements: gives the value on the right of the assignment operator (equal
sign) to the variable on the left of the assignment operator e.g.
 N= 100
Count = 0
Answer = “END”
• Calculation statements: uses the values on the right of the assignment operator and
performs mathematical operations, then assigns the result of the calculation to the
variable on the left of assignment operator e.g.
Sum = num1 + num2
Difference = Payment – bill
Average = sum ÷ 3
• Prompting statements: these are used with input statements to request or notify the
user to enter data into the computer. These statements are displayed on the screen.
Prompting statements precede input instructions. E.g.

Print “Enter student name: “ Prompting statement

Read name

Selection structures include the IF-THEN or IF-THEN-ELSE statements: They perform

comparisons between values and make a decision based on the result of the comparison e.g.
• IF ( A > B) THEN
Display A
ENDIF
or

• IF( age >= 50) THEN

Print “Old”
ELSE
Print “Young”
ENDIF

N.B. If the decision consists of more than one instruction statement. These statements must be
enclosed in a BEGIN and an END e.g.
 • IF (A > B) THEN
BEGIN
C=A+B
Print C
END
ENDIF

Comparisons are made using a condition/decision statement. A condition/decision statement is

an expression that when evaluated gives a Boolean result i.e. either TRUE or FALSE. Condition
statements use relational operators between two variables e.g.
• A>B

or between a variable and a constant e.g.

• age >= 50

Relational Operators Meaning

= Equal to

<> or ≠ Not equal to

> Greater than

< Less than

>= Greater than or equal to

<= Less than or equal to

Boolean Operators

These are also called logical operators. They are used when a selection is based upon one or
more decisions being TRUE or FALSE. The decisions are combined using Boolean operators: OR,
AND and NOT.
If the AND operator is used both conditions must be met, in order for the total expression to be
TRUE or FALSE.

E.g. IF (day = ‘Friday’) AND (date = 13) THEN

PRINT ‘Today is a Black Friday’

If the OR operator is used, either conditions must be met, in order for the total expression to be
TRUE or FALSE.

E.g. IF (qualifications = ‘degree’) OR (workExperience = 5) Then

PRINT ‘Application approved’

To determine the outcome of Boolean operations, truth tables can be used. A truth table lists
all possible combinations of operands, and, for each combination, gives the value of the
expression.

E.g. A AND B

There are two operands, A and B. Since each operand can have up to two values, there are four
combinations of A and B:
A B
1. False False
2. False True
3. True True
4. True False

The truth table for A AND B is:

A B A AND B

False False False

False True False

True True True

True False False

The truth table for A OR B is:
A B A OR B

False False False

False True True

True True True

True False True

The truth table for NOT is different because it takes only one operand and has only two
combinations:

A NOT A

False True

True False

Activity:

Given that t= 10, u = -3 and s = 4

If A = t > 5, B= 6 >= s, C= 0 <= u and D = s > t, evaluate

i. A AND B = TRUE
ii. A OR B = TRUE
iii. D AND C = FALSE
iv. A OR C = TRUE
v. B OR D = TRUE
vi. NOT A = FALSE
vii. NOT D = TRUE
viii. NOT C = TRUE
ix. NOT B AND C = FALSE
x. (NOT A) AND (NOT C) = FALSE
Loop structures include the FOR loop, WHILE loop or REPEAT loop: They allow statements to be
repeated a fixed number of times or until a condition becomes TRUE or FALSE e.g.
• FOR count = 1 to 5 DO
Print count
END FOR

• WHILE (noOfItems <= 5) DO

BEGIN
Read price
noOfItems = noOfItems + 1
Total =Total + price
END
END WHILE

• REPEAT
Print “I love programming”
count = count + 1
UNTIL count > 10

For each loop example given above, the number of times the instructions have to be repeated
is known. As such, it is necessary to keep track of how many times the instructions are
repeated. This is done by counting or iteration, which involves increasing the value of a counter
variable by a fixed number every time the instructions are repeated. This counter can be part of
a condition as in the FOR loop.

e.g. FOR count = 1 to 5 DO

Print count
END FOR

Or within the body of the loop e.g. in WHILE loop and REPEAT UNTIL loop.

e.g. WHILE (noOfItems <= 5) DO

BEGIN
Read price
noOfItems = noOfItems + 1
Total =Total + price
END
END WHILE
 REPEAT
Print “I love programming”
count = count + 1
UNTIL count >= 10

In both cases, the instructions stop repeating when the value of the counter becomes equal to
a certain value. N.B. Counter variables in the WHILE and REPEAT_UNTIL loops MUST be
initialized before the counter variable is incremented (increased).

E.g. cars = 0 counter variable is initialized to zero

WHILE cars <=10 DO
BEGIN
PRINT “ENTER model of car: “
INPUT model
cars = cars + 1
PRINT “Model # “, cars, “is “, model
END
ENDWHILE

When the number of times the instructions has to be repeated is NOT known, only the WHILE
loop or REPEAT_UNTIL loop can be used. These loops can allow instructions to be repeated
until a terminating value or sentinel value is inputted. The sentinel value causes the loop to
stop. It is a dummy value that signals the end of the data to be entered for processing.

E.g. PRINT “ENTER model of car: “

INPUT model
WHILE model ≠ “End” DO
BEGIN
cars = cars + 1
PRINT “ENTER another model: “
INPUT model
END
ENDWHILE
PRINT “Number of cars entered is “, cars
 E.g. REPEAT
PRINT “ENTER another model: “
INPUT model
cars = cars + 1
UNTIL model = “End”
PRINT “Number of cars entered is “, cars

N.B. The sentinel or terminating value used is the string “End”.

Using the FOR loop

In this construct the counter variable is initialized when the loop is first executed and is
increased by a fixed value each time the set of instructions is executed. The syntax for the FOR
loop can be either of the following depending on the problem given:

• FOR (<counter variable> = <start value> TO <end value>) DO

BEGIN
Lines of code;
END
ENDFOR

E.g. FOR (count = 1 TO 20) DO

Writeln (count);
ENDFOR

• (To make a FOR loop go in descending order)

FOR<counter variable> = <start value> DOWNTO <end value> DO
BEGIN
Lines of code;
END
ENDFOR

E.g. FOR (count = 10 DOWNTO 1) DO

Write (count);
ENDFOR
 • (To make a FOR loop increment by an amount different to 1)
FOR (<counter variable> = <start value> TO <end value> STEP <incremental value>) DO
BEGIN
Lines of code;
END
ENDFOR

E.g. FOR (count = 1 TO 21 STEP 2) DO

Write (count);
ENDFOR

Using the WHILE loop

In this construct, the condition is tested at the start of the loop. If it is TRUE, the instruction
within the WHILE and ENDWHILE are executed until the condition becomes FALSE and the loop
is exited. Statements before and after the loop are carried out once. If the condition in the
WHILE loop is FALSE, the computer skips the instructions within the loop and continues with
statements after the loop.

Using the REPEAT_UNTIL loop

In this construct, the condition is tested at the end of the loop. The instructions within the
REPEAT and UNTIL are executed until the condition becomes TRUE and the loop is exited. The
instructions within the REPEAT and UNTIL are always executed at least once. Just like the WHILE
loop, statements before and after the loop are carried out once. If after the first execution of
instructions within the REPEAT_UNTIL loop, the condition is FALSE, the computer exits the loop
and continues with statements after the loop. N.B. The REPEAT_UNTIL loop does not need the
BEGIN and END to enclose multiple statements.

FLOWCHARTS
A flowchart represents the steps in an algorithm using geometric symbols and arrows. The symbols
contain the instructions and the arrows show the order in which the instructions should be executed to
solve the problem.
 FLOWCHART SYMBOLS

Decision
Start Stop

Terminators or terminals Connector

Input or Output Process

Rules for flowcharts

1. The main symbols used in a flowchart are the Decision, Process and Terminal symbols.

2. Every flowchart must have a START and a STOP symbol.

3. Lines with arrow-heads indicate the flow of sequence.

4. Processes have only one entry point and one exit point.

5. Decisions have only one entry point, one TRUE exit point and one FALSE exit point.

6. The REPEAT loop has a process before the decision, since it always executes the process at least
once.

7. The WHILE loop has a decision before the process.

8. Use arrow-heads on connectors where the direction of flow may not be obvious.
Examples of a flowchart:

Problem 1: Read in three marks and display their average.

Flowchart diagram showing sequenced instructions

Start

Enter the marks

totalMarks = mark1 + mark2 +mark3

avgMark = totalMark/noOfMarks

Display avgMark

Stop
Problem 2: Ask the user to enter two numbers then display the greater number.

Flowchart diagram showing selection

Start

Enter num 1, num 2

Yes
Display num 2
num1 > num2?

No

Display num 1

Stop
Problem 3: Print the number 1 to 5.

Flowchart diagram showing FOR loop

Start

num = 1

Yes
Display num
num < 5?

No

Stop
Problem 4: Read the marks of students terminated by 999. Find and print the highest mark.

Flowchart diagram showing WHILE loop

Start

Highest = 0

Read mark

No

mark <> 999? Read mark

Yes

mark > highest? No

Yes

Highest = mark

Print Highest

Stop
Problem 5: Print the numbers 1 to 5.

Flowchart diagram showing REPEAT loop

Start

number = 1

Display number

number = number + 1

number > 5? Yes

No

Stop
Objective 2.8 Test algorithms for correctness

Manual testing/dry running

This is also called desk-checking. It allows the user to detect any logic errors by
tracing through the program. Dry-running involves executing the program
manually by using input values for variables and recording what takes place after
each instruction is executed. This method uses a trace table which is completed
upon manual execution of the program to record and determine what the
program is doing. To create a trace table, you must record all variables found in
the program as headings, as well as the heading ‘OUTPUT’ to represent what is
printed.

E.g. What is printed by the following algorithm?

count = 0
WHILE count <= 10 DO
count = count + 2
PRINT count
ENDWHILE
Count OUTPUT
0 Count is set to 0; count < 10
2 2 2 is added to count and 2 is printed; count <10
4 4 2 is added to count and 4 is printed; count <10

6 6 2 is added to count and 6 is printed; count <10

8 8 2 is added to count and 8 is printed; count <10

10 10 2 is added to count and 10 is printed;

12 12 2 is added to count and 12 is printed; count not less than 10
 so loop is exited.

Objective 2.9 Use the top-down design approach to problem

solving.

Top-down Design

This is a technique used in programming whereby a given problem is broken

down into smaller problems and each sub-problem is broken down into a set of
tasks, which a further broken down into a set of actions that collectively solve the
original problem.

Calculate and print wages

Get data Calculate wages

Get rate Get hours Multiply rate by hours worked

worked

Print wages

This technique is called top-down design because the division of problems starts
at the top level and you work your way down.

The process of breaking down the problem into sub-problems and the sub-
problems into tasks and the tasks into actions is referred to as stepwise
refinement.
Section 3: Program Implementation

Objective 3.1: Distinguish between low-level and high-level programming

languages.

Content Machine language, Assembly language, Pascal, C, etc.

Low-level languages
These are languages that are machine dependent. Different brands of computers use different
program codes. The program code written for a particular brand of CPU will not run on another
brand of CPU as the codes are written with the internal operations and architecture of a
particular CPU in mind. Examples of low-level languages are Machine language and Assembly
language.

High-level languages
These are languages that are machine independent. They are not specifically written for any
one brand of computer. The program code written on a particular machine is not limited to
execution on that machine only but can also run on other similar machines. Examples of high-
level languages are Pascal, BASIC, C, etc.

Objective 3.2: Distinguish among the different generations of programming

languages.

Content Characteristics of first through to fifth generation languages

First Generation Languages (1GL)

These are low-level languages. They are called machine language and are written using 1’s and
0’s i.e. binary code. It is the only program code that the CPU understands and can obey or
execute directly without the need to translate it.

E.g. of code 1101 1101 1011 1011

Characteristics of 1GLs
• It is the fastest to execute because it is already in the language that the computer
understands.
• It is difficult to decipher
• It is easy to make mistakes in the sequence of 1’s and 0’s
• It is time consuming or tedious to write
• It is machine dependent
• Programming becomes more difficult as the complexity of the program increases

Second Generation (2GL)

These are also low-level languages. They are called Assembly language and are written using
mnemonic codes- short codes that suggest their meaning and are therefore easier to
remember. These codes represent operations, addresses that relate to main memory and
storage registers of the computer.

1
E.g. of code LDA A, 20
ADD A, 10
STO B, A
NOP

Characteristics of 2GLs
• It is easier to write than machine language
• It is machine dependent
• It is easy to decipher

Third Generation Languages (3GL)

These are high-level languages. This generation of languages was designed so that it is even
easier for humans to understand. They are procedural languages which use simple instructions,
written in English, to tell the computer step by step how to solve a problem. A compiler is used
to convert the English–like statements to machine language.

Characteristics of 3GLs
• It uses English words and symbols, and is even easier to write
• It is machine independent

Examples of 3GLs are Pascal, BASIC (Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), C, C++,
FORTRAN (Formulator Translator), COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) and Java.

Fourth Generation (4GL)

These are also high-level languages. Unlike 3GLs, these are non-procedural languages which let
you perform computer operations without having to specify all the steps involved. They have
built-in methods that can achieve certain goals. 4GLs must be selected to fit a particular
application, whereas 3GLs tend to be more general purpose. They are usually applied in the
following types of jobs:
▪ Database creation and programming
▪ Report generation
▪ GUI creation
Some examples of 4GLs are Visual Basic, PowerBuilder, Delphi, and SQL.

Fifth Generation (5GL)

These are high-level languages. This generation is essentially 4GLs with a knowledge base. They
are designed to build programs that help the computer solve specific problems based on
constraints and conditions. They are applied in expert systems, artificial intelligence research
and natural language systems. Examples of 5GLs are Prolog, OPS5 and Mercury.

Objective 3.3: List the sequence of steps associated with implementing a

program.

Content Create source code, compile, linking, executing, maintain program

2
Steps in Implementing a Program:

• Create source code

• Compile source code
• Link the modules
• Run/execute program
• Maintain program

1. Creating the source code involves:

• The translation of the algorithm into a programming language

• This process is done manually on paper

• The resulting Pascal program is entered into the computer using a suitable text editor

• The source code is then stored in a file with the appropriate extension (.pas)

• At the completion of this process, a complete Pascal program is ready for compilation.

2. Compiling the source code involves:

• The process of translating the source code into object code.

• Object code is the machine language equivalent of the source code.

• During the compilation process the syntax of the source code is checked to ensure
conformity with the rules of the language.

• If syntax errors are found, these are reported. Syntax errors result in incomplete
compilation. The errors must be corrected and the program must be re-compiled. This
process is repeated until the code is free of syntax errors.

• The primary purpose of the compiler is to translate the source code into object code.

3. Linking the Modules

• This is where special operations code is added to the object code.

• A compiled object program is not executable by itself. It needs to be combined with

other system modules to form an executable image that can be loaded into memory.

• The process of linking the module is done by a link editor or link-loader.

• The resulting executable module is then loaded into memory where it can then be
executed.

3
 4. Program Execution

• This is when the instructions in a program get carried out.

• The program is dispatch to the CPU and the control unit interprets each instruction
and pass it to the appropriate unit for execution

• During execution, if any run –time errors are detected, the program will terminate
prematurely.

5. Maintaining the program involves:

• Making periodic modifications to the program when the requirements change. For
example, if the hourly rate for an employee changes, due to pay increase, then such a
program would have to be modified to reflect the change in the hourly rate.

A program written in any programming language is called the source code. The source code has
to be translated into machine code before it can be executed. A translator is needed for this
purpose. The machine code is saved as an executable file. The executable program file is called
the object code.

A diagram Outlining the Compilation Process

Source Code Compiler Object Codes

There are two types of computer translators:

1. Interpreters

2. Compilers

Difference Between an Interpreter and a Compiler

An interpreter translates and executes one instruction at a time as it is encountered.

Advantages
• It translates one instruction at a time, therefore it uses a minimum amount of the
computer’s memory

4
 • It is also helpful in the debugging process, as the interpreter can relate error messages
to the instruction being executed.

Disadvantage
• The interpreter takes longer to run a program as time is spent interpreting the source
code every time the program needs to be run.

Compiler
A compiler translates the entire program (source code) to machine code, and then the machine
code is executed. The translated codes are known as object codes.

Advantage
• It can be executed faster than when using an interpreter, as the object codes are saved
and can be run at any time

Disadvantage

• As the entire program is translated to object code, it uses much more of the computer’s
memory.

Objective 3.4: Explain commonly used terms and concepts in programming.

Content Loading, testing, debugging, syntax errors, logic errors, run-time errors, dry run,
test data.

Commonly Used Terms and Concepts in Programming

• Loading – is reading a program from the hard disk into main memory (RAM)

• Testing - a completed program must be tested for errors to prevent crashing or stalling.
The programmer must make sure the program works for any correct input data that the
user gives it. The testing phase is to detect any problems in the program. Dry runs and
computer testing could reduce the chance of error, before releasing the program to its
final users.

• Dry runs/Manual testing - a manual traversal of the logic of a program. After the
development of a program the programmer should examine the code to see how it
would run.

A dry run is carried out when the action of an algorithm is examined with a set of input
values.

A trace table is a useful tool for a dry run, to check how the program would behave.

• Test Data – a wide range of data should be used to test a program. This data should
include normal data values and extreme values e.g. large, small and negative numbers.
Using this wide range would help detect which values might cause a program to fail.

• Debugging – is the process of correcting or removing errors from a program before it is

put into operation.

5
• Program Errors – A program error is a mistake/error in a program and is also known as a
bug.

During program development, three types of errors may be encountered as followed:

1. Logic errors

2. Syntax errors

3. Run-time errors

1. Logic errors – arise when the sequence of the instructions is not correct and there
are flawed comparisons and selection statements.

For example, let’s suppose we wanted to print the names of all girls who are under the
age of 18 and we wrote the following program:

.
.
If (gender = F) and (age <= 18) then
Writeln(name);

This code would result in the printing of the names of girls who are 18 as well as those
who are under 18. This is because in the if statement, we used <= instead of = . This is
a common error in the logic that will give undesirable results.

2. Syntax errors – occur when the source code has not been written in accordance
with the rules of the programming language. For example, if we omit to terminate
an assignment statement with a semi-colon. The following statement would result
in a syntax error during compilation:

total:=total + X

or

if we used a reserved word incorrectly, such as in:

var := a + b;

Syntax errors can be easily located and corrected as the compiler usually issue messages
which identify the location and cause of the errors.

3. Run-time errors – are generated during execution of the program. They result when
the processor encounters an instruction that violates the processing rules. For
example, if we had an instruction that attempts to divide by 0, such as:

Number:=1;
Number:= Number - 1;
Answer := total/Number; {illegal}

6
 The last statement would generate a run-time error as an attempt is being made to
divide by a value of 0.

Writing a Pascal Program

A Basic Pascal Program Layout

Program
header

Declaration program <program name>; Declaration

of variables of constants
const <constant name> = <value>;

var <variable name>: <data type>;

Begin

Program
body End.

Reserved words

Keywords with a special meaning and purpose in Pascal.

List of reserved words:

7
absolute file object then
and for ofon to
array function operator type
asm goto or unit
begin if packed until
case implementation procedure uses
const in program var
constructor inherited record while
destructor inline reintroduce with
div interface repeat xor
do label self
downto mod set
else nil shl shr
end not string

8
Data types used in Pascal:
• Integer: for storing whole numbers
• Real: for storing decimal numbers
• String: for storing a set of characters
• Boolean: for storing ‘true’ or ‘false’
• Char: for storing characters

Identifiers

Names made up by the programmer for variables etc. The rules for naming identifiers are:

• It must start with a letter or underscore e.g. R, sum , _total

• They can be made up of any combination of letters, digits or underscore e.g. _xyz,
turns_per_game
• The length of an identifier cannot exceed 31 characters
• Spaces are not allowed in an identifier
• Reserved words cannot be used as an identifier

Suggestions for Naming Identifiers

• Write variable names in lowercase

• Begin constants with an uppercase letter
• If identifiers consist of more than one word, start second or subsequent words with an
uppercase e.g. numberOfThrows

Objective 3.5: Declare elementary data types.

Objective 3.6: Declare variables and constants.

Declaring constants

Constant declarations must come immediately after the program heading and before the
variable declarations. Constants are declared in Pascal by specifying the keyword const
followed by an identifier, an equal sign (=), a constant value (numeric, character, string, or
Boolean) and a semicolon. If more than one constants need to be declared, do not repeat the
keyword const, simply list each identifier and assign the constant value to them.

E.g. const pi = 3.142;

ans =’TRUE’;

val =’A’;

Declaring variables and their data types

Variables must always be declared in the variable declaration section. Variables are declared in
Passcal by specifying the keyword var followed by an identifier, a colon and the data type.
Variables of the same type can be listed in the same line separated by commas. Variables of
different data types are to listed on separate lines E.g.

9
 var num1, num2 : integer;

average : real;

ans : char;

Punctuation

Every Pascal statement (except begin) is terminated by a semi-colon. The last statement in the
program (that is the end statement) is terminated by a period (full stop).

BEGIN and END delimiters

The BEGIN/END keyword pair is used to delimit the body of the program as well as logical
blocks within the program. For example, when multiple statements are to be executed within a
while loop. N.B. For every BEGIN in a program, there must be corresponding END statement.

Objective 3.7: Manipulate data.

Arithmetic Operators

+ add div divide (throws away the remainder in result)

- subtract mod remainder

* multiply

/ division

Precedence of operators

Same as in Math; multiplication and division before addition and subtraction. When two
operators have the same precedence evaluate from left to right unless specified otherwise by
brackets.

The assignment statement (:=)

There is no space between the colon and equal sign. It is used as:

<variable := <value>

Or

<variable>:= <calculation statement>

10
Writeln and write

Used to produce output.

writeln(<variable name>);

write(<variable name>);

Or

writeln(<variable with string constant> );

write(<variable with string constant>);

Writeln prints output and the cursor moves to the next line. Write produces the output and the
cursor stays on the same line. Write is suitable when prompting the user for data as the
program waits on the same line for the user to type in the data requested.

Readln and read

Used to get data entered by the user.

readln(<variable name>);

read(<variable name>);

or

readln(<variable name>, <variable name>););

read(<variable name>, <variable name>););

When the read and readln commands are executed, the computer anticipates the variables in
the order listed and the types declared. If an incorrect type is entered an error message is
displayed. E.g.

Var num:integer;

Total:real;

Read( num, total);

The computer expects that and integer would be entered first and a decimal number next.

read and readln differ in where the data pointer is place after a data item is read. The read
command places the pointer in the space just after the data item whereas readln places the
data pointer on a new line. Therefore be careful how readln is used. Consider the following
data entries and statements:

11
4000 7.99 8

3575 10 44

5600 25.0 1

Readln(item);

Readln(price);

Readln(quantity);

The intention is to store 4000 in item, 7.99 in price and 8 in quantity and so on. Based on the
sequence of statements above this will not happen. Instead item will store 4000, price will store
3575 and quantity will store 5600.

To do what was intended, either of the following is required:

Read(item);

Read(price);

Read(quantity);

Or

Readln(item, price, quantity); (repeated three times)

Objective 3.8: Use control structures.

Selection statements/Conditional branching

In Pascal, the IF…THEN construct is written as follows

IF (condition) THEN e.g. IF (num > 20) THEN

<statement>; ans := num/5;

OR

IF (condition) THEN e.g. IF (age > 18) THEN

BEGIN BEGIN

<statement>; status:= ‘adult’;

<statement>; admit:= TRUE;

END; END;

12
Repeat or Looping Statements
These use the FOR, WHILE and REPEAT..UNTIL constructs. These constructs allow us to repeat
certain parts of a program a number of times without having to write them several times. For
each of these constructs it is necessary to keep a count of how many times the instructions are
repeated. The counting or iterations involves increasing the value of a counter variable by a
fixed number every time the instructions are repeated.

Loops

The group of statements/instructions to be repeated is called a loop. There are two (2) types:

1. A finite loop – where the number of times a repetition is to be made is known.

2. An infinite loop – where the instructions are repeated an unspecified number of times.

To exit a loop a sentinel, terminal or end-of-data value is used. A sentinel value is a lookout
value such that if the data being entered ever becomes equal to the sentinel value, the
computer exits the loop. This value can be entered by the user or the computer can be
programmed so that a certain condition can be met to trigger the end of the loop.

WHILE loop
This construct is used when you do not know beforehand how many times a statement within a
block needs to be repeated. In this loop the computer executes the instruction to be repeated
for as long as a given condition is TRUE. It checks the conditions first and will loop while the
condition is true and ends when it is false.

Syntax:

While (<condition>) Do
Begin

<statement(s) to be carried out if condition is TRUE>;

End;

13
e.g.

Program Read100Nums;
Uses wincrt;
Var
number: integer;
Begin
Write(‘Enter a number’);
Read (number);
While( number<=100) Do
Begin
Write(‘Enter a number’);
Read (number);
End;
Write(‘Over the limit’);
End.

Counting in a WHILE loop

To keep a count in a WHILE loop the following syntax is used:

<counter variable>: = <counter variable> + < increment value>

When a count is being kept, the counter variable MUST be initialized (set) to a starting value,
usually zero (0), before the instructions are executed.

Syntax to initialize a variable:

<counter variable>: = 0;

14
E.g. This program uses a counter to write “Hello” five (5) times

Program hello5;

Uses wincrt;

Var

Count: integer;

Begin

Count := 0;

While (count<5) Do

Begin

Writeln(‘Hello’);

Count:= Count +1;

End;

Readkey;

End.

FOR loop
This construct is used when the number of times a set of instructions has to be repeated is
known.

Syntax:

FOR <counter variable> :=<start value>To <end value or end variable> Do

<statement to be carried out if condition is TRUE>;

e.g

FOR num := 1 To 5 Do

Writeln(‘Hello’);

If more than one statement has to be repeated, a BEGIN & END must be use to mark the
beginning and end of the block of code.

15
Syntax:

FOR <counter variable> :=<start value>To <end value or end variable> Do

BEGIN
<statement 1>;
<statement 2>;
<statement 3>;
END;

E.g.

FOR count := 1 To 5 Do
BEGIN
Sum := count + count;
Writeln(count, ‘ + ’, count, ‘ = ‘,sum;
END

The FOR loop can be used to count in descending order. To do so, the reserved word DOWNTO
is used instead of TO

Syntax:

FOR <counter variable> :=<start value>DOWNTO <end value or end variable> Do

<statement to be carried out if condition is TRUE>;

E.g.

FOR count := 5 DOWNTO 1 Do

Writeln(count);

N.B. It is possible to increment or increase the counter variable by more than 1 for each
repetition. To do so, the reserved word STEP is used.

16
 Syntax:

FOR <counter variable> :=<start value>To <end value or end variable> Step <increment value>Do

<statement to be carried out if condition is TRUE>;

E.g.

FOR even_No := 2 To 20 STEP 2 Do

Write(even_No);

Repeat .. Until Loop

This construct is similar to the WHILE loop, in that, it can be used when you do not know
beforehand how many times a statement within a block needs to be repeated. The difference
between the WHILE and the REPEAT..UNTIL is that, the computer executes the instruction(s) to
be repeated for as long as a given condition remains FALSE and ends when it becomes TRUE.
Because of this, the instruction(s) to be repeated is/are always executed at least once.
Therefore, be very careful when using it.
Syntax:
Repeat

<statement(s) to be carried out if condition remains FALSE>;

Until (<condition>) ;

N.B. The reserved words REPEAT and UNTIL replaces the BEGIN and END used in the other
loops.

17
e.g
Problem:

Write a program to allow a user to enter numbers. When his total crosses 100 display
“over the limit”.

Program overTheLimit;

Uses wincrt;

Var

number , Total: Integer;

Begin
Total:=0;
Repeat
Write(‘Enter a number ‘);
Readln( number);
Total := Total + number;
Until (Total >100);
Write(‘Over the limit’);
End.

18
Objective 3.9: Manipulate data in a list.

Arrays
Arrays are used to store values of the same type as one variable e.g. the names of 100
countries. If we did not have arrays we would have to create a 100 variables to store each
name. This is very tiring, cumbersome to manipulate and time consuming.

An array is a single variable with multiple locations. Each location stores one element/value. To
refer/access an element a subscript is used. For example, country[5]. 5 is the subscript and
country[5] allows the program to refer to the country name stored in that location.

Declaring an array
Just like regular variables and constants, an array must be declared before it is used.

Syntax: var <arrayName> : array[1..<no. of values to be stored>] of <data type>;

e.g. var country : array[1..100] of string;

Referring to a value in an array

Syntax:
<arrayName>[<subscript>]

E.g. country[1] refers to the 1st value

country[2] refers to the 2nd value
country[3] refers to the 3rd value

:
:
country[99] refers to the 99th value
country[100] refers to the 100th value

N.B. it is an error to refer to a subscript that is out of the range e.g. country[105]

A subscript can be a constant e.g. 6, a variable e.g. max, or an expression n + 1

Storing values in an array

If a value has to be set to a specific location in an array, the following methods can be used:

Method #1

Syntax:

<arrayName>[<subscript>] := <value>;

19
E.g. country[1] := ‘Trinidad and Tobago’;

country[2] := ‘St. Kitts’;

Country[100] := ‘Guyana’;

This method is very time consuming, therefore it is better to use the following method:

Method #2

This method uses a variable for the subscript and a FOR loop to increment the value of the
variable.

Syntax:

For <counterVariable> := 1 to <no. of values to be stored> Do

Read (<arrayName>[< counterVariable >]);

E.g. For count:= 1 to 100 Do

Read (country[count]);

Writing from an array

To write a value store in a specific location the following syntax is used:

Syntax:

Write(<arrayName>[<subscript>]);

E.g. Writeln (country[6]);

If you need to print all values in an array use the following syntax:

For <counterVariable> := 1 to <no. of values to be stored> Do

writeln(<arrayName>[< counterVariable >]);

E.g.

For count:= 1 to 100 Do

writeln (country[count]);

Problem: Write a program to print the name of a day, given the number of the day.

20
Solution:

Program nameOfDay;

Uses wincrt;

Var day: array[1..7] of string;

Num: integer;

Begin

Day[1] := ‘Sunday’;

Day[2] := ‘Monday’;

Day[3] := ‘Tuesday’;

Day[4] := ‘Wednesday’;

Day[5] := ‘Thursday’;

Day[6] := ‘Friday’;

Day[7] := ‘Saturday’;

Write(‘Enter a day from 1 to 7: ‘);

Readln(num);

Writeln(‘Today is ‘, Day[num];

Readkey;

End.

Traversing an array
Traversing an array involves accessing all elements in the array from first to last, one by one.
This is accomplished using the FOR loop.

Syntax:

For( <counterVariable> := 1 to <final location in array> )Do

<statement(s)>;

E.g. For (index: = 1 to 6) Do

write (num [index]* num [index]);

Searching an array (linear search)

Searching an array involves traversing the array until you find the location of the element you
require and retrieving it.

A linear search requires that each element of the array is compared with the given item to be
searched for, one by one.

21
E.g. index: = 0;

found: = ‘no’;

Repeat

index: = index + 1;

If (names [index] = ‘Roger’) then

found: = ‘yes’;

until (found = ‘yes’);

Objective 3.10: Perform checks and tests on programs to verify correctness.

Testing and Debugging Techniques

Once a program is developed or written, the next step is to check that it is doing what it was
designed to do, and is doing so correctly. There are two types of testing:

• Manual testing/dry running: executing the program manually by using input values for
variables and recording what takes place after each instruction is executed.
• Computer testing: using the computer to run the program with suitable test data
(correct and incorrect) to deal with all possible kinds of conditions. The results
generated by the computer are then compared with the expected solutions. If the
expected and actual results do not match, then the program has a logic error.

Objective 3.11: Write documented programs.

Documenting a Program
Documentation is the written guidelines that help program users to operate the program.

Once Comments in Pascal

Single line comments can be put in opening and closing brackets with opening and closing
asterisk e.g.

(* This is a single line comment. *)

or

(* EndFor*)

Multiple line comments are enclosed in opening and closing curly brackets e.g.

{These are multiple

line comments.

N.B. Always remember to close comments.}

22
Contents
Section 4: Applications and Implications of Information and Communication
Technology 2
Objective 4.1 Use terms associated with data communication and networks ........... 2
Objective 4.2 Distinguish among Internet, intranet and extranet .............................. 2
Objective 4.3 Explain concepts associated with the Internet ..................................... 6
Objective 4.4 Describe measures to secure data and maintain data integrity. ........ 13
Objective 4.5 Outline ways by which information can be misused. Error! Bookmark
not defined.
Objective 4.6 Describe appropriate hardware and software to meet the particular
needs of a given application; ........................................................................................ 19
Objective 4.7 Describe current and emerging technological trends; ........................ 19
Objective 4.8 Assess the impact of Information Technology on job skills and careers;
30
Objective 4.9 Describe the roles of various personnel in computer-related
professionals; 33

pg. 1
Section 4: Applications and Implications of Information and
Communication Technology

Objective 4.1 Use terms associated with data communication and networks
Objective 4.2 Distinguish among Internet, intranet and extranet

Data Communication

This is the transmission (movement) of data from one point to another for direct use or
for further processing e.g. from one computer to another, from a cell phone to
computer or vice-versa, or from a computer to fax machine.

Data communication systems are made up of hardware, software and communication

facilities. They may span a small area or they may be set up over a global area. Data is
moved through these systems via transmission channels or links. These channels are
grouped according to their bandwidth. Bandwidth refers to the volume of data that can
be transmitted in a given time. There are three bandwidths:
• Narrow-band channel transmits data at a slow speed of about 10 to 30
characters per second (cps). An example of this is the telegraph system
• Voice-band channel transmits data at a rate of 1000 to 8000 cps. An example of
this is the telephone line.
• Broadband channel transmits large volumes of data at speeds of over 100 000
cps. An example of this is a communication satellite, fibre optic cables, coaxial
cable, microwaves.

Transmission media
These are the ways and/or materials used to move data. Media can be cabled/wired or
wireless. Cabled/wired media include:
• Twisted pair cable: used for home networking where there is no great need for
speed. It is a cheap convenient method of connecting computers and peripherals
in a network.
• Coaxial cable: used in medium-sized networks to transmit voice, video and data
at moderate speeds. This is more expensive than twisted pair because the
transmission capabilities are higher.
• Fibre optic cable: used to transmit large volumes of digital data at extremely
high speed virtually error-free. These are relatively expensive.

Wireless media include communications satellite, microwave links, infrared. Wireless

network technology also called hot spot technologies refers to Bluetooth and Wi-Fi. All
of these are used to provide broadband.

pg. 2
Communications satellite is a space station that receives microwave signals from an
earth-based station, amplifies (strengthens) the signals, and broadcasts the signals back
over a wide area to any number of earth-based stations.

Microwaves are radio waves that provide a high speed signal transmission. It is also
called fixed wireless and involves sending signals from one microwave station to
another. A microwave station is an earth-based reflective dish that contains the
antenna, transceivers and other equipment necessary for microwave communications.

Infrared is a wireless transmission medium that sends signals using infrared light waves.
Mobile computers and devices , such as mouse, printer, and smart phones often have
IrDa ports that enables the transfer of data from one device to another using infrared
light waves.

Hot spot is a wireless network that provides Internet connections to mobile computers
and other devices. They are used by mobile users to check e-mail, browse the Web and
access any service on the Internet.

Bluetooth is a standard developed by electronic manufacturers that allow any sort of

electronic equipment (computers, digital video cameras, cell phones, PDAs, etc to
automatically make their connections without wires, cables or any direct action from a
user. One disadvantage of Bluetooth is it cannot transmit signals through walls and
distances of over 3 meters.

Wi-Fi is short for wireless fidelity. It is a type of broadband Internet connection that
uses radio signals to provide Internet connection to wireless computers and devices.

Communication modes
The lines that transmit data are also classified according to the direction in which data
flows through them. There are three (3) types of lines:
• A simplex line permits data to flow in only one direction. You can send data or
receive data, but not both.
• A half-duplex line can alternately send and receive data. That means that at any
particular time you can either send data but not receive it, or receive data but
not send it.
• A full-duplex line can simultaneously send and receive data.

Networks
A network is group of two or more computers linked together so that they can share
resources (hardware, software and data) and can communicate with one another.
Computer networks maybe classified as one of the following:
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
pg. 3
 • Metropolitan Network
• Internet
• Intranet
• Extranet

Local Area Network (LAN)

LANs consists of a collection of microcomputers, such as in an office building,
department or school that can share peripherals, files and programs and communicate
with each other on the network. Each microcomputer that forms part of the network is
connected either by cables or by a wireless link.

Benefits of a LAN are:

• Hardware such as printers can be shared.
• Storage facilities can be shared.
• Software and data files can be shared by many users.
• It is usually cheaper to buy one copy of a software application and pay license
fee for several machines, than to buy individual packages for each computer.
• Users can work together on a single document.
• User can communicate using e-mail.

Disadvantages of a LAN are:

• The initial set costs are high
• There is increased risk of data corruption. Since many users will be using the
system, there is greater chance of data being corrupted or tampered with.
• There is a greater risk from viruses because they easily spread between the
computers that are part of the LAN.
• If the file server fails, all workstations are affected and or work stored on shared
hard disk drives will not be accessible; nor will it be possible to use networked
printers, etc.
• Networks can be complicated to maintain and may require a network manager.
Additional costs may therefore be incurred.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

This network connects mainframes, LANs and PCs across a large geographical area such
as a city, a country or the world using a combination of many types of media such a
telephone lines, cables microwave links, satellite links. WANs are used mainly by
universities, research centres and large organizations with branches in different
countries.

Metropolitan Network (MAN)

This network connects LANs in a metropolitan area such as a city, state or town. It
includes one or more LANs but covers a smaller geographical area than a WAN. It is

pg. 4
usually managed by a single network provider that sells the service to users. Telephone
companies and cable television operators provide connections to the MAN.

Intranet

This network is a micro-version of the Internet within a company or organization. It

offers the same features of the global Internet but limited to a small area such as a
factory site or an office. Authorized users within the company can use the company’s
intranet to find information easily and quickly. The documents in the intranet have links
to other documents in the network or outside the wider Internet. This network uses
browsers and software just like those used on the Internet.

Extranet
This is an Intranet that allows limited access to it by people outside the company. A
company may set up an extranet, for example, to provide technical support information
to its customers based on products it sells or services it provides.

pg. 5
Objective 4.3 Explain concepts associated with the Internet

The Internet
This is the world’s largest WAN. It is a network of networks that connects computers
worldwide via a huge set of telecommunication links. The Internet does not have a
central authority. No one is in charge of the Internet. There are organizations which
develop technical aspects of the network and set standards for creating applications on
it, but no one governing body or government is in control.

Advantages of the Internet

• Vast volumes of information are available on virtually any topic.
• Information can be updated regularly.
• Much of the information is free.
• It allows people to telecommute i.e. work from home using Internet facilities like
e-mail, and keep in touch cheaply and quickly with friends and relatives.
• It is convenient for many common chores e.g. booking flights and Internet
banking.
• It is easily accessible: all you need is a PC with modem and a phone line.

Disadvantages of the Internet

• Lots of incorrect information is available; there is no authority to check the
accuracy of Internet documents, etc.
• It can be difficult to find exactly what you need because of the large volume of
information available.
• Computer viruses can easily be downloaded without the user realizing.
• There are lots of undesirable websites on the Internet (pornography, racist,
propaganda (half truths), etc.).
• The security of computers and WAN/LAN systems connected to the Internet may
be at risk from hackers.

For a basic connection to the Internet you need the following:

• Computer hardware – a personal computer and modem
• Communication link – a phone line or cable or satellite dish
• An Internet Service Provider (ISP)
• Computer software – facility to implement TCP/IP and an Internet browser.

Modem

A standard telephone line can transmit only analogue data, whereas data emitted from
a computer is in a digital form. A modem (modulator/demodulator) is a device used to
convert the digital data emitted from the computer into analogue data that can be
transmitted over a telephone line. When the data gets to the other end of the line, a
modem converts the analogue data back into digital data for the computer at that end

pg. 6
of the line to process. The data transmitted can be sound, pictures, video or text.
Modems can be external or internal (attached to the mother board). There are also
different types of modems:
• Integrated Services digital network (ISDN)
• Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL)
• Cable modems

Internet Service Provider (ISP)

This is a company that has a direct connection to the Internet and gives users access to
it, usually for a fee. The company usually has a small network that is linked via a high-
speed communication link to a high-speed link that forms part of the Internet’s
backbone (supercomputers and other large networks that make up the Internet
worldwide).

TCP/IP
Computers on the Internet use a protocol called TCP/IP. This is a set of protocols used to
transfer data from one computer to another over the Internet. A protocol is asset of
rules that defines how computers interact or communicate with each other. TCP/IP is
not designed for any specific type of computer so it enables hardware and operating
systems software from different computers to communicate. E.g. an IBM computer can
communicate with an Apple computer.

Browser
In order to navigate (go through) the World Wide Web (WWW), you need a web
browser. A web browser is a program that resides in your computer and enables you to
find, retrieve, view and send hypertext and hypermedia documents over the web.
Popular browsers are MS Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox. Some of the things you
can do with a browser are:
• View hundreds of millions of web pages from all over the world.
• Send and receive email
• Participate in conferences
• Chat
• Shop online
• See and hear recorded broadcasts

Internet Protocol (IP) addresses

Each computer on the Internet has a unique address that identifies it as a node so that
information can be sent to it. This unique address is really a number consisting of four
sets of up to three digits each, separated by full stops, e.g. 196.361.232.4. Because this
address is difficult for humans to remember, names are used to correspond to each IP
address. The names are determined through the Domain Name System (DNS). The DNS

pg. 7
divides the Internet into a series of domains which are further divided into sub-domains,
and the sub-domains into lower level domains. The top-level domains are grouped into
categories. Some of them are:
• Educational institutions .edu
• Commercial entities .com
• Public organizations .org
• Government bodies .gov
• Military .mil

Using the different domains from top down, a computer’s (host’s) name is determined.
The complete name of a computer on the Internet includes the computer’s name, all
sub-organizations, the organization and the top – level domain.

E.g. shop.ASCD.org

Top-level domain
Sub-domain
Computer’s name

Internet Application (uses)

There are four main types of services available on the Internet:

• Terminal emulation services
• File access and transfer services
• Communication services
• The World Wide Web (WWW)

Terminal emulation services (TES)

These enable you to connect your computer to a remote host and use the services
available as if your computer were a terminal of the remote computer (host).Some of
the services accessible are online databases, library catalogues and chat services. A
popular TES is Telnet. This is a program that allows you to access data and programs
from a Telnet server. When connected to a Telnet site, your computer becomes a dumb
terminal that can only send text-based messages to the Telnet site and allow you to
view the results.

File access and transfer services

These allow you to locate and use electronic files stored on computers across the
Internet.

File transfer protocol (FTP)

pg. 8
This is a set of rules for communicating over the Internet. An FTP program enables you
to find an electronic file stored on a computer somewhere and download it (take a file
from one computer on the Internet and copy it to a storage device on your computer).
It also allows you to upload files (send files to other computers on the Internet). Some
FTP sites are private and require you to pay to retrieve or store information on them.

Communication services

Electronic mail (e-mail)

This is the most popular and widely used service on the Internet. It enables users
worldwide to send electronic messages (text, sound, video and graphics) to one
individual or group of individuals, and receive messages from others. E-mail is much
faster than regular mail. It is free since you do not pay to send the e-mail, you only pay
for Internet access from your ISP. It is convenient, since you can access your at anytime
and from anywhere as long as your have Internet access.

Email addresses

To send and /or receive e-mail, each user must have an e-mail address and an email
program. The address is unique to the user and consists of two parts separated by the
@ (‘at’) symbol. The first part is the user name, which can be a real or made up name.
The second part is the domain name (the location of the e-mail account on the
Internet).

E.g. of an email address [email protected]

For an email to be sent and received, the following must be in place:

• Mail server: this is the computer on the Internet that operates like the
traditional post office- it receives incoming messages and delivers outgoing
messages. It allocates a certain amount of storage space (called your mailbox).
Users retrieve their mail by supplying their username and password.
• Mail client: this is a program that enables you to read and compose e-mail
messages, send e-mail and access e-mail from the server.

Electronic Discussion Forums

Mailing Lists

An electronic mailing list is a group of people using e-mail to communicate their views
on common issues or interests. You subscribe to become part of the group. Not all
groups are open to everyone. Some allow only professionals in a certain field. When you
become a member of a group, you can send messages with comments or views on some

pg. 9
matter that is being discussed. A copy of your message is then sent to all subscribers on
the mailing list. Some mailing list only let subscribers receive messages but not send
them e.g. a mailing list that sends a joke a day.

Newsgroups

A newsgroup enables a group of people with common interests to communicate with

each other. A subscriber to a newsgroup posts a message which can vary from a few
lines to a whole article. The other subscribers read the message and may or may not
choose to reply.

The main difference between newsgroups and mailing lists is the method of
communication. Mailing lists use e-mail to communicate with subscribers. Messages are
sent to a subscriber’s e-mail address. Newsgroups post messages on the Internet for
all the users to access. For you to be able to read and post messages to newsgroups,
your computer must have newsreader software.

Bulletin Board System (BBS)

This is an Internet facility much like a newsgroup. It is dedicated to the exchange of
messages. Most bulletin boards serve specific interests groups and are often free,
although some may charge a membership or user fee. Everyone with access to the
bulletin board can post and view messages on topics covered the board.

Chat

Chat is a service used by a group of people who share the same interests and wish to
communicate with each other interactively, in real time. Three different ways of
chatting are:
1. Text-based Chat
Each user entering the chat room sees the comments being typed by other users
in the chat room in real time. Everyone is notified when new users enter the
discussion. Each user types his/her comments. They may also choose to talk to
specific persons in the group. An example of a text-based program is ICQ.
2. Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
This type of chat allows you to talk with as many people as you like but they are
grouped into channels based on the topics being discussed.
3. Instant messaging
This enables you to chat privately with another person, in real time. Here you do
not enter a chat room but you speak directly to the person.
4. Multimedia chat
This allows users to communicate real time using microphone and a web cam.
The users are able to see and hear each other.

pg. 10
World Wide Web (WWW)

The WWW also called W3 is part of the Internet. It consists of hypertext and
hypermedia documents called web pages.

Web page
This is a collection of text and multimedia documents.

Website
A group of related web pages on the same web server.

Web server
A computer that stores and makes available hypertext and hypermedia documents.

Blogging
This is the act of distributing information over the web. A blog is an informal website
consisting of time-stamped articles, or posts, in a diary or journal format, usually listed
in reverse chronological order. Blogger needs blog software to create/maintain a blog.

Hypertext documents

A hypertext document is any document that contains hyperlinks to another document

located on the same computer or on another computer on another part of the world.

Hyperlink

This is an element in a document (text or graphics) that allows you to move easily from
one document to the next or to another position in the document.

Hypermedia

Hypermedia is the name given to documents that contains links to text, graphics, sound
or video files.

Hypertext mark-up language (HTML)

This is a programming language used to create hypertext and hypermedia documents.

HTML specifies how a web page is structured and how it looks when it is displayed in the
browser. HTML is used to create the hyperlinks.

A computer that stores and makes available hypertext and hypermedia documents is
called a web server, and a computer that requests web pages is called the client.

pg. 11
Hypertext transfer protocol

Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) is a set of rules that controls how data travels
between the web server and client.

Search engines

To retrieve information on the Web you can use a search engine. A search engine is also
called a web portal. It is a website that allows users to find information quickly and
easily. Each search engine has a database (collection) of web documents. Some popular
search engines are Yahoo, Excite, MSN, AltaVista, Lycos, Askjeeves and Google.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

This is the address of a website. It is usually in the format:

Protocol://www.Server/Path/Filename

e.g. http://www.limewire.com/home/aboutUs.html

Protocol Path
Server Filename

Pod-casting

This is a method for distributing audio files, known as pod-casts, using web feeds. Audio
pod-cast files are stored on a website. A web feed is created for each pod-cast, or for a
collection of pod-cast files. Users can subscribe to a web feed by clicking on an icon, and
the pod-cast will be downloaded. If the pod-cast is part of a series then the new pod-
casts will be downloaded automatically when they become available.

VoIP

Short for Voice over Internet Protocol. Services such as Skype allow you to use the
Internet to have voice conversations. The calls are usually free. VoIP can be used on any
computer that has Internet connection, a microphone and speakers. You can add
webcams and see the person you are talking to. Some organizations combine the phone
system with their LAN. This means that all internal phone calls are sent through the LAN
using digital formats instead of analogue. In these cases the phones have additional
features such as the ability to search telephone directories to contact other people in
the organization.

pg. 12
Objective 4.4 Describe measures to secure data and maintain data integrity.

Computer crimes such as hacking, Internet Fraud, Industrial espionage and software
piracy have increased the need for data security.

Data Security

This refers to the physical, hardware and software methods used to protect data from
unauthorized access and corruption. Data security ensures that data integrity is
maintained.

Data Integrity

This refers to the accuracy and completeness of data as it enters the system and its
consistency after it has been processed. Data integrity can be compromised in several
ways:

1. Human error (e.g. inaccurate data entry, accidental deletion, accidental changing
of data)
2. Natural disasters (e.g. fires, floods and earthquakes)
3. Worms and viruses
4. Hardware malfunctions
5. Fraud
6. Malicious deletion or changing of data

Date Security Methods

Data security methods may be classified into two types: Physical access restrictions and
Software restrictions.

Physical methods include:

1. Locks
2. Security guards
3. Burglar alarms
4. Monitoring systems using surveillance cameras
5. Biometric scans e.g. retinal and fingerprints

pg. 13
 6. Burglar roofing and the reinforcement of doorways
7. Fireproof or waterproof safes and cabinets
8. Recovery procedures and backups stored at a remote (faraway) location
9. Distribution of work among more than one employee so that no one has sole
control over the data.
10. Archiving: files no longer in use are backed-up for later use, if needed.

Software methods includes:

1. Passwords for the system or individual files

2. Access logs: records of system activities – what files are accessed, how often
they were accessed and by whom.
3. Data Encryption: The scrambling of data during storage or transmission so it
cannot be understood by someone who does not have the encryption key or
software to convert it back to the original form.
4. Firewall: A program, hardware or a combination of both that filters information
entering your network, from the Internet.
5. Anti-virus software: Software used to remove or deactivate viruses on storage
devices such as diskettes, hard disks and memory sticks.
Prevention of and protection against viruses
• Install an anti-virus software package on your computer system.

• Do not use storage media (floppy disk, tape, CD, memory stick) from other
computers in your computer. If you have to use them, make sure you run a virus
scan first to remove any viruses.

• Do not open any e-mail attachments that contain an executable file: these are
files with extensions such as .exe, .com and .vbs.

• Use operating systems such as UNIX which have security features that protect
computers from some viruses.

• If you are using Microsoft applications, ensure that the Macro Virus Protection is
turned on.

pg. 14
Backup and recovery procedures

A backup file is a copy of a file that you can use if the original file is damaged or not
available. It must not be stored on the same storage medium as the original and it
should be stored somewhere safe. Backups can be done for a single system or an entire
network. There are two main types of backup:
1. Full backup: The computer or network can be set up so that it automatically
makes a backup of everything on a regular basis. Most organizations backup the
data on their networks every night, when users will not be trying to access it.
2. Incremental backup: Only the files that have been changed since the last backup
is copied. Incremental backups are much quicker than full backups and can be
done during normal work.
Backup files should be stored on a medium that:
• Makes fast copies
• Can be stored in a secure place away from the original

Common backup storage media are hard disks, CDs, USB drives or tapes. Digital tapes
are a popular choice to store full backups, as data can be copied to tape very quickly. All
backup tapes and disks need to be labeled very carefully with the date and time and
stored in a
fireproof and water
Proprietary software

This is software that is owned by a commercial company and available to anyone to buy
and use under license. It has a copyright owner who can exercise control over what
users can do with the software. There are restrictions on use or private modification, or
even restrictions on excessive copying or publishing of modified or unmodified versions.
These restrictions are placed on it by its proprietors and its use, redistribution or
modification is prohibited, or requires you to ask for permission.
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pg. 15
??/?///
//

/
/

pg. 16
 1.
2.

Data privacy: This term refers to an individual’s rights to determine what information is
stored about them and how that information will be used.

On the Internet, many companies collect personal information on their clients for a
specific purpose. Because this information is valuable for businesses, sometimes it is
stolen and/or sold to interested companies. Consequently, persons’ private information
are used for purposes for which they were not intended. To protect individuals against
this, data protection laws have been and are being developed in many countries. These
data protection laws require that all data stored about an individual must be accurate
and used only for the purpose for which it was collected. It also states that organizations
must allow individuals to view whatever data is stored about them, and can request that
it be amended if it is not correct.

Computer Surveillance

This involves accessing the storage mechanism of an individual’s computer, or

monitoring an individual’s operation of a computer, without their knowledge. It can be
done using both hardware and software methods.

Hardware Key logging or keystroke logging

This is a hardware method of computer surveillance. A key logger is a device that plugs
in between your keyboard and computer and stores all data entered using the keyboard
in its memory.

pg. 17
Spyware

This is software used for computer surveillance. It is secretly installed on a computer

and covertly monitors the user’s actions without his or her knowledge. It saves its
findings on the computer being spied on or transmits them to someone else. There are
two types of spyware:
1. Surveillance spyware: This includes software key loggers, screen captures
devices and Trojan horses. They are used by:
• law enforcement and intelligence agencies to solve and/or prevent crimes.
• Companies to monitor the use of their computer resources.
• Criminals to acquire passwords and credit card numbers.
• Private investigators hired to spy on individuals or organizations.
• Government agencies to spy on citizens.
• Parents to monitor their children’s use of the computer.

2. Advertising spyware: This is also known as adware, it is used to gather personal

information about computer users or to show advertisements. Some record
information such as email addresses, web browsing history, online shopping
habits, passwords, etc. it is usually bundled with freeware (screensavers,
emoticons, clipart) or shareware when unsuspecting users download it from the
Internet

Electronic Eavesdropping

This is the act of secretly listening to the private conversation of others without their
consent. It can be accomplished on phones, instant messages, VoIP, video conferences
and fax transmissions. There are different methods used to eavesdrop, for example:
• The electronic radiation from computer equipment can be monitored and put
back together into discernible information using with inexpensive equipment.
The method can be applied to most computer equipment, but it is particularly
effective with conventional (CRT-based) VDUs, situated in solitary locations close
to the outer wall of your building. Because of this, it is important that the
monitors of computers with highly confidential information be placed in areas
that are not susceptible to this threat.
• Telephone/wire tapping is the monitoring of telephone and Internet
conversations by a third party using methods such as hardwire tapping a outside
telephone line, using a recording devices e.g. bugs on the phone or phone line or
using wireless communications devices to remotely monitor conversations.

Propaganda

pg. 18
Many persons use the communication services (blogs, email, chat, twitter, etc.) over the
Internet to spread propaganda. Propaganda is communication aimed at influencing the
attitude of an audience toward some cause or position. It often presents facts
selectively (thus possibly lying by omission) to encourage a particular way of thinking, or
uses loaded messages to produce an emotional rather than rational response to the
information presented. The desired result is a change of the attitude toward the subject
in the target audience to further a political (biased) agenda.

Objective 4.6 Describe appropriate hardware and software to meet the

particular needs of a given application;

Objective 4.7 Describe current and emerging technological trends;

Computer in Banking
In banking computers are used to:
• Process customer transactions (withdrawals, deposits, loans and bill payments)
• Process cheques
• Transfer funds (electronic fund transfer) from one account to another.

Automated Teller Machine (ATM)

This machine, together with a ATM card (debit card) allows you to perform a number of
banking transactions (deposit and withdraw money, obtain balances, transfer funds and
pay bills), 24 hours a day. The card has a magnetic strip which holds a code to identify
the card-holder’s bank account. The card-holder enters a PIN (Personal Identification
Number) to gain access to their account.

Cheque processing

Cheques are used to pay for goods and services. The amount of money to be paid to an
individual or organization is printed at the bottom of the cheque using a magnetic ink
character recognition (MICR) font. This money is deposited in the bank. If the cheque is
presented at the bank where the cheque originated, payment can be received
immediately. If the both parties have accounts at the same branch the cheque is cashed
and the accounts of both parties are updated. If the cheque originated from a different
bank, it is sent to a clearing house (In the Caribbean, the Central Bank). An MICR reader
reads the information at the bottom of the cheque and the cheque is sorted according
to its bank origin. Payments are made between the different banks and the cheques are
sent to the original banks, where the information is read into the main computer so that
the customers’ account can be updated.

Credit Cards

pg. 19
Credit cards are similar to debit cards. They give you access to funds in your credit
account. When the credit card is swiped in a business to pay for goods or services, the
card’s magnetic strip is read and the information on the strip is transmitted to the credit
card company. A check is performed to determine if sufficient funds are available,
before payment can be transferred to a merchant’s account. If there is not enough
money available, the transaction is denied or declined. The transaction is verified by the
card-holder signing a receipt. Paying for an item in this way uses Electronic Funds
Transfer (EFT). The balances in both the merchant’s account and your account are
updated.

Smart Cards

Smart cards contain wafer-thin memory chips embedded in the card. This chip can store
more information than magnetic strip cards, and the information can be updated. Smart
cards are more secure than debit or credit cards. The magnetic strips on the backs of
debit and credit cards can be altered or forged, but this is much more difficult with a
smart card chip. These chips can hold information for cell phone accounts, debit and
credit cards or any other financial services.

Home and Internet Banking

This form of banking gives you the convenience of doing transactions anytime and from
home or anywhere there is Internet access. You can check your accounts, order cheque
books, pay bills, transfer funds and apply for loans via the Internet.

Hardware requirement Software requirement

Mainframe computer with networked Accounting and financial software
terminals
Printers (character, line and page) Database software
• Character: for printing Word processing software for preparing
transactions on passbooks documents
• Line: for printing duplicate
copies and statements
• Laser: for printing reports
Cheques encoders and writers (MICR) Security software (e.g. intrusion and forensics
for detecting and tracing unauthorised access)
ATM machines Networking software for WAN
Magnetic card readers Video conferencing
Currency counters Internet access software
E-mail software

Computers in Business

pg. 20
In business, computers are used create bills (invoices), monitor inventory (stock
control), in point–of-sale systems (store checkouts), in accounting (profit and loss
accounts), in marketing (promotion of merchandise), e-commerce and telecommuting.

Stock Control
Computers and its related technology is used to keep track of stock inventory. For
example, when an item is purchased in a store it is swiped over a barcode reader. The
reader sends a message to the stock computer to update the record of that particular
item – decreasing the stock by one.

The reverse occurs when items are added to stock and scanned by a reader in the
warehouse. This system allows companies to set up their system to automatically re-
order a quantity of an item. When the number of items sold diminishes to a point where
the stock is at a low level – the designated reorder level – the system can warn the stock
manager to re-order.

E-commerce

Electronic commerce consists of buying, selling, marketing and servicing of products and
services over computer networks. It also includes the transfer of funds in the buying
process. There are two types of e-commerce:
• B2C or Business to Customer (where businesses retail their supply goods and
services over the Internet to individual private consumers).
• B2B or Business to Business (where businesses supply other businesses with
products and services that are required in the operations of that business).

Telecommuting

This is also called teleworking. It is working from home and communicating with
colleagues and customers using computer facilities – modem, telephony, e-mail,
teleconferencing and faxing. Telecommuting can be part-time or full-time.

Hardware requirements Software requirements

POS terminals Inventory software
Barcode readers Payroll software
Mainframe or minicomputers with networked terminals Accounting and financial
and cash registers software
Printers (character, line, laser, thermal for printing Word processing software
statements, reports, bills)
Magnetic card readers (for the reading of credit cards, Video conferencing
debit cards) software

pg. 21
 Internet access software
E-mail software

Computers in Education

Computer-Assisted Assessment (CAA)

This is the use of computers to assist in the marking of examination scripts, such as
multiple choice papers.

Computer –Assisted Learning (CAL) and Computer – Aided Instruction (CAI)

This is the use of computers and appropriate computer software to allow students to
learn at their own pace, and/or create a more interesting learning environment in which
teaching material is presented.

There are three basic forms of CAL/CAI:

• Drills and practices: This is where students are repeatedly given a range of
questions from a data bank, especially to practice skills and concepts that require
repeated practice e.g. vocabulary work or mastering rules in mathematics. These
questions have an exact right or wrong answer and are therefore very easy for
the computer to mark.
• Tutorials: These are self-paced, self-instructional programs that guide the
student through new material, acting as their tutor. Students can repeat a lesson
as often as they like if they do not understand the material. The lessons can also
be adjusted depending on the level of the student’s ability – the tutorial may
even test the student’s ability at the start, and adjust the tutorial accordingly.
• Simulations: These use multimedia (sound, text, video and graphics) to
demonstrate a realistic-looking and sounding outcome, based on a specific
scenario. For example, a simulation may show you what happens when you mix
two chemicals together in a test tube (e.g. bubbles, changes in colour,
production of gas etc.). Simulations provide the opportunity for individuals to
learn in a safe environment, without wastage of material or high – risk situations.

Computer Managed learning (CML) or Computer Managed Instruction (CMI)

CML or CMI are administrative tools used in education to organize students’ data and
timetables and in libraries to manage indexes.

Referencing Information (Research)

Online Library

pg. 22
Computers are a popular means of sourcing information, especially when connected to
the Internet. Online libraries allow individuals to stay at home and access most of the
information they need relatively quickly and easily. Online libraries carry information
from books, magazines, journals, articles and newspapers around the world from both
academic and commercial publishers. They maybe subject-specific, e.g. medical libraries
or law libraries, or general libraries that cover a wide range of subject areas. Some
require you to register and subscribe to their service by paying either a monthly or
annual fee. Members are given a password and a user name to allow access. Others do
not charge a fee; however , for some books and articles your access is limited to the
abstracts and summaries.

Electronic Encyclopedias

Traditional encyclopedias are now also available on CD-ROMs or online. The advantages
of these are:
• They can be updated regularly; new information can be added.
• The electronic versions need less storage space than the printed encyclopedia.

Distance Learning

This involves classes being conducted via the Internet, an extranet or intranet, satellite
broadcasting, interactive television and CD-ROM. It includes:
• Web-based Learning (WBL)
• Tele-collaboration, which means using global computer networks in
teaching/learning environment to connect students all over the world. Learners
can collaborate or work together on projects through the use of e-mails,
synchronized chat, threaded conversations and other forms of electronically
mediated conversation
• Virtual classrooms, which is an online learning environment designed to carry
out some of the roles of a physical school/classroom. They are used in home
schooling.

Hardware requirements Software requirements

Computers (stand alone and Word processing for creating documents
networked)
Printers (laser, inkjet and sometimes Web and video conferencing software
character printers)
Devices for disabled learners e.g. CAI/CAL software for a variety of subjects and
concept keyboards, voice synthesizers levels (simulations, drills and tutorials)
Database software for managing student
records
Spreadsheets for grading students’ marks

pg. 23
 CML software for creating timetables, etc.

Computers in Industry (engineering and manufacturing)

In engineering and manufacturing computers are used to:

• Direct assembly line operations
• Perform simulations
• Design, draw and manipulate engineering, architectural, product, graphic and
textile designs.

Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Design and Drafting (CADD)

This includes the hardware and software used to draw, manipulate and design
engineering and architectural designs, electronic products and even clothing designs.
They allow adjustments, updates and duplications of designs to done easily on the
computer. CADD systems allow designers to create three dimensional (3D) objects that
can be easily manipulated, rotated and viewed from many angles. The CAD package
contains basic elements such as points, lines, circles, shapes and solids, from which all
CAD drawings are constructed. Additionally, the computer keeps track of design
dependencies, so that when a value is changed all other dependent values are
automatically changed. A high-resolution graphics monitor is needed to show the details
of drawings done with a CAD package. Some advantages of using CAD are:
• The length of time it takes to draw a design is reduced.
• It is easier to make changes or update the original design.
• Duplicates of the design are easy to produce, to distribute to various interested
parties or other parts of the company

Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)

These systems are used to control manufacturing plant equipment and production
equipment e.g. in a car manufacturing plant or a factory that makes microprocessors for
computers. CAM translates the design into the actual product, such as moulding a bottle
or spoon. Many CAM systems use robots and sensors along with computers in the
manufacturing process. The advantages of CAM include:
• Faster production of parts and products, therefore meeting customer demand.
• The ability to control and maintain the quality of the product better, so that it is
produced more consistently.

Computer Aided Engineering (CAE)

pg. 24
These systems analyses engineering designs, simulating varying conditions to determine
in advance whether the design is likely to work. For example, an aeroplane
manufacturer might be able to simulate the forces of a hurricane wind on a plane wing
using a CAE computer, or an engineer might be able to simulate the stresses applied to a
bridge.

Hardware requirements Software requirements

Robots CAD and CADD software for design and
drafting
Sensors Specialized software to control machines
Mainframes, minicomputers and CAE or Simulation
microcomputers
Printers and plotters (for printing drawings)
Light pen and digitized tablets
Monitors (high-resolution)

Computers in Artificial Intelligence (AI)

In AI computers are used to:

• Control robots
• Produce expert systems

Robotics

Robotics is the use of computer-controlled machines in place of humans to perform

repetitive and dangerous tasks. They are normally found in industry or assembly lines.
For example, in the automotive industry robots are used for welding, paint spraying,
assembling and loading. They are used to perform high precision tasks, which they can
perform with fewer errors than humans. They do not get sick, complain or take strike
action. Robots are also able to operate in extreme environments where it might be
difficult or impossible for human beings to operate.

Expert Systems

pg. 25
These systems provide a vast knowledge database of information in specific fields such
as medicine, mathematics, engineering, geology, computer science, business, law,
defense and education. Expert systems or knowledge-based systems make decisions
based on the results of questions put to the user; the program analyses input data and
provides answers at the level of an expert in the particular field. By looking at various
possibilities the computer makes the best informed decision. These systems perform
the function of a human expert consultant in a particular field, providing support for
decision making. They can also ‘suggest’ alternatives or other issues to be considered.

Expert systems consist of two parts: the knowledge base and the inference engine. The
knowledge base contains a large volume of information in a particular field e.g. a
medical expert system knowledge base contains a vast array of information about
different types of diseases, symptoms and possible treatments. The inference engine
complements the knowledge base; it analyses the input data using ‘reasoning’ methods
along with the knowledge base, to arrive at a conclusion. It also provides the user with
an explanation of how it arrived at its conclusion, by showing the concepts that were
used.

Hardware requirement Software requirement

Robots Software to control machinery such as
robots, process, sensors
Sensors Virtual reality software
Voice recognition and voice synthesis Voice recognition and voice synthesis
systems that include microphones and software
speakers
Virtual reality (VR) systems that include Expert systems
special clothing, head gear, data gloves,
joysticks and handheld wands

Computers in law enforcement

Computers are used in law enforcement to:

• Maintain criminal databases
• Examine forensic evidence
• Communicate with other departments and agencies
• Provide electronic surveillance
• Control traffic systems
• Provide assistance to officers through easy access to information
• Computerize many of the traditional office tasks
• Prepare reports
• Equipment inventory
• Tracking parolees

pg. 26
 • Transmitting, exchanging and obtaining information from other police officers

Security cameras

These can act as a visible deterrent to a criminal. Sometimes they are hidden in order to
catch criminals in action. They can capture video footage of a crime in progress and the
images can be used to identify the criminals. Most cameras today are linked to
computer systems which can store and process the raw data.

Biometric identification systems

Biometrics refers to the science of identifying an individual through their body

characteristics, such as face geometry, hand geometry e.g. fingerprints, iris or retinal
scans, veins and voice patterns. All these forms of identification can be input into a
computer system set up for security purposes. Two of the most commonly used
methods are:
• Fingerprints obtained from a crime scene can be matched against a database of
known criminals’ fingerprints to identify a suspect. The patterns are stored and
analyzed by computer.
• Computer-assisted facial image identification systems use computers to identify
a person from an image captured through a surveillance camera or photograph.

Profiling

This involves the use of software by the police to compose a picture of an alleged
criminal based on the description of a witness. The picture can then be compared to
those stored in criminal databases. This method reduces the cost of police stations
having a traditional sketch artist. It also allows the image to be sent electronically over
the Internet to other police departments.
Traffic control

Computerized traffic light systems control traffic flow using a specific sequence of
lighting managed by the computer. These sequences are adjusted throughout the day
depending of the flow of traffic. The systems use a sensor in the road to detect traffic
flow. They then process this data, adjusting the traffic lights as necessary to promote
the maximum flow of traffic at different times of the day. The data from the sensors is
sent via wire-based or fibre-optic cables to the processing computer.

Electronic surveillance

Wire-taps, email and online communication interception, location information ( e.g.

determining where you are from calls going to your cell phone) and communication
analysis (e.g. monitoring when and where credit cards are used) are all forms of

pg. 27
electronic surveillance. Such surveillance can help police track criminals’ movements
and activities.

Hardware requirements Software requirements

Robots (bomb detection and disarming) Database management software
Security cameras and electronic Biometric identification software such as
surveillance equipment DNA, voice analysis, facial image
Biometric identification systems identification and fingerprinting
scanners identification software
Mainframes and minicomputers Profiling software
Printers Statistical analysis software

Computers in medicine

Computers are used in medicine to:

• Monitor patients’ vital signs
• Maintain databases of patients, diseases and drugs
• Aid in detecting and diagnosing diseases
• Assist in generating case-sensitive advice through the use of expert systems
• Helps doctors to collaborate with colleagues and administer treatment over the
Internet.
• Perform research

Patients’ Records

Electronic patients’ records help doctors provide medical care. Records of

patients’ health history, as well as their personal information, can be easily
accessed if this information is computerized. This is especially helpful when a
patient’s records exist in several different institutions. Computerized records can
reduce the time spent looking for a patient records in the case of emergency. It
also makes it easy to detect trends in diseases.

Patient Monitoring Systems

These help doctors monitor and treat patients – either at home or in hospital
intensive care – by providing 24 hour service. These are computerized systems
that monitor a person’s vital signs, such as blood pressure, temperature and
heart rate, using sensors attached to the patient. The system records the
information at specific intervals and may sound an alert in the event of a
dangerous abnormality in the readings.

Computer-aided Detection and Computer-aided Diagnosis

pg. 28
 • Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) uses magnets to create two and
three dimensional images of tissues such as the brain. The images are
processed by computers for analysis by doctors. This helps to detect
strokes, tumours, infections and even haemorrhages.
• Computer Axial Tomography (CAT) scanning: A CAT scanner is an X-Ray
tube that takes as many as 30 pictures per second as it rotates around
the patient. The computer reconstructs a three dimensional view of parts
of the patient’s body from the pictures taken. This aids in the diagnosis of
brain diseases, tumours and so on.

Hardware requirements Software requirements

Mainframes, microcomputers and Database management software
supercomputers
Sensors (heart rate, temperature, Patient monitoring system software
pressure)
Printers/plotters Expert systems
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Imaging software
systems
Computer Axial Tomography (CAT)
scanning (X-ray tubes)
Monitors (high resolution

Computers in Entertainment

Computers are used to:

• Record, synthesize, edit and distribute music
• Create and play computer games
• Create animations and special effects in movies

Music and Sound

The natural sounds of most musical instruments have been digitized into electronic
versions and can now be played from a single instrument such as a keyboard. When the
keyboard is connected to a computer you can record, play back and enhance music.
Software can be used to edit sound and music clips, and these clips can be inserted into
other pieces of music.

Another application of computers in music is distribution. Popular music can be

downloaded to cell phones and MP3 players from the Internet, for a relatively small fee.

pg. 29
Movies and animation
Computers are used in movies to create computer generated images (CGIs) e.g. The
Matrix, Star Wars, Finding Nemo, etc. Animations are now part of many popular movies.
Anima software allows persons without much computer skill to develop an animation
from beginning to final product.

Games

Computers are used to play games for both entertainment and education e.g. Nintendo,
Game Boy, Marble Blast and Bookworm.

Current and Emerging Technological Trends

In addition to robots, expert systems, CADD, CAE, CAM, and telemarketing another
emerging technological trend is teleconferencing.

Teleconferencing

A teleconference is a meeting or conference held via a telephone or network connection

between participants in remote cities or work sites. Many types of teleconferences
exist, with the simplest form involving the use of a speaker phone at each location to
conduct an audio conference. More sophisticated teleconference meetings involve the
exchange of audio, video, and data. The term teleconference can also refer to a live
event that is transmitted via satellite to various locations simultaneously.

Objective 4.8 Assess the impact of Information Technology on job skills and
careers;

The Effects of Computers on Employment

The effects of computers have been both good and bad – there has been job loss, job
creation and changes in job skills.

Employees in the computerized workplace should be able to:

Office Employees

• Prepare and edit documents using word-processor

• Calculate and analyse numerical data using a spreadsheet program
• Store, edit, receive and query records in a database

pg. 30
 • Use computerized accounts for processing customer and company accounts
• Send and receive faxes
• Use web browsers and know how to send and read e-mail

Teachers

• Use word-processors to prepare exercises and notes

• Use presentation software to make demonstrations
• Use the Internet for research purposes and teach students how to do so
• Teach students how to use the multimedia, simulation or tutorial software
designed to aid learning
• Use spreadsheets applications to record and calculate students’ marks
• Assemble the main parts of a computer and do simple troubleshooting

Engineers

• Use CAAD software, simulation software and in some cases graphics plotters
• Design computer-based process control systems

Medical personnel

• Use computer-controlled devices to monitor a patient’s condition

• Use expert systems for the diagnosis and treatment of illnesses
• Store, edit and retrieve a patient’s record using database management software
• Use specialized equipment for performing operations

Musicians

• Do sound sampling
• Record sounds
• Do music synthesizing
• Edit songs and add special effects

Movie Industry

• Use animation software

• Use graphics editors
• Use custom-written special effects software
• Operate robots to imitate dangerous animals etc.

pg. 31
Mass Media Personnel

• Use a word-processor to produce and edit articles

• Scan photos with a scanner
• Use desktop publishing to design advertisements
• Use the Internet for research and communication
• Take photographs with a digital camera

Law Enforcement Personnel

• Knowing how to use a scanner to scan photographs of criminals

• Knowing how to use computers for fingerprint matching and DNA analysis
• Knowing how to use database management software to store and retrieve data
• Knowing how to use statistical analysis software

Loss of Jobs

Because of automation, some jobs have become extinct. Many jobs previously
performed by humans are now being performed by computers or computer technology.
Automated assembly lines e.g. car production plants, can perform many assembly jobs
more efficiently and effectively than humans. As a result, significant job losses have
occurred in production lines over the world.

Automation has also been used to replace humans where the jobs are boring,
monotonous or dangerous. Dangerous or potentially hazardous jobs, such as handling
chemicals are now often done by robots instead of humans. In other cases, job losses
have occurred because jobs previously requiring two or more persons to do them are
now being done by just one person with a computer.

Job Creation

Even though computers have caused job loss, it has also created millions of new jobs.
Some jobs have been created as direct result of computerization in areas such as
research, design, manufacturing, programming, maintenance, communication,
education, consultation, marketing and security.
Computers have also made jobs more accessible to the disabled person.

Change in Job Skills

pg. 32
Because of the introduction of computers in the work place, many workers now need
new skills or upgrading of old ones. Many jobs now require basic computer knowledge
and thus workers require retraining e.g. office secretaries are now being asked to use
word processors instead of typewriters; draughtsmen and architects are now required
to produce drawings and designs using CAD software.

Changes in Work Patterns

Computers have changed the way people do their jobs. People can work from
anywhere, outside of normal working hours, using their laptops i.e. telecommuting.
Teachers can send homework to absent students via e-mail, after normal school hours.
A police officer can access and retrieve information from their police car instead of
having to return to headquarters.

Objective 4.9 Describe the roles of various personnel in computer-related

professionals;

Roles or duties of a Programmer

• Discuss program specifications with the systems analyst

• Write programs
• Test programs for correct operation and intended results
• Debug programs
• Document programs
• Update, repair, modify and expand existing programs

N.B. System programmers write systems software, such as programs to monitor and
control peripherals. Their roles are the same as a programmer.

Roles or duties of a Systems Analyst

• Plan and conduct studies to determine if an existing system needs to be

upgraded or if a new system has to be put in place
• Hold discussions with managers and users of the system to determine their exact
needs
• Gather facts about, and analyze the basic methods and procedures of, current
information systems
• Design new systems, integrate existing procedures into new system
specifications as required and assist in the implementation of new designs
• Make recommendations for the acquisition and purchase of hardware and
software, if necessary

pg. 33
 • Test and debug the new system
• Create documentation for the system
• Assist in training employees to use the system
• Evaluate the performance of the system over a period of time to see if it is
performing as expected

Roles or duties of an IT Manager

• Plan, co-ordinate, manage and staff the data processing department

• Communicate with, motivate and lead a number of highly skilled people
• Be aware of the latest developments in the IT field
• Read reports on the system’s performance and develop strategies to improve it
• Meet users and members of other departments to discuss problems
encountered with the system or new projects for computerization
• Prepare budget projections for the department

Roles or duties of a Database Administrator

• Interact with managers and users to ensure that the database is accomplishing
what they need
• Meet with users to make modifications to the database whenever there are
changes in the company’s operation
• Ensure that the database is performing at its optimum at all times to meet the
needs of its users
• Develop policies and procedures to ensure the security and integrity of the
system
• Select and maintain database management software
• Co-ordinate database design
• Establish backup and recovery procedure in case of failure or loss of data
• Establish a data dictionary that records company-wide data definitions and
standards
• Co-ordinate the data collection and storage needs of users

Roles or duties of a Network Administrator

• Plan and design the network

• Oversee the installation of the network’s hardware and software
• Test the network to ensure it is functioning properly
• Set up user accounts and arrangements for access
• Ensure that staff are trained to use the hardware and software that form part of
the network
• Monitor the network’s performance to ensure it is working at its optimum
• Troubleshoot and solve problems on the network

pg. 34
 • Set up systems to ensure compliance by users of the network

Roles or duties of a File Librarian

• Maintain and protect the company’s programs and data

• Catalogue and store magnetic tapes and disks
• Supply magnetic tapes and disks to authorized users
• Clean and inspect storage media
• Keep records of the disks and magnetic tapes stored

Roles or duties of a Computer Engineer

• Design, develop, test and supervise the manufacture of components and

peripherals
• Assemble and test new designs for overall effectiveness, cost reliability and
safety
• Maintain and repair computer hardware sold to clients

Roles or duties of a Computer technician

• Assemble and service computer equipment

• Find and fix computer problems

Roles or duties of a Software Trainer

• Train people to use computer hardware and software

• Develop training manuals
• Examine and mark examination scripts

pg. 35
Section 5 Information Processing

Objective 5.1 distinguish between data and information

Data

This is raw unprocessed facts e.g. 32, 28, 36. This data can represent anything and therefore has
no meaning.

Information

This is processed data e.g. Jane scored 32, Phillip scored 28 and Barry scored 36. This
information tells us how well or poorly the student performed. Information has meaning.

Objective 5.2 explain the characteristics and functions of Information

Processing

Information Processing

Basically information processing is using computers to process data into information.

Information Processing takes place when a machine or processor interacts with the outside
world and acts on the inputs its receives e.g. an automatic electric kettle which senses when
the water temperature reaches boiling point and switches off; or a car production line sense
when a car body is in a certain position to weld together the relevant part of a car. Information
processing is only valuable if the information can be stored and retrieved quickly, accurately
and efficiently and cannot be changed accidentally. The basic sequence of events in processing
information includes (1) input, (2) processing, (3) storage and (4) output.

Forms of Information Processing

Commercial data processing

This refers to the use of computers in businesses to automate or perform administrative tasks
such as:

• Calculate payroll
• Record and track orders made by customers
 • Process sale transactions
• Preparing and sending invoices to customers
• Making payments for goods and services
• Keeping track of income and expenditure
• Making budgets
• Sending correspondence to suppliers and customers
• Designing packaging and advertising
• security

Industrial data processing

This refers to the use of computers to carry out all the tasks listed above in addition to:

• controlling the processes used to manufacture products using control systems

• using CAD to design products
• using CAE and CAM to develop and test products

Control systems

This is the use of computers to control machinery automatically. Some examples are:

• using computers to manufacture chemicals or pack goods in a factory

• using robots to manufacture goods such as cars
• using computers to control signalling systems e.g. on railways
• using computers to control transport vehicles e.g. autopilot on aircrafts, driverless
trains, fuel injection systems for car engines
• using computers to control electronic equipment in the home e.g. video recorders,
digital cameras, washing machines, microwave ovens, cell phones, etc.

There are two main types of control system:

1. Automation systems: these are used to carry out straightforward tasks automatically
such as running through a program on a washing machine. They do this without human
involvement. Once it is switched on it follows a set of predetermined actions to the end.
 2. Process control systems: these are used for complex operations. They constantly check
the state of play and change the actions in response e.g. in manufacturing actions are
changed depending on feedback from sensors. The data is captured automatically
through input devices called sensors. Sensors measure things like temperature,
humidity, light, sound, movement and pressure. It converts the measurement into
electronic signals that it sends to the controller (processor). Signals can be sent as a
steady stream or it can take readings at intervals. Software in the controller processes
the data from the sensor and determines what action to take. It then sends instructions
to other special devices such as motors and switches, which are part of the machine
that is being controlled.

Scientific data processing

This is the use of computers to collect data during experiments. Sensors are used to capture
data over a period of time. The data collected is used to make connections between the data.
Statistical methods are used to analyze the figures collected and the results are display as
charts.

Information retrieval

Information retrieval is when data stored on a computer system is searched and the relevant
information is found. To ensure that information retrieval is done efficiently, the data should be

• accurate
• up to date
• structured in such a way that makes it possible to search for specific data
• stored on a suitable storage medium.

Information Management

Information Management is the task that ensures that all data is input accurately, stored
correctly, retrieved easily and output in a way that provides useful information.
Objective 5.3 identify the sources of data in specified application
areas;

Documents used for information processing

Source documents

A source document is one that contains data that is going to be input into a computer system.
Once the data has been entered it should be filed away safely because the data may have to be
checked again.

Human-readable documents

A human-readable document is any document that needs to be read by humans e.g. forms that
are filled in by hand and has to be read before the data is entered on a keyboard.

Machine-readable documents

A machine-readable document is one on which the data can be ‘read’ by an input device, such
as a scanner or mark reader, directly into the computer system. Examples of machine-readable
documents are multiple choice answer sheets and barcodes on labels of products.

Turnaround documents

A turnaround document is one that is printed by a computer system but is later used to input
new data into the same system. E.g. a tax return form with the employee’s personal
information pre-printed on it. After the rest of the form is completed by the employee the new
data is entered so that the tax return can be processed.

Objective 5.4 describe methods of validation and verification of data;

Objective 5.5 identify appropriate verification and validation checks

given a particular scenario;

Data verification is a process whereby a person checks that data has been correctly entered
into a computer system.
Data validation is any check carried out by a computer system when data is entered, to identify
data that cannot be correct.

The difference between validation and verification is that verification is manual i.e. carried out
by humans whereas validation is automatic; it is carried out by software.

Verification methods

When data is being entered, two types of errors can occur:

Typographical errors: typing errors that are made when the wrong key is hit.

Transposition errors: when numbers or characters are entered in the wrong order e.g. entering
2345 instead of 2435.

To reduce these errors the person entering the data can check that the data on the screen
matches the data on the source document.

Another method used for verification is double entry verification. In this method, a second
person enters the same data and the computer system checks each data item entered the
second time against the first data entry. If they do not match a warning message is displayed
and the person has to confirm which is correct the first entry or the second.

Validation methods

There are many validation checks and suitable ones must be chosen depending on what data is
being entered.

Range checks

These check whether numerical data is within expected limits e.g., if you are asked to enter
someone’s age, the number should be between 0 and 110 years; or if you are asked when you
joined an organization, the date cannot be a date in the future.

Data type checks

These check whether the data is of the correct type, such as number, date or text. E.g. age is
numerical, so a data check would notice if a letter was entered.
Inconsistency checks (consistency checks)

These check one piece of data against another. E.g. if data includes both gender (M or F) and
title (Mr., Mrs. or Miss). If someone has entered M and Miss, then the two data items are
inconsistent.

The main purpose of data validation is to check that the data is reasonable. It should identify
some errors that will not be picked up by data verification. It will not spot errors such as
incorrect spelling of names. To make sure that data entered is as accurate as it can be, both
data verification and data validation checks should be used.

Objective 5.6 describe various methods of file organization and

access;

Objective 5.7 select appropriate file organization for particular

applications;

File organization

Files stored on storage media can be organized in a number of ways. There are advantages and
disadvantages to each type of file organization, and the method chosen will depend on several
factors:

• How the file is to be used;

• How many records are to be processed each time the file is updated;
• Whether individual records need to be accessed quickly.

Types of file organization

Serial files

In a serial file, the records do not follow each other in any particular order. If another record
needs to be added, it can be added to the end of the file.

Sequential files

Sequential files are like serial files except that the records are held in a sequence e.g. if you
decide to order pupil files in ascending or descending order of student number. One of the
fields is used for the ordering. This field is called the sort key e.g. it is very common to sort a file
of personal details using “surname” as the sort key. This is also known as sequential field
ordering.

Random files

Random files are stored in any order on the disk surface. The OS keeps a map of the disk
surface and the read/write heads use this map to find the data. The data is found without the
whole disk having to be read. Random access allows data stored on disk to be found extremely
quickly, and the records are accessed regardless of the order in which they were stored.

Indexed-sequential File Organization

Each record of a file has a key field which uniquely identifies that record.

An index consists of keys and addresses (physical disc locations).

An indexed sequential file is a sequential file (i.e. sorted into order of a key field) which has an
index.

A full index to a file is one in which there is an entry for every record. e.g.

Key Address
2351 781040
2352 781041
2353 781042
2354 781043
2355 781044
2356 781045
2357 781046
2358 781047
2359 781048
2360 781049

Indexed sequential files are important for applications where data needs to be accessed.....

• sequentially
• randomly using the index.

An indexed sequential file allows fast access to a specific record.

Example: A company may store details about its employees as an indexed sequential file.
Sometimes the file is accessed....

• sequentially. For example when the whole of the file is processed to produce payslips at
the end of the month.
• randomly. Maybe an employee changes address, or a female employee gets married
and changes her surname.

An indexed sequential file can only be stored on a random access device

e.g. magnetic disc, CD.

Accessing files

Serial access

This means the records are accessed in the same order as they were stored. To read a serial file,
a computer has to read each record until it reaches the one required.

Sequential access

This means reading or writing data consecutively. With sequential access the records are in
order. Therefore if just one record is required, the method is slow but if all the records are
required, it is very fast. Magnetic tape is accessed via this process. A batch processing system,
such as a payroll system uses sequential access where the record for each employee is accessed
in sequence and the appropriate pay calculated.

Direct access or random access

With a direct or random access files it is possible to go directly to a record without having to
look at any other records. You can access random access files directly. Magnetic disks and
optical disks use direct or random access.
Notes:

Features of Word Processors

Default Settings

This refers to the preset features in the word processor e.g. font style and font size, page size,
margin size and justification.

Word Wrap

When entering text, if a word is too long to fit at the end of a line, it is automatically moved to
the next line. N.B. You must not press the ENTER key at the end of a line unless the line is the
end of a paragraph.

Editing a Word Document

This means making changes to the document. Word processors have many features which
allow us to make changes to a document. Some of these features are:

1. Deleting text
2. Cutting, copying and pasting
3. Finding and replacing text
Deleting text
This can be done using the DELETE key, BACKSPACE, key or INSERT key.

The INSERT key

This key function in two ways: insert mode and type-over mode. In insert mode, it allows you
to enter new characters within a document. In type-over mode, it replaces characters in the
document with new characters.

1
Lesson # 1 35 mins. 14 January 2010

Strand: Word Processing

Topic: Editing Features

Objective: Select appropriate editing features in the preparation of a document

Content: Deleting and inserting characters, words, sentences, paragraphs, type-over

mode, selecting blocks of text, copying and moving sections of text, word wrap,
default settings.

Previous knowledge:

1. Functions of various keys on the keyboard.

2. Features of the MS Word Window.

Resources: projector, laptop, textbook, desktops

Introduction:

1. Introduce the topic and have students log on and load MS Word.
2. Ask students to explain what word processing is.
3. Ask student what is involved in preparing a document.
4. Explain and discuss questions with students.

Content of Lesson:

1. Have students write notes.

2. Explain notes and related terms ( using the delete, and backspace keys)

3. Have students complete activity to demonstrate the concepts being taught.

4. Recap lesson.

5. Give homework assignment.

Home Work

1. State how the copy and paste process is done. (4 marks)

2. State how the cut and paste process is done. (4 marks)

3. What is the difference between the two features? (2 marks)

2
Activity # 1:

Carnival
Carnival is one of the most popular festivals in Trinidad and Tobago. It is the time
when the creative talents of our people are displayed to the entire world.
Colourful costumes of varying shapes and magnificent colours are portrayed
through the streets.

Music trucks and steel bands accompany the bands, providing music for the
masqueraders and spectators to dance.

1. Enter the text above as accurately as possible.

2. Save the document as Carnival in the Documents folder.
3. Delete the letter ‘s’ in the word ‘festivals’.
4. Delete the word ‘time’ in the second sentence and replace it with ‘occasion’ using the
INSERT mode.
5. Delete the word ‘shape’ and replace it with the word ‘sizes’ using the TYPE-OVER mode.
6. Insert the sentence “Carnival is the greatest show on earth.” to the end of the first
paragraph.
7. Move the words ‘one of’ in line 1 to after the word ‘accompany’.
8. Copy the sentence “Carnival is the greatest show on earth.” To the end of the
document.
9. Save the document as Carnival1.

3
Notes:

Formatting features – Page layout

Margins

Left margin

Top margin

Bottom margin

Right margin

Margins are the blank areas around the work area of a sheet of paper or the distance between
the text and the edge of the paper. There are five margins: left, right, top, bottom and the
gutter margin. The gutter margin is the space set aside for binding.

Paper size

Most documents are printed on standard paper i.e. letter paper which measures 8.5 by 11
inches. Pages are sold in various sizes e.g. legal paper which measures 8.5 by 14 inches or A4
paper which measures 8.5 by 17 inches.

Page orientation

This refers to the way a page is read. There are two orientations: Portrait orientation i.e. when
the long edge is vertical and Landscape orientation i.e. when the long edge is horizontal.

4
Portrait Landscape
Lesson # 2 35 mins. 21 January 2010

Strand: Word Processing

Topic: Formatting features – Page layout

Objective: Select appropriate formatting features for the preparation of a document

Content: margins, paper length, page orientation.

Previous knowledge:

3. Functions of various keys on the keyboard.

4. Features of the MS Word Window.

Resources: projector, laptop, textbook, desktops

Introduction:

5. Introduce the topic and have students log on and load MS Word.
6. Ask students to explain what the term ‘formatting’ means.
7. Explain and discuss the question with students.

Content of Lesson:

6. Have students write notes topic by topic.

7. Explain how each feature is applied.

8. Have students complete activities to demonstrate the topic being discussed.

9. Recap lesson.

10. Give homework assignment.

Home Work

1. State how the copy and paste process is done. (4 marks)

2. What is the difference between copy and paste and cut and paste? (2 marks)

3. Margins, paper length and page orientation are page layout formatting features,
state four other. (4 marks)

5
Activity # 2

1. Retrieve a copy of the document called Carnival in ‘Documents’.

2. Change the left margin to 1.5 inches and the right margin to 2 inches.
3. Identify the current orientation.
4. Change the orientation to ‘landscape’.

6
Topic: Other Formatting features

Objective: Select appropriate formatting features for the preparation of a document

Content: Line spacing, justification and indenting text.

Previous knowledge:

5. Functions of various keys on the keyboard.

6. Features of the MS Word Window.

Resources: projector, laptop, textbook, desktops

Introduction:

8. Introduce the topic and have students log on and load MS Word.
9. Ask students to explain what the term ‘justification’ means.
10. Explain and discuss the question with students.

Content of Lesson:

11. Have students write notes

12. Explain how each feature is applied.

13. Have students complete activities to demonstrate the topic being discussed.

14. Recap lesson.

15. Give homework assignment.

Home Work

1. Research the font features superscript and subscript and state what is the
difference between them.

2. List five other font effects that are available in MS Word.

7
Notes:

Other Formatting Features

Line spacing
This is the distance between lines of text. The spacing between lines of text depends on the size
of the font on a line. The larger the font size the larger the line spacing. Line spacing is available
in ‘single’, ‘double’. ‘1.15’, ‘1.5’, ‘at least’, ‘exactly’ and ‘multiple’.

Justification
This is the process of aligning a block of text, paragraph or entire document within the text
margins or borders. The default setting for MS Word is left justification. Text can also be aligned
right, centre or fully justified.
• Left justification means that the text is even on the left margin (text at the right margin
is uneven)
• Right justification means that the text is even with the right margin (text at the left
margin is uneven)
• Centre alignment means that the text is centred along the middle of the document.
• Fully justified/ justified means that the text is even with both left and right margins.

Indenting Text
Indenting means pushing a line or paragraph from the left or right margins. The size of an
indent is the distance between the margins and the text. There are three indent settings:
left indent, right indent and a special indent (First line/Hanging).
• Left indent pushes the paragraph away from the left margin.
• Right indent pushes the paragraph away from the right margin.
• First line/Hanging has the first line being indented less than the rest of the lines in
the paragraph.

8
Activity # 3

1. Type in =rand(), then press the ENTER key

2. Type in the title “Word Features” at the top of the document.
3. Centre the title.
4. Change the line spacing of paragraph one to double.
5. Left justify the first paragraph.
6. Change the font size of paragraph two to 16 points. Then change the line spacing to
double.
7. Right justify the second paragraph.
8. Fully justify the last paragraph.
9. Left indent the first line of paragraph one using the TAB key, then undo and use the
indentation icon, then undo and use the indent option on the page layout ribbon.
10. On the page layout ribbon, launch the paragraph dialogue box to apply a hanging or first
line indent of 0.7 inches to the second paragraph.

9
Topic: Other Formatting features

Objective: Select appropriate formatting features for the preparation of a document

Content: Tab stops.

Previous knowledge:

7. Functions of various keys on the keyboard.

8. Features of the MS Word Window.

Resources: projector, laptop, textbook, desktops

Introduction:

11. Introduce the topic and have students log on and load MS Word.
12. Ask students to locate the TAB key on the keyboard.
13. Explain briefly its use giving examples.

Content of Lesson:

16. Have students write notes

17. Explain how each feature is applied.

18. Have students complete activities to demonstrate the topic being discussed, if possible.

19. Recap lesson.

20. Give homework assignment.

Home Work

1. Research the “Find and Replace” feature in MS Word. Explain its function and list the
steps involved in doing a Find and Replace.

10
 Notes:

Other Formatting Features

Tabs
Tab stops are used to place text or numbers at predetermined positions in a document.
This feature allows you to spread text or figures across a page evenly. The default tab
setting is 0.5 inches. This means that every time the TAB key is pressed the cursor moves
0.5 inches.

Tabs are used for creating tabular-style (looks like a table) documents. You can also
specify a particular character such as a dash to precede a tab stop i.e. to use as a leader.
There are five types of Tab stops:

Tab Function
Left ------------- The text starts and is aligned at the tab stop
Right ----------- Texts ends at the tab stop
Centre --------- Text is centred under the tab stop
Decimal-------- lines up the decimal point in numbers in a column at the tab stop
Bar -------------- Creates a thin vertical line at the tab stop

Examples

Left Tab

Printer Plotter Speakers

Right Tab

CPU 1.3 GHz

RAM 2GB

HDD 250GB

Decimal Tab

75.00

7690.95

11
 .05

Centre Tab

Word Processing

Spreadsheet

Database

Bar Tab

Input Devices

Keyboard Mouse Joystick Lightpen

Touchpad scanner MICR barcode reader

Activity # 3

1. Use the paragraph dialogue box to set tab stops as follows: - a centre tab at 1.5 inches
and a decimal tab with dots leader (...) at 4 inches.
2. Then type the following menu. Pressing the TAB key twice after each item.
3. Centre the heading
4. Change the font to Bookman Old Style.
5. Change the font size to 14 points (14 pts.)
6. Change the font size of the heading to 19pts.
7. Change the font colour to any colour of your choice.
8. Bold the entire document.
9. Use strikethrough effect for the ‘bake and shark’ item listed.
10. Save document as “Menu” in documents.

Breakfast Special
Bake and Shark ....................................................... $5.00
Bake and Saltfish ....................................................... $3.50
Egg and Toast ....................................................... $2.00
Cowheel Soup ..................................................... $11.25
Tea ....................................................... $1.50
Coffee ....................................................... $2.00
12
Juice ....................................................... $3.00

13
Topic: Other Formatting features

Objective: Select appropriate formatting features for the preparation of a document

Content: Page numbering and Bullets, headers and footers

Previous knowledge:

1. Functions of various keys on the keyboard.

2. Features of the MS Word Window.
3. How to enter text.

Resources: projector, laptop, textbook, desktops

Introduction:

1. Introduce the topic and have students log on and load MS Word.
2. Ask students to locate the bullets and numbering icons on the home ribbon.
3. Explain briefly when they are used, giving examples.
4. Show students an example of a header and ask them what it’s called.

Content of Lesson:

1. Have students write notes

2. Explain how each feature is applied.

3. Have students complete activities to demonstrate the topic being discussed, if possible.

4. Recap lesson.

5. Give homework assignment.

14
Notes:

Other Formatting Features

Bullets and numbering

Bullets and numbering are features that allow you to automatically create lists in a
document. Bullets are used for unordered list whereas numbering is used for ordered
lists.

e.g. Ordered list e.g. Unordered list

1. Monday • Bananas
2. Tuesday • Grapes
3. Wednesday • Pommerac

Bullets and numbers can be added to already typed text or to text that is being typed.
There are several styles of bullets and numbering.

Headers and footers

A header or footer is text or graphics that appears in the top or bottom margins of every page
of a document. The header appears in the top margin and the footer in the bottom margin.
They are used to print information such as the title of a document or chapter name and/or
author name, page numbers, current date and time, letterheads and company logos.

Home Work

Research the “Find and Replace” feature in MS Word. Explain its function and list the steps
involved in doing a Find and Replace.

15
Activity # 4

1. Open the file called “Menu”.

2. Insert a page break at the end of the document.
3. Copy and paste the entire menu to a new page in the document.
4. Apply bullets to the items listed in the menu on the first page.
5. Change the style of bullets to one of your choice.
6. Apply numbers to the items listed in the menu on the second page.
7. Insert page numbers to the bottom right of each page.
8. Insert a header, which states the name of a restaurant. Align it to the left.
9. Save the document.

16
Topic: Other Formatting features

Objective: Select appropriate formatting features for the preparation of a document

Content: Find and Replace, Page breaks and tables

Previous knowledge:

1. Functions of various keys on the keyboard.

2. Features of the MS Word Window.
3. How to enter text.

Resources: projector, laptop, textbook, desktops

Introduction:

1. Introduce the topic and have students log on and load MS Word.
2. Explain briefly when they are used, giving examples.

Content of Lesson:

6. Have students write notes

7. Explain how each feature is applied.

8. Have students complete activities to demonstrate the topic being discussed, if possible.

9. Recap lesson.

Notes
Find and Replace

The Find function allows you to search a document for a particular word or string of characters
that you may want to change or edit. The Replace function allows you to search a document for
a word or string of characters and replace it with another word or string of characters.

Page Breaks
The automatic end of a page, seen in Page layout view is called a soft page break. If however,
you need to insert a page break before the actual end of a page, this type of page break is
called a hard page break.

17
Tables
Tables are very useful for displaying numerical and statistical data within a document and can
also be useful for keeping text aligned. They are one way of enhancing the presentation of data
within documents. A table is made up of three components: rows, columns and cells.
• A row runs horizontally
• A column runs vertically
• A cell is an individual box in the table, in which you place data. It is at the intersection of
a row and a column.

Activity #5

1. Type the following:

Find and Replace

The Find function allows you to search a document for a particular word or string of characters
that you may want to change or edit. The Replace function allows you to search a document for
a word or string of characters and replace it with another word or string of characters.

2. Replace every occurrence of the word SEARCH with the word FIND.
3. Insert the following table:

ITEM QUANTITY UNIT PRICE

Dominos biscuit 3 $2.00

Diana Nutcracker 2 $0.75

4. Insert another row.

5. Enter an item of your choice, quantity and unit price.
6. Add another column to the right of the UNIT PRICE column.
7. Enter the heading TOTAL PRICE.
8. Enter the total price of every item in the list.

18
Notes
Footnotes and Endnotes

These are sections in a document used to explain or expand on text (word or sentence) in a
document. The references are marked using numbers, characters or a combination of
characters.

A footnote is placed at the end of the page containing the reference mark. It is usually
positioned in the footer section of the page, below the text. Footnotes are usually used to
expand the text and give detailed comments or explanations.

An endnote is placed at the end of the document or the end of a section. Endnotes are used to
refer to books or documents that were used to get information for the document you are
writing.

Columns
These are used to produce newspaper-style documents, indexes or text that needs to be in
continuous columns. When the first column is filled, the text continues to the next column.
The position in a column where the text ends and the next column starts is called a column
break. If a document has two columns and you reach a particular point in the first column
where you would like to finish and start the next column, you can insert a column break.

19
Microsoft Excel
Lesson 1: Entering Text and Numbers

The Microsoft Excel Window

Microsoft Excel is an electronic spreadsheet. You can use it to organize your data into rows and
columns. You can also use it to perform mathematical calculations quickly. This tutorial teaches
Microsoft Excel basics. Although knowledge of how to navigate in a Windows environment is
helpful, this tutorial was created for the computer novice.

This lesson will introduce you to the Excel window. You use the window to interact with Excel.
To begin this lesson, start Microsoft Excel 2007. The Microsoft Excel window appears and your
screen looks similar to the one shown here.

Note: Your screen will probably not look exactly like the screen shown. In Excel 2007, how a
window displays depends on the size of your window, the size of your monitor, and the
resolution to which your monitor is set. Resolution determines how much information your
computer monitor can display. If you use a low resolution, less information fits on your screen,
but the size of your text and images are larger. If you use a high resolution, more information
fits on your screen, but the size of the text and images are smaller. Also, settings in Excel 2007,
Windows Vista, and Windows XP allow you to change the color and style of your windows.

The Microsoft Office Button

In the upper-left corner of the Excel 2007 window is the Microsoft Office button. When you
click the button, a menu appears. You can use the menu to create a new file, open an existing
file, save a file, and perform many other tasks.

The Quick Access Toolbar

Next to the Microsoft Office button is the Quick Access toolbar. The Quick Access toolbar gives
you with access to commands you frequently use. By default, Save, Undo, and Redo appear on
the Quick Access toolbar. You can use Save to save your file, Undo to roll back an action you
have taken, and Redo to reapply an action you have rolled back.

The Title Bar

Next to the Quick Access toolbar is the Title bar. On the Title bar, Microsoft Excel displays the
name of the workbook you are currently using. At the top of the Excel window, you should see
"Microsoft Excel - Book1" or a similar name.

The Ribbon

You use commands to tell Microsoft Excel what to do. In Microsoft Excel 2007, you use the
Ribbon to issue commands. The Ribbon is located near the top of the Excel window, below the
Quick Access toolbar. At the top of the Ribbon are several tabs; clicking a tab displays several
related command groups. Within each group are related command buttons. You click buttons
to issue commands or to access menus and dialog boxes. You may also find a dialog box
launcher in the bottom-right corner of a group. When you click the dialog box launcher, a dialog
box makes additional commands available.

Worksheets

Microsoft Excel consists of worksheets. Each worksheet contains columns and rows. The
columns are lettered A to Z and then continuing with AA, AB, AC and so on; the rows are
numbered 1 to 1,048,576. The number of columns and rows you can have in a worksheet is
limited by your computer memory and your system resources.

The combination of a column coordinate and a row coordinate make up a cell address. For
example, the cell located in the upper-left corner of the worksheet is cell A1, meaning column
A, row 1. Cell E10 is located under column E on row 10. You enter your data into the cells on the
worksheet.

The Formula Bar

Formula Bar
If the Formula bar is turned on, the cell address of the cell you are in displays in the Name box
which is located on the left side of the Formula bar. Cell entries display on the right side of the
Formula bar. If you do not see the Formula bar in your window, perform the following steps:

1. Choose the View tab.

2. Click Formula Bar in the Show/Hide group. The Formula bar appears.

Note: The current cell address displays on the left side of the Formula bar.

The Status Bar

The Status bar appears at the very bottom of the Excel window and provides such information
as the sum, average, minimum, and maximum value of selected numbers. You can change what
displays on the Status bar by right-clicking on the Status bar and selecting the options you want
from the Customize Status Bar menu. You click a menu item to select it. You click it again to
deselect it. A check mark next to an item means the item is selected.

Move Around a Worksheet

By using the arrow keys, you can move around your worksheet. You can use the down arrow
key to move downward one cell at a time. You can use the up arrow key to move upward one
cell at a time. You can use the Tab key to move across the page to the right, one cell at a time.
You can hold down the Shift key and then press the Tab key to move to the left, one cell at a
time. You can use the right and left arrow keys to move right or left one cell at a time. The Page
Up and Page Down keys move up and down one page at a time. If you hold down the Ctrl key
and then press the Home key, you move to the beginning of the worksheet.

EXERCISE 1

Move Around the Worksheet

The Down Arrow Key

• Press the down arrow key several times. Note that the cursor moves downward one cell
at a time.

The Up Arrow Key

• Press the up arrow key several times. Note that the cursor moves upward one cell at a
time.

The Tab Key

1. Move to cell A1.

2. Press the Tab key several times. Note that the cursor moves to the right one cell at a
time.

The Shift+Tab Keys

• Hold down the Shift key and then press Tab. Note that the cursor moves to the left one
cell at a time.

The Right and Left Arrow Keys

1. Press the right arrow key several times. Note that the cursor moves to the right.
2. Press the left arrow key several times. Note that the cursor moves to the left.

Page Up and Page Down

1. Press the Page Down key. Note that the cursor moves down one page.
2. Press the Page Up key. Note that the cursor moves up one page.

The Ctrl-Home Key

1. Move the cursor to column J.

 2. Stay in column J and move the cursor to row 20.
3. Hold down the Ctrl key while you press the Home key. Excel moves to cell A1.

Go To Cells Quickly

The following are shortcuts for moving quickly from one cell in a worksheet to a cell in a
different part of the worksheet.

EXERCISE 2

Go to -- F5

The F5 function key is the "Go To" key. If you press the F5 key, you are prompted for the cell to
which you wish to go. Enter the cell address, and the cursor jumps to that cell.

1. Press F5. The Go To dialog box opens.

2. Type J3 in the Reference field.
3. Press Enter. Excel moves to cell J3.

Go to -- Ctrl+G

You can also use Ctrl+G to go to a specific cell.

1. Hold down the Ctrl key while you press "g" (Ctrl+g). The Go To dialog box opens.
2. Type C4 in the Reference field.
3. Press Enter. Excel moves to cell C4.

The Name Box

You can also use the Name box to go to a specific cell. Just type the cell you want to go to in the
Name box and then press Enter.
 1. Type B10 in the Name box.
2. Press Enter. Excel moves to cell B10.

Select Cells
If you wish to perform a function on a group of cells, you must first select those cells by
highlighting them. The exercises that follow teach you how to select.

EXERCISE 3

Select Cells

To select cells A1 to E1:

1. Go to cell A1.
2. Press the F8 key. This anchors the cursor.
3. Note that "Extend Selection" appears on the Status bar in the lower-left corner of the
window. You are in the Extend mode.
4. Click in cell E7. Excel highlights cells A1 to E7.
5. Press Esc and click anywhere on the worksheet to clear the highlighting.

Alternative Method: Select Cells by Dragging

You can also select an area by holding down the left mouse button and dragging the mouse
over the area. In addition, you can select noncontiguous areas of the worksheet by doing the
following:
 1. Go to cell A1.
2. Hold down the Ctrl key. You won't release it until step 9. Holding down the Ctrl key
enables you to select noncontiguous areas of the worksheet.
3. Press the left mouse button.
4. While holding down the left mouse button, use the mouse to move from cell A1 to C5.
5. Continue to hold down the Ctrl key, but release the left mouse button.
6. Using the mouse, place the cursor in cell D7.
7. Press the left mouse button.
8. While holding down the left mouse button, move to cell F10. Release the left mouse
button.
9. Release the Ctrl key. Cells A1 to C5 and cells D7 to F10 are selected.
10. Press Esc and click anywhere on the worksheet to remove the highlighting.

Enter Data

In this section, you will learn how to enter data into your worksheet. First, place the cursor in
the cell in which you want to start entering data. Type some data, and then press Enter. If you
need to delete, press the Backspace key to delete one character at a time.
EXERCISE 4

Enter Data

1. Place the cursor in cell A1.

2. Type John Jordan. Do not press Enter at this time.

Delete Data

The Backspace key erases one character at a time.

1. Press the Backspace key until Jordan is erased.

2. Press Enter. The name "John" appears in cell A1.

Edit a Cell

After you enter data into a cell, you can edit the data by pressing F2 while you are in the cell
you wish to edit.
EXERCISE 5

Edit a Cell

Change "John" to "Jones."

1. Move to cell A1.

2. Press F2.
3. Use the Backspace key to delete the "n" and the "h."
4. Type nes.
5. Press Enter.

Alternate Method: Editing a Cell by Using the Formula Bar

You can also edit the cell by using the Formula bar. You change "Jones" to "Joker" in the
following exercise.

1. Move the cursor to cell A1.

2. Click in the formula area of the Formula bar.
 3. Use the backspace key to erase the "s," "e," and "n."
4. Type ker.
5. Press Enter.

Alternate Method: Edit a Cell by Double-Clicking in the Cell

You can change "Joker" to "Johnson" as follows:

1. Move to cell A1.

2. Double-click in cell A1.
3. Press the End key. Your cursor is now at the end of your text.
 3. Use the Backspace key to erase "r," "e," and "k."
4. Type hnson.
5. Press Enter.

Change a Cell Entry

Typing in a cell replaces the old cell entry with the new information you type.

1. Move the cursor to cell A1.

2. Type Cathy.
3. Press Enter. The name "Cathy" replaces "Johnson."

Wrap Text
When you type text that is too long to fit in the cell, the text overlaps the next cell. If you do not
want it to overlap the next cell, you can wrap the text.

EXERCISE 6

Wrap Text

1. Move to cell A2.

2. Type Text too long to fit.
3. Press Enter.

4. Return to cell A2.

 5. Choose the Home tab.
6. Click the Wrap Text button . Excel wraps the text in the cell.

Delete a Cell Entry

To delete an entry in a cell or a group of cells, you place the cursor in the cell or select the
group of cells and press Delete.

EXERCISE 7

Delete a Cell Entry

1. Select cells A1 to A2.

2. Press the Delete key.

Save a File

This is the end of Lesson1. To save your file:

1. Click the Office button. A menu appears.

2. Click Save. The Save As dialog box appears.
3. Go to the directory in which you want to save your file.
4. Type Lesson1 in the File Name field.
5. Click Save. Excel saves your file.

Close Excel

Close Microsoft Excel.

1. Click the Office button. A menu appears.

2. Click Close. Excel closes.

Lesson 2: Entering Excel Formulas and Formatting Data

Lesson 1 familiarized you with the Excel 2007 window, taught you how to move around the
window, and how to enter data. A major strength of Excel is that you can perform
mathematical calculations and format your data. In this lesson, you learn how to perform basic
mathematical calculations and how to format text and numerical data. To start this lesson,
open Excel.

Set the Enter Key Direction

In Microsoft Excel, you can specify the direction the cursor moves when you press the Enter
key. In the exercises that follow, the cursor must move down one cell when you press Enter.
You can use the Direction box in the Excel Options pane to set the cursor to move up, down,
left, right, or not at all. Perform the steps that follow to set the cursor to move down when you
press the Enter key.

1. Click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears.

2. Click Excel Options in the lower-right corner. The Excel Options pane appears.
 3. Click Advanced.
4. If the check box next to After Pressing Enter Move Selection is not checked, click the box
to check it.
5. If Down does not appear in the Direction box, click the down arrow next to the Direction
box and then click Down.
6. Click OK. Excel sets the Enter direction to down.

Perform Mathematical Calculations

In Microsoft Excel, you can enter numbers and mathematical formulas into cells. Whether you
enter a number or a formula, you can reference the cell when you perform mathematical
calculations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division. When entering a
mathematical formula, precede the formula with an equal sign. Use the following to indicate
the type of calculation you wish to perform:

+ Addition

- Subtraction

* Multiplication

/ Division

^ Exponential
In the following exercises, you practice some of the methods you can use to move around a
worksheet and you learn how to perform mathematical calculations. Refer to Lesson 1 to learn
more about moving around a worksheet.

EXERCISE 1

Addition

1. Type Add in cell A1.

2. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
3. Type 1 in cell A2.
4. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
5. Type 1 in cell A3.
6. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
7. Type =A2+A3 in cell A4.
8. Click the check mark on the Formula bar. Excel adds cell A1 to cell A2 and displays the
result in cell A4. The formula displays on the Formula bar.

Note: Clicking the check mark on the Formula bar is similar to pressing Enter. Excel records your
entry but does not move to the next cell.
Subtraction

1. Press F5. The Go To dialog box appears.

2. Type B1 in the Reference field.
3. Press Enter. Excel moves to cell B1.

4. Type Subtract.
5. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
6. Type 6 in cell B2.
7. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
8. Type 3 in cell B3.
9. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
10. Type =B2-B3 in cell B4.
 11. Click the check mark on the Formula bar. Excel subtracts cell B3 from cell B2 and the
result displays in cell B4. The formula displays on the Formula bar.

Multiplication

1. Hold down the Ctrl key while you press "g" (Ctrl+g). The Go To dialog box appears.
2. Type C1 in the Reference field.
3. Press Enter. Excel moves to cell C1
4. Type Multiply.
5. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
6. Type 2 in cell C2.
7. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
8. Type 3 in cell C3.
9. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
10. Type =C2*C3 in cell C4.
11. Click the check mark on the Formula bar. Excel multiplies C1 by cell C2 and displays the
result in cell C3. The formula displays on the Formula bar.

Division

1. Press F5.
2. Type D1 in the Reference field.
3. Press Enter. Excel moves to cell D1.
4. Type Divide.
5. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
6. Type 6 in cell D2.
7. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
8. Type 3 in cell D3.
9. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
10. Type =D2/D3 in cell D4.
11. Click the check mark on the Formula bar. Excel divides cell D2 by cell D3 and displays the
result in cell D4. The formula displays on the Formula bar.

When creating formulas, you can reference cells and include numbers. All of the following
formulas are valid:

=A2/B2

=A1+12-B3

=A2*B2+12

=24+53
AutoSum

You can use the AutoSum button on the Home tab to automatically add a column or row of
numbers. When you press the AutoSum button , Excel selects the numbers it thinks you
want to add. If you then click the check mark on the Formula bar or press the Enter key, Excel
adds the numbers. If Excel's guess as to which numbers you want to add is wrong, you can
select the cells you want.

EXERCISE 2

AutoSum

The following illustrates AutoSum:

1. Go to cell F1.
2. Type 3.
3. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
4. Type 3.
5. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
6. Type 3.
7. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell to cell F4.
8. Choose the Home tab.
 9. Click the AutoSum button in the Editing group. Excel selects cells F1 through F3 and
enters a formula in cell F4.

10. Press Enter. Excel adds cells F1 through F3 and displays the result in cell F4.

Perform Automatic Calculations

By default, Microsoft Excel recalculates the worksheet as you change cell entries. This makes it
easy for you to correct mistakes and analyze a variety of scenarios.

EXERCISE 3

Automatic Calculation

Make the changes described below and note how Microsoft Excel automatically recalculates.

1. Move to cell A2.

2. Type 2.
 3. Press the right arrow key. Excel changes the result in cell A4. Excel adds cell A2 to cell A3
and the new result appears in cell A4.
4. Move to cell B2.
5. Type 8.
6. Press the right arrow key. Excel subtracts cell B3 from cell B3 and the new result
appears in cell B4.
7. Move to cell C2.
8. Type 4.
9. Press the right arrow key. Excel multiplies cell C2 by cell C3 and the new result appears
in cell C4.
10. Move to cell D2.
11. Type 12.
12. Press the Enter key. Excel divides cell D2 by cell D3 and the new result appears in cell
D4.

Align Cell Entries

When you type text into a cell, by default your entry aligns with the left side of the cell. When
you type numbers into a cell, by default your entry aligns with the right side of the cell. You can
change the cell alignment. You can center, left-align, or right-align any cell entry. Look at cells
A1 to D1. Note that they are aligned with the left side of the cell.

EXERCISE 4

Center

To center cells A1 to D1:

 1. Select cells A1 to D1.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Center button in the Alignment group. Excel centers each cell's content.

Left-Align

To left-align cells A1 to D1:

1. Select cells A1 to D1.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Align Text Left button in the Alignment group. Excel left-aligns each cell's
content.

Right-Align

To right-align cells A1 to D1:

1. Select cells A1 to D1. Click in cell A1.

 2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Align Text Right button. Excel right-aligns the cell's content.
4. Click anywhere on your worksheet to clear the highlighting.

Note: You can also change the alignment of cells with numbers in them by using the alignment
buttons.

Perform Advanced Mathematical Calculations

When you perform mathematical calculations in Excel, be careful of precedence. Calculations

are performed from left to right, with multiplication and division performed before addition
and subtraction.

EXERCISE 5

Advanced Calculations

1. Move to cell A7.

2. Type =3+3+12/2*4.
3. Press Enter.

Note: Microsoft Excel divides 12 by 2, multiplies the answer by 4, adds 3, and then adds
another 3. The answer, 30, displays in cell A7.

To change the order of calculation, use parentheses. Microsoft Excel calculates the information
in parentheses first.

1. Double-click in cell A7.

2. Edit the cell to read =(3+3+12)/2*4.
3. Press Enter.

Note: Microsoft Excel adds 3 plus 3 plus 12, divides the answer by 2, and then multiplies the
result by 4. The answer, 36, displays in cell A7.
Copy, Cut, Paste, and Cell Addressing

In Excel, you can copy data from one area of a worksheet and place the data you copied
anywhere in the same or another worksheet. In other words, after you type information into a
worksheet, if you want to place the same information somewhere else, you do not have to
retype the information. You simple copy it and then paste it in the new location.

You can use Excel's Cut feature to remove information from a worksheet. Then you can use the
Paste feature to place the information you cut anywhere in the same or another worksheet. In
other words, you can move information from one place in a worksheet to another place in the
same or different worksheet by using the Cut and Paste features.

Microsoft Excel records cell addresses in formulas in three different ways, called absolute,
relative, and mixed. The way a formula is recorded is important when you copy it. With relative
cell addressing, when you copy a formula from one area of the worksheet to another, Excel
records the position of the cell relative to the cell that originally contained the formula. With
absolute cell addressing, when you copy a formula from one area of the worksheet to another,
Excel references the same cells, no matter where you copy the formula. You can use mixed cell
addressing to keep the row constant while the column changes, or vice versa. The following
exercises demonstrate.

EXERCISE 6

Copy, Cut, Paste, and Cell Addressing

1. Move to cell A9.

2. Type 1. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
3. Type 1. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
4. Type 1. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
5. Move to cell B9.
6. Type 2. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
7. Type 2. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
8. Type 2. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.

In addition to typing a formula as you did in Lesson 1, you can also enter formulas by using
Point mode. When you are in Point mode, you can enter a formula either by clicking on a cell or
by using the arrow keys.

1. Move to cell A12.

2. Type =.
3. Use the up arrow key to move to cell A9.
4. Type +.
5. Use the up arrow key to move to cell A10.
6. Type +.
 7. Use the up arrow key to move to cell A11.
8. Click the check mark on the Formula bar. Look at the Formula bar. Note that the formula
you entered is displayed there.

Copy with the Ribbon

To copy the formula you just entered, follow these steps:

1. You should be in cell A12.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Copy button in the Clipboard group. Excel copies the formula in cell A12.
 4. Press the right arrow key once to move to cell B12.
5. Click the Paste button in the Clipboard group. Excel pastes the formula in cell A12
into cell B12.
6. Press the Esc key to exit the Copy mode.

Compare the formula in cell A12 with the formula in cell B12 (while in the respective cell, look
at the Formula bar). The formulas are the same except that the formula in cell A12 sums the
entries in column A and the formula in cell B12 sums the entries in column B. The formula was
copied in a relative fashion.

Before proceeding with the next part of the exercise, you must copy the information in cells A7
to B9 to cells C7 to D9. This time you will copy by using the Mini toolbar.
Copy with the Mini Toolbar

1. Select cells A9 to B11. Move to cell A9. Press the Shift key. While holding down the Shift
key, press the down arrow key twice. Press the right arrow key once. Excel highlights A9
to B11.
2. Right-click. A context menu and a Mini toolbar appear.
3. Click Copy, which is located on the context menu. Excel copies the information in cells
A9 to B11.

4. Move to cell C9.

5. Right-click. A context menu appears.
6. Click Paste. Excel copies the contents of cells A9 to B11 to cells C9 to C11.
 7. Press Esc to exit Copy mode.

Absolute Cell Addressing

You make a cell address an absolute cell address by placing a dollar sign in front of the row and
column identifiers. You can do this automatically by using the F4 key. To illustrate:

1. Move to cell C12.

2. Type =.
3. Click cell C9.
4. Press F4. Dollar signs appear before the C and the 9.
5. Type +.
6. Click cell C10.
7. Press F4. Dollar signs appear before the C and the 10.
8. Type +.
9. Click cell C11.
10. Press F4. Dollar signs appear before the C and the 11.
11. Click the check mark on the formula bar. Excel records the formula in cell C12.

Copy and Paste with Keyboard Shortcuts

Keyboard shortcuts are key combinations that enable you to perform tasks by using the
keyboard. Generally, you press and hold down a key while pressing a letter. For example, Ctrl+c
means you should press and hold down the Ctrl key while pressing "c." This tutorial notates key
combinations as follows:
Press Ctrl+c.

Now copy the formula from C12 to D12. This time, copy by using keyboard shortcuts.

1. Move to cell C12.

2. Hold down the Ctrl key while you press "c" (Ctrl+c). Excel copies the contents of cell C12.
3. Press the right arrow once. Excel moves to D12.
4. Hold down the Ctrl key while you press "v" (Ctrl+v). Excel pastes the contents of cell C12
into cell D12.
5. Press Esc to exit the Copy mode.

Compare the formula in cell C12 with the formula in cell D12 (while in the respective cell, look
at the Formula bar). The formulas are exactly the same. Excel copied the formula from cell C12
to cell D12. Excel copied the formula in an absolute fashion. Both formulas sum column C.

Mixed Cell Addressing

You use mixed cell addressing to reference a cell when you want to copy part of it absolute and
part relative. For example, the row can be absolute and the column relative. You can use the F4
key to create a mixed cell reference.

1. Move to cell E1.

2. Type =.
3. Press the up arrow key once.
4. Press F4.
5. Press F4 again. Note that the column is relative and the row is absolute.
6. Press F4 again. Note that the column is absolute and the row is relative.
7. Press Esc.

Cut and Paste

You can move data from one area of a worksheet to another.

1. Select cells D9 to D12
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Cut button.
4. Move to cell G1.
 5. Click the Paste button . Excel moves the contents of cells D9 to D12 to cells G1 to
G4.

The keyboard shortcut for Cut is Ctrl+x. The steps for cutting and pasting with a keyboard
shortcut are:

1. Select the cells you want to cut and paste.

2. Press Ctrl+x.
3. Move to the upper-left corner of the block of cells into which you want to paste.
4. Press Ctrl+v. Excel cuts and pastes the cells you selected.

Insert and Delete Columns and Rows

You can insert and delete columns and rows. When you delete a column, you delete everything
in the column from the top of the worksheet to the bottom of the worksheet. When you delete
a row, you delete the entire row from left to right. Inserting a column or row inserts a
completely new column or row.

EXERCISE 7

Insert and Delete Columns and Rows

To delete columns F and G:

 1. Click the column F indicator and drag to column G.
2. Click the down arrow next to Delete in the Cells group. A menu appears.
3. Click Delete Sheet Columns. Excel deletes the columns you selected.
4. Click anywhere on the worksheet to remove your selection.

To delete rows 7 through 12:

1. Click the row 7 indicator and drag to row 12.

2. Click the down arrow next to Delete in the Cells group. A menu appears.
3. Click Delete Sheet Rows. Excel deletes the rows you selected.
4. Click anywhere on the worksheet to remove your selection.

To insert a column:

1. Click on A to select column A.

2. Click the down arrow next to Insert in the Cells group. A menu appears.
3. Click Insert Sheet Columns. Excel inserts a new column.
4. Click anywhere on the worksheet to remove your selection.

To insert rows:

1. Click on 1 and then drag down to 2 to select rows 1 and 2.

2. Click the down arrow next to Insert in the Cells group. A menu appears.
3. Click Insert Sheet Rows. Excel inserts two new rows.
 4. Click anywhere on the worksheet to remove your selection.

Your worksheet should look like the one shown here.

Create Borders

You can use borders to make entries in your Excel worksheet stand out. You can choose from
several types of borders. When you press the down arrow next to the Border button ,a
menu appears. By making the proper selection from the menu, you can place a border on the
top, bottom, left, or right side of the selected cells; on all sides; or around the outside border.
You can have a thick outside border or a border with a single-line top and a double-line bottom.
Accountants usually place a single underline above a final number and a double underline
below. The following illustrates:

EXERCISE 8

Create Borders

1. Select cells B6 to E6.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to the Borders button . A menu appears.
4. Click Top and Double Bottom Border. Excel adds the border you chose to the selected
cells.
Merge and Center

Sometimes, particularly when you give a title to a section of your worksheet, you will want to
center a piece of text over several columns or rows. The following example shows you how.

EXERCISE 9

Merge and Center

1. Go to cell B2.
2. Type Sample Worksheet.
3. Click the check mark on the Formula bar.
4. Select cells B2 to E2.
5. Choose the Home tab.
 6. Click the Merge and Center button in the Alignment group. Excel merges cells B2,
C2, D2, and E2 and then centers the content.

Note: To unmerge cells:

1. Select the cell you want to unmerge.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to the Merge and Center button. A menu appears.
4. Click Unmerge Cells. Excel unmerges the cells.

Add Background Color

To make a section of your worksheet stand out, you can add background color to a cell or group
of cells.

EXERCISE 10

Add Background Color

1. Select cells B2 to E3.

 2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to the Fill Color button .
4. Click the color dark blue. Excel places a dark blue background in the cells you selected.

Change the Font, Font Size, and Font Color

A font is a set of characters represented in a single typeface. Each character within a font is
created by using the same basic style. Excel provides many different fonts from which you can
choose. The size of a font is measured in points. There are 72 points to an inch. The number of
points assigned to a font is based on the distance from the top to the bottom of its longest
character. You can change the Font, Font Size, and Font Color of the data you enter into Excel.
EXERCISE 11

Change the Font

1. Select cells B2 to E3.

2. Choose the Home tab.

3. Click the down arrow next to the Font box. A list of fonts appears. As you scroll down
the list of fonts, Excel provides a preview of the font in the cell you selected.
4. Find and click Times New Roman in the Font box. Note: If Times New Roman is your
default font, click another font. Excel changes the font in the selected cells.
Change the Font Size

1. Select cell B2.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to the Font Size box. A list of font sizes appears. As you scroll
up or down the list of font sizes, Excel provides a preview of the font size in the cell you
selected.
4. Click 26. Excel changes the font size in cell B2 to 26.
Change the Font Color

1. Select cells B2 to E3.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to the Font Color button .
4. Click on the color white. Your font color changes to white.

Your worksheet should look like the one shown here.

Move to a New Worksheet

In Microsoft Excel, each workbook is made up of several worksheets. Each worksheet has a tab.
By default, a workbook has three sheets and they are named sequentially, starting with Sheet1.
The name of the worksheet appears on the tab. Before moving to the next topic, move to a new
worksheet. The exercise that follows shows you how.

EXERCISE 12

Move to a New Worksheet

• Click Sheet2 in the lower-left corner of the screen. Excel moves to Sheet2.

Bold, Italicize, and Underline

When creating an Excel worksheet, you may want to emphasize the contents of cells by
bolding, italicizing, and/or underlining. You can easily bold, italicize, or underline text with
Microsoft Excel. You can also combine these features—in other words, you can bold, italicize,
and underline a single piece of text.

In the exercises that follow, you will learn different methods you can use to bold, italicize, and
underline.
EXERCISE 13

Bold with the Ribbon

1. Type Bold in cell A1.

2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. Click the Bold button . Excel bolds the contents of the cell.
5. Click the Bold button again if you wish to remove the bold.

Italicize with the Ribbon

1. Type Italic in cell B1.

2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Choose the Home tab.
 4. Click the Italic button . Excel italicizes the contents of the cell.
5. Click the Italic button again if you wish to remove the italic.

Underline with the Ribbon

Microsoft Excel provides two types of underlines. The exercises that follow illustrate them.

Single Underline:

1. Type Underline in cell C1.

2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. Click the Underline button . Excel underlines the contents of the cell.
5. Click the Underline button again if you wish to remove the underline.
Double Underline

1. Type Underline in cell D1.

2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. Click the down arrow next to the Underline button and then click Double Underline.
Excel double-underlines the contents of the cell. Note that the Underline button
changes to the button shown here , a D with a double underline under it. Then next
time you click the Underline button, you will get a double underline. If you want a single
underline, click the down arrow next to the Double Underline button and then
choose Underline.
5. Click the double underline button again if you wish to remove the double underline.

Bold, Underline, and Italicize

1. Type All three in cell E1.

2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. Click the Bold button . Excel bolds the cell contents.
5. Click the Italic button . Excel italicizes the cell contents.
6. Click the Underline button . Excel underlines the cell contents.

Alternate Method: Bold with Shortcut Keys

1. Type Bold in cell A2.

2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Hold down the Ctrl key while pressing "b" (Ctrl+b). Excel bolds the contents of the cell.
4. Press Ctrl+b again if you wish to remove the bolding.
Alternate Method: Italicize with Shortcut Keys

1. Type Italic in cell B2. Note: Because you previously entered the word Italic in column B,
Excel may enter the word in the cell automatically after you type the letter I. Excel does
this to speed up your data entry.
2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Hold down the Ctrl key while pressing "i" (Ctrl+i). Excel italicizes the contents of the cell.
4. Press Ctrl+i again if you wish to remove the italic formatting.

Alternate Method: Underline with Shortcut Keys

1. Type Underline in cell C2.

2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Hold down the Ctrl key while pressing "u" (Ctrl+u). Excel applies a single underline to the
cell contents.
4. Press Ctrl+u again if you wish to remove the underline.

Bold, Italicize, and Underline with Shortcut Keys

1. Type All three in cell D2.

2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Hold down the Ctrl key while pressing "b" (Ctrl+b). Excel bolds the cell contents.
4. Hold down the Ctrl key while pressing "i" (Ctrl+i). Excel italicizes the cell contents.
5. Hold down the Ctrl key while pressing "u" (Ctrl+u). Excel applies a single underline to the
cell contents.

Work with Long Text

Whenever you type text that is too long to fit into a cell, Microsoft Excel attempts to display all
the text. It left-aligns the text regardless of the alignment you have assigned to it, and it
borrows space from the blank cells to the right. However, a long text entry will never write over
cells that already contain entries—instead, the cells that contain entries cut off the long text.
The following exercise illustrates this.

EXERCISE 14

Work with Long Text

 1. Move to cell A6.
2. Type Now is the time for all good men to go to the aid of their army.
3. Press Enter. Everything that does not fit into cell A6 spills over into the adjacent cell.

4. Move to cell B6.

5. Type Test.
6. Press Enter. Excel cuts off the entry in cell A6.

7. Move to cell A6.

8. Look at the Formula bar. The text is still in the cell.

Change A Column's Width

You can increase column widths. Increasing the column width enables you to see the long text.
EXERCISE 15

Change Column Width

1. Make sure you are in any cell under column A.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to Format in the Cells group.
4. Click Column Width. The Column Width dialog box appears.
5. Type 55 in the Column Width field.
6. Click OK. Column A is set to a width of 55. You should now be able to see all of the text.

Change a Column Width by Dragging

You can also change the column width with the cursor.

1. Place the mouse pointer on the line between the B and C column headings. The mouse
pointer should look like the one displayed here , with two arrows.
2. Move your mouse to the right while holding down the left mouse button. The width
indicator appears on the screen.
 3. Release the left mouse button when the width indicator shows approximately 20. Excel
increases the column width to 20.

Format Numbers

You can format the numbers you enter into Microsoft Excel. For example, you can add commas
to separate thousands, specify the number of decimal places, place a dollar sign in front of a
number, or display a number as a percent.

EXERCISE 16

Format Numbers

1. Move to cell B8.

2. Type 1234567.
3. Click the check mark on the Formula bar.
 4. Choose the Home tab.
5. Click the down arrow next to the Number Format box. A menu appears.
6. Click Number. Excel adds two decimal places to the number you typed.

7. Click the Comma Style button . Excel separates thousands with a comma.
8. Click the Accounting Number Format button . Excel adds a dollar sign to your
number.
9. Click twice on the Increase Decimal button to change the number format to four
decimal places.
10. Click the Decrease Decimal button if you wish to decrease the number of decimal
places.

Change a decimal to a percent.

1. Move to cell B9.

 2. Type .35 (note the decimal point).
3. Click the check mark on the formula bar.

4. Choose the Home tab.

5. Click the Percent Style button . Excel turns the decimal to a percent.

This is the end of Lesson 2. You can save and close your file. See Lesson 1 to learn how to save
and close a file.

Lesson 3: Creating Excel Functions, Filling Cells, and Printing

By using functions, you can quickly and easily make many useful calculations, such as finding an
average, the highest number, the lowest number, and a count of the number of items in a list.
Microsoft Excel has many functions that you can use.

Using Reference Operators

To use functions, you need to understand reference operators. Reference operators refer to a
cell or a group of cells. There are two types of reference operators: range and union.

A range reference refers to all the cells between and including the reference. A range reference
consists of two cell addresses separated by a colon. The reference A1:A3 includes cells A1, A2,
and A3. The reference A1:C3 includes cells A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, B3, C1, C2, and C3.

A union reference includes two or more references. A union reference consists of two or more
numbers, range referneces, or cell addresses separated by a comma. The reference
A7,B8:B10,C9,10 refers to cells A7, B8 to B10, C9 and the number 10.

Understanding Functions
Functions are prewritten formulas. Functions differ from regular formulas in that you supply the
value but not the operators, such as +, -, *, or /. For example, you can use the SUM function to
add. When using a function, remember the following:

Use an equal sign to begin a formula.

Specify the function name.

Enclose arguments within parentheses. Arguments are values on which you want to perform
the calculation. For example, arguments specify the numbers or cells you want to add.

Use a comma to separate arguments.

Here is an example of a function:

=SUM(2,13,A1,B2:C7)

In this function:

The equal sign begins the function.

SUM is the name of the function.

2, 13, A1, and B2:C7 are the arguments.

Parentheses enclose the arguments.

Commas separate the arguments.

After you type the first letter of a function name, the AutoComplete list appears. You can
double-click on an item in the AutoComplete list to complete your entry quickly. Excel will
complete the function name and enter the first parenthesis.

EXERCISE 1

Functions

The SUM function adds argument values.

 1. Open Microsoft Excel.
2. Type 12 in cell B1.
3. Press Enter.
4. Type 27 in cell B2.
5. Press Enter.
6. Type 24 in cell B3.
7. Press Enter.
8. Type =SUM(B1:B3) in cell A4.
9. Press Enter. The sum of cells B1 to B3, which is 63, appears.

Alternate Method: Enter a Function with the Ribbon

1. Type 150 in cell C1.

2. Press Enter.
3. Type 85 in cell C2.
4. Press Enter.
5. Type 65 in cell C3.
6. Choose the Formulas tab.
 7. Click the Insert Function button. The Insert Function dialog box appears.
8. Choose Math & Trig in the Or Select A Category box.
9. Click Sum in the Select A Function box.
10. Click OK. The Function Arguments dialog box appears.

12. Type C1:C3 in the Number1 field, if it does not automatically appear.
13. Click OK. The sum of cells C1 to C3, which is 300, appears.

Format worksheet

1. Move to cell A4.

2. Type the word Sum.
3. Select cells B4 to C4.
4. Choose the Home tab.
5. Click the down arrow next to the Borders button .
6. Click Top and Double Bottom Border.

As you learned in Lesson 2, you can also calculate a sum by using the AutoSum button .

Calculate an Average

You can use the AVERAGE function to calculate the average of a series of numbers.
 1. Move to cell A6.
2. Type Average. Press the right arrow key to move to cell B6.
3. Type =AVERAGE(B1:B3).
4. Press Enter. The average of cells B1 to B3, which is 21, appears.

Calculate an Average with the AutoSum Button

In Microsoft Excel, you can use the AutoSum button to calculate an average.

1. Move to cell C6.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to the AutoSum button .
4. Click Average.
 5. Select cells C1 to C3.
6. Press Enter. The average of cells C1 to C3, which is 100, appears.

Find the Lowest Number

You can use the MIN function to find the lowest number in a series of numbers.

1. Move to cell A7.

2. Type Min.
3. Press the right arrow key to move to cell B7.
4. Type = MIN(B1:B3).
5. Press Enter. The lowest number in the series, which is 12, appears.

Note: You can also use the drop-down button next to the AutoSum button to calculate
minimums, maximums, and counts.

Find the Highest Number

You can use the MAX function to find the highest number in a series of numbers.
 .

1. Move to cell A8.

2. Type Max.
3. Press the right arrow key to move to cell B8.
4. Type = MAX(B1:B3).
5. Press Enter. The highest number in the series, which is 27, appears.

Count the Numbers in a Series of Numbers

You can use the count function to count the number of numbers in a series.

1. Move to cell A9.

2. Type Count.
3. Press the right arrow key to move to cell B9.
4. Choose the Home tab.
5. Click the down arrow next to the AutoSum button .
6. Click Count Numbers. Excel places the count function in cell C9 and takes a guess at
which cells you want to count. The guess is incorrect, so you must select the proper
cells.
 7. Select B1 to B3.
8. Press Enter. The number of items in the series, which is 3, appears.

Fill Cells Automatically

You can use Microsoft Excel to fill cells automatically with a series. For example, you can have
Excel automatically fill your worksheet with days of the week, months of the year, years, or
other types of series.

EXERCISE 2

Fill Cells Automatically

The following demonstrates filling the days of the week:

1. Click the Sheet2 tab. Excel moves to Sheet2.
2. Move to cell A1.
3. Type Sun.
4. Move to cell B1.
5. Type Sunday.
6. Select cells A1 to B1.
7. Choose the Home tab.
8. Click the Bold button . Excel bolds cells A1 to B1.
9. Find the small black square in the lower-right corner of the selected area. The small
black square is called the fill handle.
10. Grab the fill handle and drag with your mouse to fill cells A1 to B14. Note how the days
of the week fill the cells in a series. Also, note that the Auto Fill Options button appears.
Copy Cells

1. Click the Auto Fill Options button. The Auto Fill Options menu appears.
2. Choose the Copy Cells radio button. The entry in cells A1 and B1 are copied to all the
highlighted cells.
 3. Click the Auto Fill Options button again.
4. Choose the Fill Series radio button. The cells fill as a series from Sunday to Saturday
again.
5. Click the Auto Fill Options button again.
6. Choose the Fill Without Formatting radio button. The cells fill as a series from Sunday to
Saturday, but the entries are not bolded.
7. Click the Auto Fill Options button again.
8. Choose the Fill Weekdays radio button. The cells fill as a series from Monday to Friday.

Adjust Column Width

Some of the entries in column B are too long to fit in the column. You can quickly adjust the
column width to fit the longest entry.

1. Move your mouse pointer over the line that separates column B and C. The Width
Indicator appears.

2. Double-click. The Column adjusts to fit the longest entry.

After you complete the remainder of the exercise, your worksheet will look like the one shown
here.
Fill Times

The following demonstrates filling time:

1. Type 1:00 into cell C1.

2. Grab the fill handle and drag with your mouse to highlight cells C1 to C14. Note that
each cell fills, using military time.
3. Press Esc and then click anywhere on the worksheet to remove the highlighting.

To change the format of the time:

1. Select cells C1 to C14.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to the number format box . A menu appears.
4. Click Time. Excel changes the format of the time.

Fill Numbers

You can also fill numbers.

Type a 1 in cell D1.

1. Grab the fill handle and drag with your mouse to highlight cells D1 to D14. The number 1
fills each cell.
2. Click the Auto Fill Options button.
3. Choose the Fill Series radio button. The cells fill as a series, starting with 1, 2, 3.

Here is another interesting fill feature.

1. Go to cell E1.
2. Type Lesson 1.
3. Grab the fill handle and drag with your mouse to highlight cells E1 to E14. The cells fill in
as a series: Lesson 1, Lesson 2, Lesson 3, and so on.

Create Headers and Footers

You can use the Header & Footer button on the Insert tab to create headers and footers. A
header is text that appears at the top of every page of your printed worksheet. A footer is text
that appears at the bottom of every page of your printed worksheet. When you click the
Header & Footer button, the Design context tab appears and Excel changes to Page Layout
view. A context tab is a tab that only appears when you need it. Page Layout view structures
your worksheet so that you can easily change the format of your document. You usually work in
Normal view.
You can type in your header or footer or you can use predefined headers and footers. To find
predefined headers and footers, click the Header or Footer button or use the Header & Footer
Elements group's buttons. When you choose a header or footer by clicking the Header or
Footer button, Excel centers your choice. The table shown here describes each of the Header &
Footer Elements group button options.

Header & Footer Elements

Button Purpose

Page Number Inserts the page number.

Number of Pages Inserts the number of pages in the document.

Current Time Inserts the current time.

File Path Inserts the path to the document.

File Name Inserts the file name.

Sheet Name Inserts the name of the worksheet.

Picture Enables you to insert a picture.

Both the header and footer areas are divided into three sections: left, right, and center. When
you choose a Header or Footer from the Header & Footer Elements group, where you place
your information determines whether it appears on the left, right, or center of the printed
page. You use the Go To Header and Go To Footer buttons on the Design tab to move between
the header and footer areas of your worksheet.

EXERCISE 3

Insert Headers and Footers

1. Choose the Insert tab.
2. Click the Header & Footer button in the Text group. Your worksheet changes to Page
Layout view and the Design context tab appears. Note that your cursor is located in the
center section of the header area.

3. Click the right side of the header area.

4. Click Page Number in the Header & Footer Elements group. When you print your
document, Excel will place the page number in the upper-right corner.
5. Click the left side of the Header area.
6. Type your name. When you print your document, Excel will place your name in the
upper-left corner.
7. Click the Go To Footer button. Excel moves to the footer area.

8. Click the Footer button. A menu appears.

 9. Click the path to your document. Excel will place the path to your document at the
bottom of every printed page.

Return to Normal View

To return to Normal view:

1. Choose the View tab.

2. Click the Normal button in the Workbook Views group.

Set Print Options

There are many print options. You set print options on the Page Layout tab. Among other
things, you can set your margins, set your page orientation, and select your paper size.

Margins define the amount of white space that appears on the top, bottom, left, and right
edges of your document. The Margin option on the Page Layout tab provides several standard
margin sizes from which you can choose.

There are two page orientations: portrait and landscape. Paper, such as paper sized 8 1/2 by 11,
is longer on one edge than it is on the other. If you print in Portrait, the shortest edge of the
paper becomes the top of the page. Portrait is the default option. If you print in Landscape, the
longest edge of the paper becomes the top of the page.

Portrait

Landscape

Paper comes in a variety of sizes. Most business correspondence uses 8 1/2 by 11 paper, which
is the default page size in Excel. If you are not using 8 1/2 by 11 paper, you can use the Size
option on the Page Layout tab to change the Size setting.
EXERCISE 4

Set the Page Layout

1. Choose the Page Layout tab.

2. Click Margins in the Page Setup group. A menu appears.
3. Click Wide. Word sets your margins to the Wide settings.

Set the Page Orientation

1. Choose the Page Layout tab.

2. Click Orientation in the Page Setup group. A menu appears.
3. Click Landscape. Excel sets your page orientation to landscape.
Set the Paper Size

1. Choose the Page Layout tab.

2. Click Size in the Page Setup group. A menu appears.
3. Click the paper size you are using. Excel sets your page size.

Print

The simplest way to print is to click the Office button, highlight Print on the menu that appears,
and then click Quick Print in the Preview and Print the Document pane. Dotted lines appear on
your screen, and your document prints. The dotted lines indicate the right, left, top, and
bottom edges of your printed pages.

You can also use the Print Preview option to print. When using Print Preview, you can see
onscreen how your printed document will look when you print it. If you click the Page Setup
button while in Print Preview mode, you can set page settings such as centering your data on
the page.

If your document is several pages long, you can use the Next Page and Previous Page buttons to
move forward and backward through your document. If you check the Show Margins check
box, you will see margin lines on your document. You can click and drag the margin markers to
increase or decrease the size of your margins. To return to Excel, click the Close Print Preview
button.
You click the Print button when you are ready to print. The Print dialog box appears. You can
choose to print the entire worksheet or specific pages. If you want to print specific pages, enter
the page numbers in the From and To fields. You can enter the number of copies you want to
print in the Number of Copies field.

EXERCISE 5

Open Print Preview

1. Click the Office button. A menu appears.

2. Highlight Print. The Preview and Print The Document pane appears.
3. Click Print Preview. The Print Preview window appears, with your document in the
center.
Center Your Document

1. Click the Page Setup button in the Print group. The Page Setup dialog box appears.
2. Choose the Margins tab.
3. Click the Horizontally check box. Excel centers your data horizontally.
4. Click the Vertically check box. Excel centers your data vertically.
5. Click OK. The Page Setup dialog box closes.

Print
 1. Click the Print button. The Print dialog box appears.
2. Click the down arrow next to the name field and select the printer to which you want to
print.
3. Click OK. Excel sends your worksheet to the printer.

This is the end of Lesson 3. You can save and close your file.

Lesson 4: Creating Charts

Previous Page Table of Contents Next Page

In Microsoft Excel, you can represent numbers in a chart. On the Insert tab, you can choose
from a variety of chart types, including column, line, pie, bar, area, and scatter. The basic
procedure for creating a chart is the same no matter what type of chart you choose. As you
change your data, your chart will automatically update.

Create a Chart

You select a chart type by choosing an option from the Insert tab's Chart group. After you
choose a chart type, such as column, line, or bar, you choose a chart sub-type. For example,
after you choose Column Chart, you can choose to have your chart represented as a two-
dimensional chart, a three-dimensional chart, a cylinder chart, a cone chart, or a pyramid chart.
There are further sub-types within each of these categories. As you roll your mouse pointer
over each option, Excel supplies a brief description of each chart sub-type.

To create the column chart shown above, start by creating the worksheet below exactly as
shown.
After you have created the worksheet, you are ready to create your chart.

EXERCISE 1

Create a Column Chart

1. Select cells A3 to D6. You must select all the cells containing the data you want in your
chart. You should also include the data labels.
2. Choose the Insert tab.
3. Click the Column button in the Charts group. A list of column chart sub-types types
appears.
4. Click the Clustered Column chart sub-type. Excel creates a Clustered Column chart and
the Chart Tools context tabs appear.

Apply a Chart Layout

Context tabs are tabs that only appear when you need them. Called Chart Tools, there are three
chart context tabs: Design, Layout, and Format. The tabs become available when you create a
new chart or when you click on a chart. You can use these tabs to customize your chart.

You can determine what your chart displays by choosing a layout. For example, the layout you
choose determines whether your chart displays a title, where the title displays, whether your
chart has a legend, where the legend displays, whether the chart has axis labels and so on.
Excel provides several layouts from which you can choose.

EXERCISE 2

Apply a Chart Layout

1. Click your chart. The Chart Tools become available.

2. Choose the Design tab.
3. Click the Quick Layout button in the Chart Layout group. A list of chart layouts appears.
4. Click Layout 5. Excel applies the layout to your chart.

Add Labels

When you apply a layout, Excel may create areas where you can insert labels. You use labels to
give your chart a title or to label your axes. When you applied layout 5, Excel created label areas
for a title and for the vertical axis.
EXERCISE 3

Add labels

Before After

1. Select Chart Title. Click on Chart Title and then place your cursor before the C in Chart
and hold down the Shift key while you use the right arrow key to highlight the words
Chart Title.
2. Type Toy Sales. Excel adds your title.
3. Select Axis Title. Click on Axis Title. Place your cursor before the A in Axis. Hold down the
Shift key while you use the right arrow key to highlight the words Axis Title.
4. Type Sales. Excel labels the axis.
5. Click anywhere on the chart to end your entry.

Switch Data

If you want to change what displays in your chart, you can switch from row data to column data
and vice versa.

EXERCISE 4

Switch Data

Before After
 1. Click your chart. The Chart Tools become available.
2. Choose the Design tab.
3. Click the Switch Row/Column button in the Data group. Excel changes the data in your
chart.

Change the Style of a Chart

A style is a set of formatting options. You can use a style to change the color and format of your
chart. Excel 2007 has several predefined styles that you can use. They are numbered from left
to right, starting with 1, which is located in the upper-left corner.

EXERCISE 5

Change the Style of a Chart

1. Click your chart. The Chart Tools become available.

2. Choose the Design tab.
3. Click the More button in the Chart Styles group. The chart styles appear.
 4. Click Style 42. Excel applies the style to your chart.

Change the Size and Position of a Chart

When you click a chart, handles appear on the right and left sides, the top and bottom, and the
corners of the chart. You can drag the handles on the top and bottom of the chart to increase
or decrease the height of the chart. You can drag the handles on the left and right sides to
increase or decrease the width of the chart. You can drag the handles on the corners to
increase or decrease the size of the chart proportionally. You can change the position of a chart
by clicking on an unused area of the chart and dragging.

EXERCISE 6

Change the Size and Position of a Chart

 1. Use the handles to adjust the size of your chart.
2. Click an unused portion of the chart and drag to position the chart beside the data.

Move a Chart to a Chart Sheet

By default, when you create a chart, Excel embeds the chart in the active worksheet. However,
you can move a chart to another worksheet or to a chart sheet. A chart sheet is a sheet
dedicated to a particular chart. By default Excel names each chart sheet sequentially, starting
with Chart1. You can change the name.

EXERCISE 7

Move a Chart to a Chart Sheet

1. Click your chart. The Chart Tools become available.

2. Choose the Design tab.
3. Click the Move Chart button in the Location group. The Move Chart dialog box appears.
 4. Click the New Sheet radio button.
5. Type Toy Sales to name the chart sheet. Excel creates a chart sheet named Toy Sales and
places your chart on it.

Change the Chart Type

Any change you can make to a chart that is embedded in a worksheet, you can also make to a
chart sheet. For example, you can change the chart type from a column chart to a bar chart.

EXERCISE 8

Change the Chart Type

1. Click your chart. The Chart Tools become available.

2. Choose the Design tab.
3. Click Change Chart Type in the Type group. The Chart Type dialog box appears.
4. Click Bar.
5. Click Clustered Horizontal Cylinder.
 6. Click OK. Excel changes your chart type.

You have reached the end of Lesson 4. You can save and close your file.
MS ACCESS
MS Access is a computerized database management software, which allows you to collect and
organize related data. Data can be stored on anything e.g. student records, employee records,
stock inventory records etc.

BASIC CONCEPTS
A database file is the entire database.

A table is an object in the database that contains related data on a specific topic e.g. personal
information on all employees in a department.

A record is group of related fields e.g. all the personal information of one person in the
department. In a table it is represented as a row in a table.

A field is a specific piece of data in a table e.g. the address of one person in the department. A
record is made up of multiple fields. In a table it is represented as a column in a table.

CREATING A DATABASE USING MS ACCESS

Steps:

1. Click on the MS Access shortcut or go to All programs, select MS Office and then click on
MS Access. This opens the Getting started screen.
2. To create a new database click blank database and in the panel on the right enter the
database filename [STUDENTS RECORDS]. Then click create.

(Have them close the database)

OPENING AN EXISTING DATABASE

Steps:

1. Click on the MS Access shortcut or go to ALL PROGRAMS, select MS Office and then click
on MS Access. This opens the GETTING STARTED screen.
2. If the database filename is listed in the panel in the right, open it or if not, select MORE
and locate the file where it is stored and open it.

(Have them open STUDENTS RECORDS)

N.B. If a security warning is displayed, click on OPTIONS and check the radio button that is
labeled ENABLE THIS CONTENT.

ACCESS NAVIGATION PANE

This is located on the left hand side of the MS Access window. It lists all of the objects – tables,
forms, queries and reports that have been created in this database. To open an object you
simply have to click on it.

CREATING A TABLE
By default when a database is created a table is created. To define the structure of the table
and attributes of the fields in that table, you must go to the DESIGN VIEW.

Steps:
 1. Click on the icon labeled VIEW and select DESIGN VIEW. This will open a SAVE dialogue
box. Enter the name you will like the table to have: [FORM 1 STUDENTS]. This opens the
table in design view and allows you to enter the field names required in this table and
specify their attributes - data type, description and properties. (Use the Log on to IT pg.
237 to give explanation of data types).

Field name Data type

StudID {PK} Number
Surname Text
Firstname Text
DOB Date/Time
Address Text
HPHone Text
Religion Lookup wizard
Sex Text

2. After entering the fields and their attributes, select a primary key. A primary key is a
field in the table that is chosen to uniquely identify a record. To do this select the field
and click the primary key icon. If the wrong field is selected it can be changed by
selecting the right field and clicking the PK icon.
3. After choosing the PK, save the structure of the table by clicking on the SAVE icon on the
quick access toolbar.
4. Change the view of the table to DATASHEET icon.

CREATING A TABLE FROM SCRATCH

Steps:

1. Click the CREATE tab and select TABLE DESIGN. This will open a table in design view and
allow you to enter the fields and their attributes.

Field name Data type

StudID {PK} Number
Maths Number
Phys Number
Chem Number
Bio Number
Eng Number

2. Select the PK and click the SAVE icon. This will prompt you for a table name
[FORM 1 TEST]

ENTER DATA IN A TABLE

Data can be entered into a table in several ways: using datasheet view, using a form or using a
query.

Data Entry Using Datasheet View

Steps:

1. Ensure that the table is open in datasheet view.

 2. Select the first field in the first record and enter the require data, move to the other
fields in that record using the arrow keys or TAB key and enter the data. N.B. if any field
is defined as AUTONUMBER, that field will be filled automatically as a record is added.
3. After completing one record move to the next by pressing the ENTER key. The record is
automatically saved.

N.B. A primary key field must NEVER have a null value i.e. be blank. If it is left blank, an error
message is displayed. To continue a value must be entered in that field.

Form 1 Students

StudID Surname Firstname DOB Address HPhone Religion Sex

0001 Ali Fyzool 5/10/91 Penal 456-6789 Hindu M
0003 Barnes David 6/8/94 Mason Hall 639-4531 Anglican M
0047 Lara Leanna 23/3/91 Couva 677-5559 Pentecostal F
0032 King Mary 12/12/90 Fyzabad 987-5421 Anglican F
0209 George Gary 28/9/90 Canaan 655-0975 Catholic M
Creating a Form Using the Form Wizard

A form is a database object that provides a secure more aesthetically pleasing display for data
entry into a table. It allows you to add, update and delete records in a table from the form.

Steps:

1. Click the CREATE tab and select MORE forms from the forms group. From the menu
select FORM WIZARD.
2. From the first page of the form wizard select the table to be used as the data source:
[FORM 1 TEST].
3. Select the fields you wish to have displayed on the form, individually or all at once using
the > or >> buttons. Click NEXT.
4. Select a form layout of your choice. Click NEXT.
5. Select a style of your choice. Click NEXT.
6. Name the form [FORM 1 TEST].
7. Click FINISH.

Navigating records using a form

At the bottom left of the form are navigation buttons. To move to the next record click the right
arrow button. Click the >I button to move to the last record. To move backwards through the
record set use the left arrow button.

Create a New Record Using a Access form

To add a new record click on the navigation button with the star on the right of it, this should
bring up a blank record. Enter the given data. When finished close the form.

StudID Maths Phys Chem Bio Eng

0001 70 85 80 65 75

0003 25 40 55 45 65

0047 80 70 60 41 75

0032 75 65 76 65 80
 0209 60 65 75 65 88

Create a Query Using the Query Design Grid

Queries are used to select records from one or more tables based on specific criteria. There are
different types of queries:

• Select: this extracts data from a table or tables

• Upadate: this makes changes to existing records

• Append: this adds records to the end of tables

• Delete: this deletes records

• Make table: this creates a new table from specific fields

• Crosstab: this calculates and restructures data for easy analysis

Steps: {SELECT QUERY}

E.g. {List the name and date of birth of each female student in the class}

1. Select the CREATE tab, go to the OTHERS group and click QUERY DESIGN.

2. Select a query, table or the tables from which the data must be selected. To do this,
right click in the window and select SHOW TABLE. When that window opens highlight
the table needed [FORM 1 STUDENTS] and click ADD. Repeat by highlighting any other
table or query necessary and then click ADD. When all the tables have been added click
CLOSE.

3. Select fields [FIRSTNAME, SURNAME, DOB, SEX] from the tables by double clicking on
their names or in the QUERY DESIGN GRID, in each column click on the arrow and select
the appropriate field from the list.

4. Enter the query criteria [F] in the appropriate field in the row labeled CRITERIA.

5. Run the query by clicking on the RUN icon in the RESULTS group. This should display the
results of the query in datasheet view.

Practise the following:

1. List the names and sex of all Anglican students. Save as ANGLICAN

2. List the names and date of birth of each student born before 1993. N.B. date criteria
must be placed between # signs e.g. <#1/3/1997#

Selecting Data from Multiple Tables

To select data from multiple tables the tables need to be joined.

Steps:

1. Select the DATABASE TOOLS tab, then choose RELATIONSHIPS. The SHOW TABLE
window will appear.

2. Add all tables in the database, click CLOSE.

 3. Link the primary key [StudID] to the foreign key [StudID] by clicking and dragging the PK
to the FK. This opens the EDIT RELATIONSHIPS window.

4. Check ENFORCE REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY, then click create.

Practise the following:

• List all students and their results for each test. Save as GRADE SLIP

• List the students who scored more than 70 in their Maths test. Save as GreaterThan70

• List the students who scored less than 50 in their Biology test. LessThan50

Create a Report Using Report Wizard

Reports are used to organize and group information from tables/queries and format the data in
a way suitable for online viewing or for printing from the database.

Steps:

1. Select CREATE tab, then click the REPORT WIZARD.

2. Select the table/queries [GRADE SLIP] to be used as the DATA SOURCE for the report.

3. Select the fields required.[All]

4. Select the grouping level. [none]

5. Sort the records by a specific field [Surname Ascending]

6. Choose a layout

7. Choose a style

8. Name your report [GRADE SLIP]

9. Click finish