MODULE 1

Two approaches to human development

If you believe that Nikki and Kenn will show extensive change from birth to
adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in late old age,
your approach to development is TRADITIONAL. In contrast, if you believe
that even in adulthood developmental change takes place as it does during
childhood, your approach is termed LIFE-SPAN approach. ba inplatent dy wo
kap

life-span→ development, gives the following characteristics:

1.) DEVELOPMENT IS LIFELONG - It does not end in adulthood. Ken and

Naschielle will continue developing even in adulthood.

2.)DEVELOPMENT IS PLASTIC. Plasticity refers to the potential for change.

*AGING is associated with declines in certain intellectual abilities, These

declines can be prevented or reduced.

3.) DEVELOPMENT IS MULTIDIMENSIONAL -Development consists of

biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional dimensions. Development as a
process is complex because it is the product of biological, cognitive and
socioemotional processes.

*Biological processes involve changes in the individual's physical nature.

Development is relatively orderly. Naschielle and Kenn will learn to sit,

crawl then walk before they can run.

•proximodistal pattern. During infancy, the greatest growth always occurs

at the top the head with physical growth in size, weight and future
differentiation gradually working its way down from top to bottom (for
example, neck, shoulders, middle trunk and so on). patterns are This is the
•cephalo-caudal pattern.

Development takes place gradually—Kenn won't develop into pimply

teenagers overnight. It takes years before they become one. In fact, that's
the way of nature.

•Cognitive processes involve changes in the individual's thought,

intelligence, and language. Kenn develop from mere sounds to a word
becoming two words, the two words becoming a sentence.
•Socioemotional processes include changes in the individual's
relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes.

4.) Development is contextual—Individuals are changing beings in a

changing world. Individuals respond to and act on contexts.

5.) Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation—

Growth, maintenance and regulation are three (3) goals of human
development. The goals of individuals vary among developmental stages.

MODULE 2

Pre-natal period- Referring to pre-natal development.

Infancy (from birth to 2 years) - As newborns, we were not empty-headed

organisms. We cried, kicked, coughed, sucked, saw, heard and tasted. We
slept a lot and occasionally we smiled, although the meaning of our smiles
was not entirely clear.

Early Childhood (3 to 5 years) - In early childhood, our greatest untold

poem was being only four years old. We skipped, played, and ran all day
long, never in our lives so busy.

Middle and Late Childhood (6-12 years) —In middle and late childhood,
we were on a different plane, belonging to a generation and a feeling
properly our own.

Adolescence (13-18 years) - In no order of things was adolescence, the

simple time of life for us. We clothed ourselves with rainbows and went
'brave as the zodiac', flashing from one end of the world to the other.

Early adulthood (19-29 years) - time for love or dreams Early adulthood is
a time for work and a time for love, sometimes leaving little time for
anything else.

Middle adulthood (30-60 years) — In middle adulthood what we have been

forms what we will be. For some of us, middle age is such a foggy place, a
time when we need to discover what we are running from and to and why.
We compare our life with what we vowed to make it.
Late adulthood (61 years and above) -The rhythm and meaning of human
development eventually wend their way to late adulthood, when each of us
stands alone at the heart of the earth and "suddenly it is evening.

Concept of developmental tasks

In each stage of development a certain task or tasks are expected of every

individual.

Robert Havighurst defines developmental task as one that "arises at a

certain period in our life, the successful achievement of which leads to
happiness and success with later tasks while failure leads to unhappiness,
social disapproval, and difficulty with later tasks." (Havighurst, 1972).

Developmental stages

There are eight (8) developmental stages given by Santrock. The eight (8)
developmental stages cited by Santrock are the same with Havighurst's six
(6) developmental stages only that Havighurst did not include prenatal
period. Havighurst combined infancy and early childhood while Santrock
mentioned them as two (2) separate stages. These developmental stages are
described more in detail in the next paragraphs.

The developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)

described by Santrock and compare them to those listed by Havighurst

himself.

1. Prenatal period (from conception to birth) - It involves tremendous

growth- from a single cell to an organism

2. Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months) - A time of extreme dependence on

adults.

3. Early childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years (Grade 1) - These are the
preschool years.

4. Middle and late childhood (6-11 years of age, the elementary school
years) The fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic are
mastered.
 5. Adolescence (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of age)
Begins with rapid physical changes dramatic gains in height and weight,
changes in body contour, and the development

6. Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting through the 30s) - It
is a time of establishing personal and economic independence, career
development, selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate
way, starting a family and rearing children.

7. Middle adulthood (40 to 60 years of age) -It is a time of expanding

personal and social involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next
generation in becoming competent and mature individuals; and of reaching
and maintaining satisfaction in a career.

8. Late adulthood (60s and above)- It is a time for adjustment to

decreasing strength and health, life review, retirement, and adjustment to
new social roles.

MODULE 3

Nature versus Nurture- Which has a more significant influence on human

development? Nature or nurture? Nature refers to an individual's biological
inheritance. Nurture refers to environmental experiences.

2. Continuity versus Discontinuity - Does development involve omhus

gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct changes(discontinuity).

3. Stability - perfect or no need to change vs. Change - you need to explore

or experience more, to move.

Development is not all nature or all nurture, not all continuity or

discontinuity and not all stability or all change. Both nature and nurture,
continuity and discontinuity, stability and change characterize our life-span
development.

Heredity and environment operate together or cooperate and interact to

produce a person's intelligence, temperament, height, weight... ability to
read and so on. The relative contributions of heredity and environment are
not additive. So we can't say 50% is a contribution of heredity and 50% of
environment.

MODULE 4

Teachers as Consumers/End Users of Research

Research gives teachers and also policy-makers important knowledge to use
in decision-making for the benefit of learners and their families.

Teachers as Researchers

-The conduct of research does not only belong to thesis and dissertation
writers. It is for students and teachers, too.

Dewey gave us 5 steps of the scientific method. They are as follows:

1. identify and define the problem

2. determine the hypothesis - Educated guess

3. collect and analyze data

4. formulate conclusions- accept or reject

5. apply conclusions to the original hypothesis

RESEARCH DESIGN

1. CASE STUDY - An in-depth look at an individual

STRENGTH - It provides information about an individual's fear, hope,

fantasies, traumatic experiences.

WEAKNESS - need to exercise caution when generalizing from information.

2. CORRELATIONAL STUDY - that determines associations.

Hindi pa tapos ito.

Ethical Principles

S Derso Lion, or To serve the genuine purposes of research, teacher

researchers are subject to ethical principles. Just as we have the Code of
Ethics that governs the behavior of teachers, there also exist ethical
standards that guide the conduct of research. These ethical standards serve
as reminders that as researchers, we should strive to protect the subjects of
our study and to maintain the integrity of our research.
 MODULE 5

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of

personality, also probably the most controversial. Mouth His theory of
psychosexual development includes five distinct stages.

The theory is quite interesting for many because Freud identified specific
erogenous zones for each stage of development. These are specific "pleasure
areas" that become focal points for the particular stage. If needs are not met
along the area, a fixation occurs. As an adult, the person will now manifest
behaviors related to this erogenous zone.

1. Oral Stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mouth.

During the oral stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too
much or too little satisfaction can lead to an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality
which is shown in an increased focus on oral activities.

*oral receptive, that is, have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol,
overeat.

*oral aggressive, that is, with a tendency to bite his or her nails, or use
curse words or even gossip.

2.Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years). The child's focus of pleasure in this
stage is the anus.

FIXATION
*anal retentive, an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control.

* anal expulsive where the person may become messy and disorganized.

3. Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6). The pleasure or erogenous zone is the

genitals. During the preschool age, children become interested in what
makes boys and girls different.

*OEDIPUS COMPLEX— the son/boy marry his mother

*ELECTRA COMPLEX— daughter/girl developing unconscious sexual

attraction towards their father.

4. Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty). It's during this stage that sexual urges
remain repressed. The children's focus is the acquisition of physical and
academic skills. Boys usually relate more with boys and girls with girls during
this stage. crush

5. Genital Stage (puberty onwards). The fifth stage of psychosexual wo on

sat pu of or the col are development begins at the start of puberty when
sexual urges are once again awakened. In the earlier stages, adolescents
focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex peers, with the pleasure
centered on the genitals.

Freud's Personality Components

3 personality structure components:

1. id- (birth to 3yo) baby plays a vital role in one's personality. Speak up until
his/her need are met.

* Pleasure principle - it focuses on immediate gratification or satisfaction

of it's needs.

2. Ego- baby turns into a toddler and then into a preschool, he/she relates
more with the environment.

*Reality - operates ego

3. Superego - (kinder to g1) is likened to conscience because it exerts

influence on what one consider right and wrong.

Topographical Model

The Unconscious
— Freud said that most what we go through in our lives, emotions, beliefs,
feelings, and impulses deep within are not available to us at a conscious
level.

The Conscious

—Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored in our conscious
mind. Our conscious mind only comprises a very small part of who we are so
that, in our everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part of what
makes up our personality; most of what we are is hidden and out of reach.

The Subconscious

— The last part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us

that we can reach if prompted, but is not in our active conscious. Its right
below the surface, but still "hidden" somewhat unless we search for it.
Information such as our telephone number, some childhood memories, or the
name of your best childhood friend is stored in the preconscious.

The water, may represent all that we are not aware of, have not
experienced, and that has not been made part of our personalities, referred
to as the nonconscious.

MODULE 6

Jean Piaget- understand cognitive development of children and

adolescents. For sixty years, Jean Piaget conducted research on cognitive
development.

Piaget called his general theoretical framework "genetic epistemo-logy"

because he was interested in how knowledge developed in human
organisms.

PIAGETIAN TASKS—His research method involved observing a small

number of individuals as they responded to cognitive task that he designed.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

1. Schema—Piaget used the term "schema" to refer to the cognitive

structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their
environment. It is an individual's way to understand or create meaning about
a thing or experience.

② Assimilation— This is the process of fitting a new experience into an

existing or previously created cognitive structure or schema.

3. Accommodation—This is the process of creating a new schema. child

now sees another animal that looks a little bit like a dog, but somehow
different.

4. Equilibration. Piaget believed that that people have the natural need to
understand how the world works and to find order, structure, and
predictability in their life. Equilibration is achieving proper balance between
assimilation and accommodation. When our experiences do not match our
schemata (plural of schema) or cognitive structures, we experience cognitive
disequilibrium.

*Cognitive development —involves a continuous effort to adapt to the

environment in terms of assimilation and accommodation.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage—The first stage corresponds from af birth

to infancy. This is the stage when a child who is ini- pagtut tially reflexive in
grasping, sucking and reaching becomes. more organized in his movement
and activity.

Object permanence—This is the ability of the child to know that an object

still exists even when out of sight.

Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage—The preoperational stage covers from

about two to seven years old, roughly corresponding to the preschool years.

Symbolic Function— (2-7yo) This is the ability to represent objects and

events. A symbol is a thing that represents something else. A drawing, a
written word, or a spoken word comes to be understood as representing a
real object like a real MRT train.

Egocentrism—This is the tendency of the child to only see hinda pulihis

point of view, and to assume that everyone also has his same point of view.

Centration—This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one

aspect of a thing or event and exclude other aspects.
Irreversibility— Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse
their thinking. They can understand that 2 + 3 is 5, but cannot understand
that 5-3 is 2.

Animism—This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or

characteristics to inanimate objects.

Transductive reasoning— This refers to the pre-operational child's type of

reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive.

Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage— This stage is characterized by

the ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete objects.
This covers approximately the ages between 8-11 years or the elementary
school years. The concrete operational stage is marked by the following:

Decentering—This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different

features of objects and situations. This allows the child to be more logical
when dealing with concrete objects and situations.

Reversibility— During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now
follow that certain operation can be done in reverse.

Conservation— this is the ability to know that certain properties object like
number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in
appearance.

Stage 4. Formal Operational stage — (12-15yo) thinking becomes more

logical.

Hypothetical reasoning — ability to come up with different hypothesis

about a problem and to gather weight data in order to make a final decision
or judgement.

Analogical reasoning — ability to perceive the relationship in one instance

and then use that relationship to narrow down possible answer in another
similar situation or problem.

Deductive reasoning — ability to think logically by applying a general rule

to a particular instance or situation. General to Specific.