Network Model

LAYERED TASKS

• We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example, let us

consider two friends who communicate through postal mail. The
process of sending a letter to a friend would be complex if there were
no services available from the post office.
Tasks involved in sending a letter
THE OSI MODEL

• Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is

a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of
network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
• ISO is the organization.
• OSI is the model.
• OSI model is layered framework for designed of network system that
allows for communication across all types of computer system
 Layered architecture
• Layered architecture in computer networks ensures modular design,
abstraction, interoperability, troubleshooting ease, and scalability.
• Layered architecture helps to divide the unmanageable and complex task
into smaller sub parts and then solve it efficiently.
• Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of
services to manage communications and run the applications.
• It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between
subsystems.
• It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from
lower to higher layer without defining how the services are implemented.
Therefore, any modification in a layer will not affect the other layers.
• The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to
network. However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from
lower to a higher layer and hiding the details from the layers of how the services
are implemented.
Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model
•The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper
layers and lower layers.
•The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with
the application related issues, and they are
implemented only in the software. The application
layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user and
the application layer interact with the software
applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just
above another layer.
•The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data
transport issues. The data link layer and the physical
layer are implemented in hardware and software.
The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI
model and is closest to the physical medium. The
physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the
information on the physical medium.
Physical Layer (Layer 1)

• The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer.
• It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the
devices.
• The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is
responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
• When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and
convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which
will put the frame back together
Physical Layer (Layer 1)

• The functions of the physical layer are as follows:

1.Bit synchronization:

1.Bit rate control:

2.Physical topologies:

3.Transmission mode:
Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2)

• The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message.
• The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-
free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet
arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the
Host using its MAC address.
• Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
1.Logical Link Control (LLC)
2.Media Access Control (MAC)
Data Link Layer
Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2)
• The functions of the Data Link layer are :
1.Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
2.Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses
(MAC address) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
3.Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects
and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
4.Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before
receiving acknowledgement.
5.Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the
MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over
the channel at a given time.
Network Layer (Layer 3)

• The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host
to the other located in different networks.
• It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path
to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available.
• The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer.
• To divide the outgoing message into packets and to assemble
incoming packets into messages for the higher levels
Network Layer (Layer 3)
Network Layer (Layer 3)
• Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the
network layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
• Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to
the header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the
internet.
• Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to
the destination.
• Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer
and converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is
achieved by internet protocol (IP).
Transport Layer (Layer 4) :

•The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are

transmitted in the order in which they are sent and there is no
duplication of data.
•The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the
data completely.
•It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them
into smaller units known as segments.
•This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides
a point-to-point connection between source and destination to
deliver the data reliably.
Transport Layer (Layer 4) :

• It decide if the data transmission should take place on parallel path or

single path
• It decide the function such as multiplexing ,splitting or segmenting on the
data.
• The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes
services from the network layer.
• The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible
for the End to End Delivery of the complete message.
• The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful
data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
Session layer
• The Session Layer allows users on different machines to establish
active communication sessions between them.
• It's main aim is to establish, maintain and synchronize the interaction
between communicating systems. Session layer manages and
synchronize the conversation between two different applications.
• In Session layer, streams of data are marked and are resynchronized
properly, so that the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely
and data loss is avoided.
Functions of Session Layer

1.Dialog Control : This layer allows two systems to start communication

with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
2.Token Management: This layer prevents two parties from attempting
the same critical operation at the same time.
3.Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints
which are considered as synchronization points into stream of data.
Example: If a system is sending a file of 800 pages, adding checkpoints
after every 50 pages is recommended. This ensures that 50 page unit
is successfully received and acknowledged. This is beneficial at the
time of crash as if a crash happens at page number 110; there is no
need to retransmit 1 to100 pag
Presentation layer
• A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of
the information exchanged between the two systems.
• It acts as a data translator for a network.
• This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.
• The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
• Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the
receiver will understand the information(data) and will be able to use the
data. Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating
systems. Under this condition presentation layer plays a role translator.
Functions of Presentation layer:

• Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the

form of character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use
different encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the
interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the
data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes
the common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
• Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a
process of converting the sender-transmitted information into another
form and sends the resulting message over the network.
• Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e.,
it reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very
important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
Application layer
• The application layer is the topmost layer in the OSI model and
acts as the general manager of the network by proving access
to the OSI environment.
• It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation,
etc.
• These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over
the network. This layer provides the network services to the end-
users.
• This layer also serves as a window for the application services to
access the network and for displaying the received information to the
user.
The function of the Application Layers are:

• Application-layer helps you to identify communication partners,

determining resource availability, and synchronizing
communication.
• It allows users to log on to a remote host
• This layer provides various e-mail services
• This application offers distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.
OSI layers
An Exchange using OSI Model
Summary of OSI Layers
Advantages of the OSI reference model.

• It is a truly generic model.

• The OSI model works as a standard model in data communication.
• OSI model is helpful if you want to buy the required software or hardware to
build your own network.
• Layers in the OSI model architectures can be distinguished and every layer has
its own importance according to their interfaces, services, and protocols.
• The OSI divides the all process of data communication into simpler and smaller
• The protocols are hidden in the OSI model, so any protocols can be
implemented in the OSI model. OSI model is a standard model, so it can adapt
all features of other protocols.
• The OSI model can facilitate the followings;
• Component development
• Concept of Modularity
• Design of the network
• Troubleshooting of the network
• The OSI model increases the learnability of the network.
 Disadvantages of the OSI model

• It is purely a theoretical model that does not consider the availability of appropriate technology.
This restricts its practical implementation.
• The launching timing of this model was inappropriate. When OSI appeared, the TCP/IP protocols
were already implemented. So, the companies were initially reluctant to use it.
• The OSI model is very complex. The initial implementation was cumbersome, slow and costly.
• Though there are many layers, some of the layers like the session layer and presentation layer have
very little functionality when practically deployed.
• There is a duplication of services in various layers. Services like addressing, flow control and error
control are offered by multiple layers.
• The standards of OSI model are theoretical and do not offer adequate solutions for practical
network implementation.
• After being launched, the OSI model did not meet the practical needs as well as the TCP/IP model.
So it was labeled as inferior quality.
• TCP/IP model was very much preferred by the academia. It was believed that OSI was a product of
the European communities and the US government, who were trying to force an inferior model to
researchers and programmers. Hence, there was considerable resistance in adopting it.