Polynomial

A polynomial is an algebraic expression consisting of variables (also called

indeterminates) and constants, combined using only the operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and nonnegative integer exponents on the variables.
A polynomial can have one or more terms.

The general form of a Polynomial:

𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑥 +···+ 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎0

Where:
● 𝑎𝑛, 𝑎𝑛−1, ..., 𝑎0 are constants (called coefficients).

● 𝑥 is the variable (also called an indeterminate).

● 𝑛 is a non-negative integer representing the degree of the polynomial.
● 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 , because it represents the highest power of the polynomial.

Types of Polynomials:
Polynomials are classified based on the number of terms and the degree.

Based on the Number of Terms:

● Monomial: A polynomial with only one term.
3
Example: 5𝑥 , 7𝑦, − 3

● Binomial: A polynomial with exactly two terms.

2 2
Example: 𝑥 + 2𝑥, 3𝑦 − 4𝑦, 5𝑥 + 9

● Trinomial: A polynomial with exactly three terms.

2 3
Example: 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1, 𝑦 − 4𝑦 + 5

● Multinomial: A polynomial with more than three terms.

3 2
Example: 4𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1
Based on Degree:
The degree of a polynomial is the highest power of the variable in the
expression.

Constant Polynomial: A polynomial of degree 0 . It contains only a constant

term.

Example: 5, − 3, 7

● Linear Polynomial: A polynomial of degree 1. The highest power of

the variable is 1 .

Example: 3𝑥 + 2, − 4𝑦 + 5, 7𝑧 − 9

● Quadratic Polynomial: A polynomial of degree 2. The highest power

of the variable is 2 .
2 2
Example: 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1, 5𝑦 − 4𝑦 + 7

● Cubic Polynomial: A polynomial of degree 3. The highest power of the

variable is 3 .
3 2 3
Example: 2𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 1, − 𝑦 + 6𝑦 − 8

● Quartic Polynomial: A polynomial of degree 4. The highest power of

the variable is 4.
4 2 4 3
Example: 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 3, 3𝑦 − 5𝑦 + 2𝑦 − 7

● Quintic Polynomial: A polynomial of degree 5. The highest power of

the variable is 5.
5 3 5
Example: 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 1, 4𝑦 − 3𝑦 + 8

Special Types of Polynomials:

● Zero Polynomial: The polynomial where all coefficients are zero. The
degree of the zero polynomial is undefined.

Example: 0
 ● Homogeneous Polynomial: A polynomial where all terms have the
same total degree (the sum of the powers of variables in each term is the
same).
2 2
Example: 2𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 (each term has degree 2)

● Non-homogeneous Polynomial: A polynomial with terms of

different degrees.
2
Example: 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1(terms have degrees 2,1 , and 0 , respectively)

Examples of Polynomials:
3
Monomial: 5𝑥
3
● Only one term: 5𝑥
2
Binomial: 𝑥 + 2𝑥
2
● Two terms: 𝑥 and 2𝑥
2
Trinomial: 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1
2
● Three terms: 𝑥 , 2𝑥, and 1
2
Quadratic Polynomial: 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5
● Degree 2 (highest power of 𝑥 is 2 )
3 2
Cubic Polynomial: 4𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1
● Degree 3 (highest power of 𝑥 is 3 )

5 4 2
Example 1: Find the degree of the polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 8

Solution:

The degree of a polynomial is the highest power of 𝑥

Here, the highest power of 𝑥 is 5 .

The degree of the polynomial is 5 .

The correct answer is 5 .

 2
Example 2: Classify the polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 7. based on its degree
and number of terms.

Solution:

The highest power of 𝑥 is 2 , so it is a quadratic polynomial. It has three terms,

so it is a trinomial.
It is a quadratic trinomial.

1. Addition of Polynomials
To add two or more polynomials, combine like terms (terms with the same
variable and exponent).

2 2
Example 3: Add the polynomials 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 5 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 1

Solution:
2 2
( ) (
𝑃(𝑥) + 𝑄(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 5 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 1 )
Combine like terms:
2 2 2
(
= 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 ) + (4𝑥 − 3𝑥) + (5 + 1) = 5𝑥 + 𝑥 + 6
2
The correct answer is 5𝑥 + 𝑥 + 6.

2. Subtraction of Polynomials
To subtract one polynomial from another, change the signs of the terms in the
polynomial being subtracted and then combine like terms.

2 2
Example 4: Subtract 𝑄(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 1 from 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 5
Solution:
2 2
( ) (
𝑃(𝑥) − 𝑄(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 5 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 1 )
Distributing the negative sign:
2 2
= 3𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 5 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 1
Combine like terms:
2 2 2
(
= 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 ) + (4𝑥 + 3𝑥) + (5 − 1) = 𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 4
2
The correct answer is 𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 4.

3. Multiplication of Polynomials
To multiply polynomials, use the distributive property (also known as the FOIL
method for binomials) to multiply each term in the first polynomial by each term
in the second polynomial.

2
Example 5: Multiply 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 2 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1

Solution:
2
(
𝑃(𝑥) · 𝑄(𝑥) = (3𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 − 1 )
Distribute each term:

= 3𝑥 𝑥( 2) + 3𝑥(− 1) + 2(𝑥2) + 2(− 1) 3 2

= 3𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 2

Rearranging gives:
3 2
= 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 2
3 2
The correct answer is 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 2

4. Division of Polynomials
To divide a polynomial by another polynomial, use polynomial long division or
synthetic division (if the divisor is linear).
 3 2
Example 6 : Divide 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 1 by 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2

Solution:

1. Set up the long division:

2
𝑥− 2 2𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 9

3 2
2𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 1

3 2
(
− 2𝑥 − 4𝑥 )
2
7𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 1

2
(
− 7𝑥 − 14𝑥 )

9𝑥 + 1

− (9𝑥 − 18)

19

Write the result:

2 19
𝑃(𝑥) ÷ 𝑄(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 9 + 𝑥−2

2 19
The correct answer is 2𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 9 + 𝑥−2
Summary of Operations
1. Addition: Combine like terms.

2. Subtraction: Change the signs of the terms in the polynomial being

subtracted and then combine like terms.

3. Multiplication: Use distributive property or FOIL for binomials to multiply

each term.

4. Division: Use polynomial long division or synthetic division to divide one

polynomial by another.

2 2
Example 7: Add the polynomials 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 4 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1

Solution:

Combine like terms:

(2𝑥2 + 5𝑥2) + (3𝑥 − 2𝑥) + (4 + 1)

2
= 7𝑥 + 𝑥 + 5
2
𝑃(𝑥) + 𝑄(𝑥) = 7𝑥 + 𝑥 + 5
2
The correct answer is 7𝑥 + 𝑥 + 5

2 2
Example 8 : Subtract 𝑄(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 1 from 𝑃(𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 6

Solution:

Distribute the negative sign and combine like terms:

(5𝑥2 − 4𝑥2) + (− 2𝑥 − 3𝑥) + (6 − (− 1))

2
= 𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 7
2
𝑃(𝑥) − 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 7
2
The correct answer is 𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 7
 2
Example 9: Multiply 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 2 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4
Solution:
Use the distributive property:
2
𝑃(𝑥) · 𝑄(𝑥) = (3𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 − 4 ( )
Distribute each term:
2 3
3𝑥 · 𝑥 = 3𝑥
3𝑥 · (− 4) = − 12𝑥
2 2
2 · 𝑥 = 2𝑥
2 · (− 4) = − 8
3 2
Combine: 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 12𝑥 − 8
3 2
𝑃(𝑥) · 𝑄(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 12𝑥 − 8
3 2
The correct answer is 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 12𝑥 − 8

3 2
Example 10: Divide 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 4𝑥 by 𝑄(𝑥) = 2𝑥

Solution:
Set up the division:
3 2 3 2
2𝑥 +6𝑥 +4𝑥 2𝑥 6𝑥 4𝑥
2𝑥
= 2𝑥
+ 2𝑥
+ 2𝑥

Simplify each term:

3
2𝑥 2
2𝑥
=𝑥
2
6𝑥
2𝑥
= 3𝑥
4𝑥
2𝑥
= 2
2
Combine: 𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 2
𝑃(𝑥) 2
𝑄(𝑥)
= 𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 2
2
The correct answer is 𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 2
What is a Factor of a Polynomial?
A factor of a polynomial is a polynomial that divides another polynomial
without leaving a remainder. In simpler terms, if 𝑃(𝑥)

is a polynomial, then a polynomial 𝑄(𝑥)

is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥)

if there exists another polynomial 𝑅(𝑥)

such that:

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥) × 𝑅(𝑥)

How to find a factor of a polynomial

1. Factoring by Grouping
● When to Use: This method is often useful for polynomials with four or
more terms.

● Steps:

1. Group the polynomial into pairs (or groups).

2. Factor out the common factor from each group.

3. Look for a common binomial factor in the resulting expression.

3 2
Example 11: Find the factor of the polynomial 𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 6

Solution :
3 2
𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 6
3 2
(
= 𝑥 + 3𝑥 ) + (2𝑥 + 6)
2
= 𝑥 (𝑥 + 3) + 2(𝑥 + 3)
2
= (𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 + 2 ( )
2
The correct answer is (𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 + 2 ( )
2. Factoring Quadratic Polynomials
2
● When to Use: For polynomials of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

● Steps:

1. Identify 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐.

2. Look for two numbers that multiply to 𝑎𝑐 and add up to 𝑏

3. Rewrite the middle term using these numbers and then factor by
grouping.
2
Example: 2𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 2

Here, 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 5, and 𝑐 = 2 , 𝑎𝑐 = 4, and the two numbers that work are

4 and 1
2
2𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 𝑥 + 2 = 2𝑥(𝑥 + 2) + 1(𝑥 + 2) = (2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)

3. Using the Quadratic Formula

When to Use: For any quadratic polynomial when factoring is not
straightforward.

2
−𝑏 ± 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= 2𝑎

2
If the discriminant 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 is a perfect square, the quadratic can be factored.

4. Synthetic Division or Long Division

● When to Use: To find factors of polynomials of degree higher than 2.

● Steps:

1. Use synthetic division to divide the polynomial by a linear factor (𝑥 − 𝑟),

where 𝑟 is a root.

2. If the remainder is 0 , then (𝑥 − 𝑟) is a factor

3. Continue factoring the quotient polynomial.

 2
Example 12: Find the Factor of the Polynomial: 𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 6

Solution :

1. Identify 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 =− 5, 𝑐 = 6

2. Find two numbers that multiply to 6 (product of 𝑐 ) and add to -5

(coefficient of):

The numbers are -2 and -3 .

2
3. Rewrite and factor: 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3)

The correct answer is (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3)

What are Zeros of the polynomial?

The zeros of a polynomial (also known as roots or solutions) are the values of
the variable𝑥 that makes the polynomial equal to zero. In other words, if you
have a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥), the zeros are the values of 𝑥 for which: 𝑃(𝑥) = 0

Importance of Zeros
1. Graphical Representation: The zeros of a polynomial correspond to the 𝑥
-intercepts of the graph of the polynomial function. These are the points
where the graph crosses or touches the x-axis.

2. Factoring: The zeros can be used to factor the polynomial, allowing it to

be expressed in terms of its linear factors.

3. Solutions to Equations: Finding the zeros is essential in solving polynomial

equations.

Finding the Zeros of a Polynomial

To find the zeros of a polynomial, you can use several methods depending on
the degree of the polynomial:

1. For Linear Polynomials

● Form: 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏

● Finding Zeros: Set 𝑃(𝑥) = 0 and solve for 𝑥

𝑏
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = − 𝑎
2. For Quadratic Polynomials
2
Form: 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

● Methods:

● Factoring: If it can be factored, set each factor to zero.

● Quadratic Formula: If factoring is difficult, use:

2
−𝑏± 𝑏 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= 2𝑎

2
The discriminant 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐

● determines the nature of the roots:

● Two distinct real roots: if the discriminant is positive.

● One real root: if the discriminant is zero.

● No real roots: if the discriminant is negative.

3. For Higher-Degree Polynomials

● Factoring: Factor the polynomial into linear or quadratic factors, then
solve for the zeros.

● Synthetic Division/Long Division: Use these methods to divide by possible

roots, then find zeros of the quotient.

● Graphing: Graph the polynomial to estimate where it crosses the x -axis

and refine using numerical methods.

2
Example 13: Find zeros of the Polynomial: 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 6

Solution:

1. Set the Polynomial to Zero:

2
𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0

2. Factor the Polynomial:

(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 0
 3. Find the Zeros: Set each factor to zero:

𝑥 − 2 = 0⟹𝑥 = 2 𝑥 − 3 = 0⟹𝑥 = 3
2
Thus, the zeros of the polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 6

are 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = 3

The correct answer is x = 2 and 3 .

Remainder Theorem
The Remainder Theorem is a fundamental theorem in algebra that relates to
polynomials. It states that when a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by a linear divisor
of the form (𝑥 − 𝑐), the remainder of this division is equal to 𝑃(𝑐). In simpler
terms, if you substitute 𝑐 into the polynomial, the result is the remainder of the
division of the polynomial by (𝑥 − 𝑐).

Remainder Theorem Statement

If 𝑃(𝑥) is a polynomial and 𝑐 is a constant, then:

Remainder, when 𝑃(𝑥)is divided by (𝑥 − 𝑐) 𝑖𝑠 𝑃(𝑐).

3 2
Example 14: Polynomial:𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 5 Dividing by the linear
divisor (𝑥 − 3)
Solution :
According to the Remainder Theorem:
To find the remainder of 𝑃(𝑥)when divided by(𝑥 − 3),
we evaluate 𝑃(3).
Step 1: Substitute 𝑐 = 3 into 𝑃(𝑥) :
3 2
𝑃(3) = 2(3) − 6(3) + 4(3) − 5
Step 2: Calculate 𝑃(3) :
𝑃(3) = 2(27) − 6(9) + 12 − 5 = 54 − 54 + 12 − 5 = 12 − 5 = 7
The correct answer is 7.
Factor Theorem
The Factor Theorem is a specific case of the Remainder Theorem that provides
a way to determine whether a polynomial has a certain linear factor. It states
that a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) has a factor (𝑥 −𝑐 ) if and only if 𝑃(𝑐) = 0. In other words,
if substituting 𝑐 into the polynomial yields zero, then (𝑥 − 𝑐) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥).

Factor Theorem Statement

If 𝑃(𝑥) is a polynomial and 𝑐 is a constant, then:

● (𝑥 − 𝑐) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) if and only if 𝑃(𝑐) = 0

Importance

● The Factor Theorem is useful for factoring polynomials, finding roots, and
simplifying polynomial expressions.

● It helps in polynomial division and aids in solving polynomial equations.

3 2
Example 15: Polynomial:𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 11𝑥 − 6 Checking for a Factor: We
want to check if (𝑥 − 2)is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥).

Solution :

Step 1: Substitute 𝑐 = 2 into 𝑃(𝑥) :

3 2
𝑃(2) = (2) − 6(2) + 11(2) − 6

Step 2: Calculate 𝑃(2) :

𝑃(2) = 8 − 6 · 4 + 22 − 6

Since 𝑃(2) = 0, according to the Factor Theorem, (𝑥 − 2) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥).

Finding Other Factors

Now that we know (𝑥 − 2) is a factor, we can use polynomial long division to
divide 𝑃(𝑥) by (𝑥 − 2 ) to find the other factors.

Performing Polynomial Division:

𝑃(𝑥) ÷ (𝑥 − 2)

After performing the division, we find:

2
(
𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 )
2
Factoring Further: The quadratic 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 can be factored as:
2
𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)

Final Factorization

Thus, the complete factorization of 𝑃(𝑥) is:

𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)

HCF And LCM of a Polynomial

Definitions:
● HCF (GCD) of polynomials is the polynomial of the highest degree that
divides each of the given polynomials without a remainder.

● LCM of polynomials is the polynomial of the lowest degree that is a

multiple of each of the given polynomials.

Steps to Find HCF and LCM of Polynomials:

1. Finding HCF (GCD) of Polynomials
To find the HCF of two or more polynomials:

● Step 1: Factor each polynomial into irreducible factors.

● Step 2: Identify the common factors in each polynomial.

● Step 3: Multiply these common factors to find the HCF.

Example 16:
2 2
Find the HCF of the polynomials:𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 6 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3𝑥

Solution :

Step 1: Factor each polynomial:

𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3)

𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥(𝑥 − 3)

Step 2: Identify common factors:

Common factor: (𝑥 − 3)

Step 3: HCF is:

𝐻𝐶𝐹(𝑃(𝑥), 𝑄(𝑥)) = (𝑥 − 3)

The correct answer is (𝑥 − 3).

2. Finding LCM of Polynomials

To find the LCM of two or more polynomials:

● Step 1: Factor each polynomial into irreducible factors.

● Step 2: Take all unique factors, using the highest power for each factor
that appears in any polynomial.

● Step 3: Multiply these factors together to find the LCM.

Example 17: Find the LCM of the polynomials: 𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) and
𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥(𝑥 − 3)

Solution :

Step 1: Unique factors:

Factors from 𝑃(𝑥): (𝑥 − 2), (𝑥 − 3)

Factors from 𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥, (𝑥 − 3)

Step 2: Unique factors with highest powers:

Unique factors: 𝑥, (𝑥 − 2), (𝑥 − 3)

Step 3: LCM is:

𝐿𝐶𝑀(𝑃(𝑥), 𝑄(𝑥)) = 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3)

The correct answer is 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3).