Lecture Notes

Institute level option Subject-I

Disaster Management and
Mitigation Measures

Module. 2
Natural and Manmade Disaster

Prepared by
Prof. Shrikrishna B Bobde

2. Natural and Manmade Disaster’s

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Syllabus
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Introduction:
Module No. of
Hours

Module Natural Disaster and Manmade disasters: 09

02 Natural Disaster: Meaning and nature of natural disaster, Flood, Flash flood,
drought, cloud burst, Earthquake, Landslides, Avalanches, Volcanic eruptions,
Mudflow, Cyclone, Storm, Storm Surge, climate change, global warming, sea
level rise, ozone depletion
Manmade Disasters: Chemical, Industrial, Nuclear and Fire Hazards. Role of
growing population and subsequent industrialization, urbanization and
changing lifestyle of human beings in frequent occurrences of manmade
disasters.

Recently disasters are classified into three category natural disasters, man-made disasters, and hybrid
disasters, but mainly two types of disasters we consider here as given below.
⮚ Natural Disaster and
⮚ Man-made Disaster.

Natural disasters and crises are caused by such natural calamity like floods, droughts, cyclones,
landslides, and so on, where as Man-made disasters are the results of human actions, and include road,
rail, and air accidents, industrial accidents, strikes, civil violence, and wars, new man-made disaster threats
that have developed, particularly since World War II are far more destructive in their potential than the
traditional threats. Increased social violence including trans-border terrorism has drastically affected many
nations and communities.

Threats from industrial accidents, such as the Bhopal gas leakage in 1984, production, transportation and
dumping of hazardous materials and substances endanger unprotected and unaware people. Atomic and
nuclear sources pose yet another threat. The possibility of use of nuclear weapons has added a new dimension
to the problem of disaster management and mitigation. For more than a century researches have been studying
disasters and for more than forty years disasters research has been institutionalized through the disasters
Research center the studies reflect a common opinion when they argue that all disasters can be seen as being
human made their reasoning being that human actions before the strike of the hazard can prevent it developing
in to a disaster.
All disasters are hence the result of human failure to introduce appropriate disaster management measures.
Hazards are routinely divided in to natural or human made although complex disasters, where there is no 3
single root cause, are more common in developing countries A specific disaster may spawn the impact. A
classic example is an earthquake that causes a tsunami, resulting in coastal flooding.

Due to the increasing frequency of natural and man-made disasters, Government of India constituted a
High Powered Committee (HPC) on Disaster Management in August 1999 to prepare comprehensive
plans at National, State and District levels. HPC identified thirty one disasters in the country categorized
into following five sub-groups depending on generic considerations and various departments/ ministries
dealing with various aspects:

Natural disasters occur without any intention while man-made disasters are events which, either
intentionally or by accident cause severe threats to public health and well-being.
 Water and Climate Geologica Biological Nuclear and Accidental Disaster
Disaster l Disaster Disaster Industrial
Disaster

Flood, cyclones, landslides Epidemics, Chemical and Urban and forest fires, oil
hailstorms, and mud pest attacks, industrial spill, mine flooding
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cloudburst, flows, cattle disasters and
incidents,
heat and cold earthquakes, epidemic nuclear
collapse of huge
Waves, snow mine fires, and food Accidents.
building structures,
avalanches, dam Poisoning.
bomb blasts, air,
droughts, sea Failures and road and rail
erosion, thunder general fires. mishaps,
and lightning.
boat capsizing.

Major Minor Natural Major Man Made Disasters. Minor Man Made Disasters.
Natural Disaster.
Disasters.

Flood 1. Cold wave 1. Setting of fires 7. Road / Train

Cyclone 2. Thunder 2. Epidemic accidents, Riots.
Drought Storms 3. Deforestation 8. Food Poisoning.
Earth quake. 3. Heat Waves 4. Pollution due to Prawn 9. Industrial Disaster.
4. Mud slides cultivation 5. Chemical pollution 10. Environment Pollution
5. Storm 6. Wars

Natural disasters: ( As Per Syllabus)

 1. Flood 6. Landslides 10. Storm, Storm Surge
2. Flash flood 7. Avalanches 11. Climate change
3. drought, 8. Volcanic eruptions 12. Global warming
4. cloud burst 9. Mudflow, Cyclone 13. Sea level rise
5. Earthquake 14. Ozone depletion

1. Floods:

⮚ A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land.

⮚ Floods occur when land that is usually dry is submerged by large amounts of water. Sudden
submergence or inundation of land area with water is called as flood.
⮚ The occurrence of floods can be due to both natural and human causes.
1. Anthropogenic causes of floods include: Clearing of forests: Lack of vegetation cover to hold the soil
together on slopes causes erosion and deposition in river beds making them shallow, flooding occurs
when these rivers overflow. Also bare slopes increase surface runoff and volume of water flowing into the
rivers. 5
2. Urban development: The clearing of land for development of residential, commercial and industrial
complexes have rapidly increased built-up areas. These concrete pavements and roads prevent infiltration
of rainwater into the ground coupled with lack of vegetation cover to intercept the rain water results in
increased runoff flowing into the rivers resulting in flooding.
3. Improper farming and other land use practices: The combination of absence of forest cover on one
hand, and inappropriate farming and land-use practices on the other have aggravated the flood
devastation. There are hardly any forests left in the catchment area of the rivers. It is well known fact that
the forest areas are characterized by high infiltration capacity.
4. Enhanced Green house effect: Various human activities resulting in increased green house effect and
causing global warming are leading to various climate changes such as higher rainfall in short duration,
melting of more ice etc. All these have lead to increased incidences of floods.

Natural causes of floods:

1. Excessive rainfall: Floods occur when rainwater is unable to seep into the ground quickly enough or
rivers overflow their banks because river channels cannot contain excess water. It is common in tropical
areas.
2. Storm Surges: It occurs when strong winds raise the waves in the ocean to exceptionally high levels,
causing them to crash into the coast and flood the land. It is common in coastal areas with low-lying
relief.
3. Melting Snow: Melting of snow in spring releases large amount of water into the rivers, causing them to
overflow their banks. It is common in places with cool temperate climate.
4. Global Atmospheric processes: Abnormal weather phenomenon such as El Nino (warming of surface
ocean waters at Southeastern part of Pacific Ocean).
 5. Earthquakes: Earthquakes can bring about landslides or trigger tsunamis. When landslides occur,
loosened soil, rocks, mud debris etc. may be deposited in rivers causing overflowing of these rivers.
Tsunamis triggered by strong undersea earthquakes can flood and devastate coastal settlements.

Impact of floods:
1. Loss of life: Floods mostly strike people unprepared, leading to loss of lives in drowning. Along with
livestock and other life forms. Impact is higher in flood plain areas which are densly populated,

2. Damage to infrastructure and property: Flood cause huge losses to homes, roads, power supply and
other infrastructure.
3. Spread of Diseases: After flood water recedes, shallow stagnant water may cover areas over a
considerable period of times. This may result in outbreak of water borne diseases. Moreover homeless
flood victims are housed in temporary shelters which are mostly overcrowded and with poor sanitation
conditions which may turn situation worse.
4. Loss of natural habitat: Trees, vegetation and other natural habitats may get destroyed leading to loss of
biodiversity.

⮚ Floods have the greatest damage potential when compared to the other natural disasters, over the
environment.
⮚ Floods are also considered to be both social and economic disasters.
⮚ A flood is a body of water overflowing the river channels.
⮚ Floods are associated with some extreme natural events that happen over a drainage basin. ⮚ Floods
are defined as relatively high flows which overtake the natural channels provided for the
runoff. 6
⮚ The level at which water flows along streams is called as the river stage. During flood, the stage of
a river is high. The river water during a flood usually overflows its banks.
Mitigation of floods
Floods can be mitigated by structural, water control and non-structural measures such as: 1. Structural
methods include building dams, reservoirs, and retarding basins, channel management and embankments.
2. Water control methods: include increasing forest and vegetation cover, watershed management, flood
proofing and catchment modifications. Schemes of drainage and flood protection,
3. Non-structural methods: flood forecasting, flood warning and emergency preparedness systems, flood
insurance, public information and education, and flood relief

⮚ About 30 million people are affected annually due to Floods. These are an annual feature in Indo
Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains during monsoon season. On an average, a few hundred lives are lost,
millions are homeless and several hectares of crops are damaged every year. Floods are a perennial
phenomenon in at least 5 states – Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.

Floods are controlled by

⮚ construction of reservoirs,
⮚ river channels,
⮚ natural detention basins,
⮚ inter-basin water transfer,
⮚ construction of levees and flood walls, diversion canals,
 ⮚ bank stabilization,
⮚ best agronomic practices,
⮚ forestation and catchment zone management.

2. Flash flood:
⮚ Flash flood is a flood caused by heavy or excessive rainfall in a short period of time, generally less than
6 hours.
⮚ Flash floods are usually characterized by raging torrents after heavy rains that rip through river beds,
urban streets, or mountain canyons sweeping everything before them.
⮚ Most flash flooding is caused by slow-moving thunderstorms, thunderstorms repeatedly moving over the
same area, or heavy rains from hurricanes and tropical storms. Occasionally, floating debris or ice can
accumulate at a natural or man-made obstruction and restrict the flow of water.
⮚ Most flash flooding is caused by slow-moving thunderstorms, thunderstorms repeatedly moving over the
same area, or heavy rains from hurricanes and tropical storms. Occasionally, floating debris or ice can
accumulate at a natural or man-made obstruction and restrict the flow of water.
⮚ Some noteworthy examples include events in the Big Thompson Canyon in Colorado (1976 – 144
fatalities) and near the town of Biescas in the Spanish Pyrenees (1996 – 86 fatalities). Tropical cyclones
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often create devastating flash floods as a result of torrential rainfalls.
⮚ Some noteworthy examples include events in the Big Thompson Canyon in Colorado (1976 – 144
fatalities) and near the town of Biescas in the Spanish Pyrenees (1996 – 86 fatalities). Tropical cyclones
often create devastating flash floods as a result of torrential rainfalls.
⮚ Flooding typically occurs when prolonged rain falls over several days, when intense rain falls over a
short period of time, or when an ice or debris jam causes a river or stream to overflow onto the
surrounding area. Flooding can also result from the failure of a water control structure, such as a levee
or dam.
3. Drought:
⮚ This is arising due to recurring failure of monsoons. The area affected by drought becomes dry and
waterless.
⮚ Food security will be affected. Water scarcity prevails everywhere. People die due to hunger.
⮚ Characteristics
• Major areas liable to drought are usually well-known;
• Periods of drought can be prolonged;
• Area(s) affected may be very large;
• Long warning;
 ⮚ We have a largely monsoon dependant irrigation network. An erratic pattern, both low (less than
750 mm) and medium (750 - 1125 mm) makes 68 % of the total sown area vulnerable to
periodic droughts. Severe and rare droughts occur in arid and semi-arid zones once in almost
every 8-9 years. 16 % of the country’s total area is drought prone and approximately 50 million
people are annually affected by droughts.

⮚ Effects on agriculture, livestock, rural industry production, and human habitation may be severe.
This may lead to prolonged food shortages or famine;
⮚ Long-term effects can be in the form of severe economic loss, erosion which affects future
habitation and production, and sometimes abandonment of large tracts of land;
⮚ Man-made activities may aggravate the possibility and extent of the drought problem (e.g.,
overgrazing of agricultural land, destruction of forests or similar areas); and
⮚ The inability and/or unwillingness of the population to move from drought-prone areas may
exacerbate the problem
4. Cloud burst:
⮚ A cloudburst refers to an extreme amount of rain that happens in a short period, sometimes
accompanied by hail and thunder, and this has a precise definition.
⮚ A cloudburst refers to an extreme amount of rain that happens in a short period, sometimes
accompanied by hail and thunder, and this has a precise definition. T
⮚ The India Meteorological Department (IMD) defines it as unexpected precipitation exceeding
100mm (or 10 cm) per hour over a geographical region of approximately 20 to 30 square km.
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Significant amounts of rainfall such as this can result in floods.
⮚ Basically, all instances of cloudbursts involve heavy rain in a short period, but all instances of heavy
rain in a short period are not cloudbursts if they do not fit this criterion.

Why do cloudbursts occur in hilly areas like Amarnath?

Experts have said it is difficult to predict when exactly a cloudburst will occur, and there is little
definitive data on the exact number of cloudbursts that occur in India. Due to their definition dealing with a
very small area, it is difficult to accurately predict and identify cloudbursts immediately. However, they are
more likely to occur in mountainous zones mainly because of terrain and elevation.

This is because, in hilly areas, sometimes saturated clouds ready to condense into rain cannot produce
rain, due to the upward movement of the very warm current of air. Instead of falling downwards, raindrops are
carried upwards by the air current. New drops are formed and existing raindrops increase in size. After a
point, the raindrops become too heavy for the cloud to hold on to, and they drop down together in a quick
flash.
Thunderstorms are the most common cause of cloudbursts. A great quantity of water may build up at
high elevations during these thunderstorms, and if the upward currents are weakened during this period, the
water can all flow down at once, resulting in flash floods.

5. Earthquake:
⮚ An earthquake is the shifting of the Earth’s plates, which results in a sudden shaking of the ground
that can last for a few seconds to a few minutes. Within seconds, mild initial shaking can
strengthen and become violent. Earthquakes happen without warning and can happen at any time
of year.
⮚ n earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the surface of the Earth,
with sudden release of energy in the form of seismic waves on the surface of the earth. The point
inside the crust where the pressure is released is called the focus.
⮚ The point on the Earth's surface above the focus is called the epicentre.
⮚ When earthquake occurs beneath the sea it causes tsunami.
⮚ The study of earthquakes is called as seismology and the instrument used to measure seismic
waves is called as seismometer or seismograph.
⮚ The magnitude of earthquake is measured by richter scale and intensity by mercalli scale( Table).
Table: Effects on earthquake with various magnitudes.
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Magnitude Description Mercalli intensity Average earthquake effects

1-1.9 Micro I Micro earthquakes not felt

or felt rarely.

2.0–2.9 I to II Felt slightly by some

people. No damage to
Minor buildings

3-3.9 III to IV Felt slightly by some

people. No damage to
buildings
4-4.9 Light VI to VII Noticeable shaking of indoor
objects and rattling noises.
Felt by most people in the
affected area. Generally
causes none to minimal
damage.

5-5.9 Moderate VI to VII Can cause damage to poorly

constructed buildings. None
to slight damage to all other
buildings. Felt by everyone.

6-6.9 Strong VIII to X Destructive. Earthquake

resistant structures
survive with slight to
moderate
damage. Poorly designed
structures receive moderate
to severe damage.

7.0–7.9 Major X Causes damage to most

buildings, some partially or
completely collapse or
receive severe damage.

8.0–8.9 Major damage, structures

likely to be destroyed.
Damage
earthquake-resistant
buildings. Felt in extremely
Great
large
regions.

9 and greater At or near total destruction

– severe damage or
collapse to all buildings.
Permanent
changes in ground topography
 Causes of earthquake: According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth is composed of many individual
plates that move and interact, constantly changing and reshaping Earth's outer layer. Plates do not always 1
move smoothly against each other and sometimes get stuck. This builds up pressure. When this pressure is 0
eventually released, an earthquake tends to occur. Volcanoes and earthquakes both result from the movement
of tectonic plates. Volcanoes, tides can also trigger seismicity. Underground nuclear testing and dams can also
cause seismic waves.
Effects:
1) Soil Liquefaction:- Due to earthquakes granular material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and
transforms from a solid to a liquid (Soil liquefaction). This causes rigid structures, like buildings and
bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits.
2) Landslides and avalanche: Earthquakes can produce slope instability leading to landslides and avalanche.
3) Tsunamis: When earthquakes occur under sea it causes tsunami. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by
earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more.
4) Floods: These are secondary effects of earthquakes, as they may occur if dams are damaged.
5) Fires: Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines

6. Landslides:
A landslide/landslip is primarily a combination of several geological processes that include earth movements
like extensive slope failure, rocks falling, and debris flow under the action of gravity. Landslides occur when
gravitational and other types of shear stresses within a slope exceed the shear strength (resistance to shearing)
of the materials that form the slope.

Causes
1. Extensive Rainfall: Prolonged and heavy intensity rainfall triggers landslide. If rain duration and pore
pressure are high, moderate rainfall can also trigger landslide. A universal landslide survey held in 2003
revealed that 90% of the landslides that occurred were activated by a heavy rainfall.
2. Melting of Snow: In several cold mountain places, during snowmelt the water produced infiltrates into
the earth .This increases pore water pressures, causing the initiation of the landslide process. 3. Rivers:
Rivers can damage the slopes, particularly during the floods triggering a landslide. 4. Seismic Shaking
and volcanic eruption: They cause slope failure triggering landslide.
5. Deforestation: Roots of plants hold soil particles firmly thereby avoiding soil erosion. But removal of
vegetation makes rocks prone to landslides.
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6. Geology: Type of rock or soil such coarse particles have low cohesive strength making it vulnerable to
1
landslide.
7. Developmental activities: Excavation for minerals, tunnels etc. and road construction can too trigger
landslide.

Effects:
Landslides blocks streams with debris and stones, leading to overflowing. It disrupts vehicular
movement, damages vegetation, roads, communication networks and buildings. It also results in
accidents. Overall it acts as a risk to life. E.g. A massive landslide in 2017 in Himachal Pradesh has killed
at least 46 people and injured several others.
Management and mitigation methods:
1) Afforestation: It consolidates the slope thus checking slope instability. Degraded areas should be
afforested and existing patches should be preserved.
2) Wired stone blocks: Stone ridge is strapped with wire mesh to protect against landslides. 3)
Retaining wall: Construction of concrete retaining walls to prevent slippage from slope. 4) Landslide
hazard zonation mapping: Zonation mapping will help in preventing settlements in hazard
prone area and also developing and continuously updating the inventory of landslide incidences
affecting a country.
5) Surface drainage: Draining of surface and subsurface rivers to allow smooth flow of water. 6) Landslide
Warning Techniques: Sensors have been developed which are used for the landslide warning and detection
Early warning systems can disseminate information to masses on time, hereby saving many lives.
7) Managing of catchment: Excess water in catchments areas should be stored to reduce the effect of flash
floods, this will also recharge the ground water level in areas prone to landslide in India. 8) Public
awareness: An aware and vigilant community can reduce the impact of impending landslides.

Of the earthquake-prone areas, 12% is prone to very severe, 18% to severe and 25% to damageable
earthquakes. The Himalayan regions are particularly prone to earthquakes. The last two major
earthquakes shook Gujarat in January 2001 and Jammu and Kashmir in October 2005. Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya, Andaman & Nicobar
Islands and parts of 6 other states in the North/North-West (Jammu and Kashmir, Uttaranchal, and
Bihar) and West (Gujarat) are in Seismic Zone V.
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Landslides occur in the hilly regions (Himalayas, North-East India, the Nilgiris, and Eastern and 2
Western Ghats). Landslide-prone areas largely correspond to earthquake-prone areas, i.e. North west
and North-East, where the incidence of landslides is highest.

7. Avalanches :
⮚ An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a slope, such as a hill or mountain. A powder
snow avalanche in the Himalayas near Mount Everest.
⮚ During an avalanche, a mass of snow, rock, ice, soil, and other material slides swiftly down a
mountainside. Avalanches of rocks or soil are often called landslides. Snowslides, the most
common kind of avalanche, can sweep downhill faster than the fastest skier.
⮚ An avalanche occurs when a layer of snow collapses and slides downhill. Avalanches are
caused by four factors: a steep slope, snow cover, a weak layer in the snow cover and a trigger.
Roads and railway tracks may be rerouted to reduce risks.
⮚ Avalanches constitute a major hazard in the higher elevations of Himalayas. Parts of the
Himalayas receive snowfall round the year and adventure sports are in abundance in such
locations. Severe snow avalanches occur in States like Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
Uttrakhand
Cyclone: Cyclone:
Cyclone refers to any spinning storm that rotates around a low-pressure center. The low-pressure
center is also referred to as the 'eye' of the storm. It is accompanied by powerful winds blowing
anticlockwise in northern hemisphere and clockwise in southern hemisphere. They are known by different
names in different countries. Typhoons in northwest pacific ocean, hurricanes in north Atlantic ocean and
northeast and south pacific ocean, Tropical cyclones in southwest pacific ocean, southeast and southwest
Indian ocean. Willy Willy in Australia Baguio in China Sea, Taifu in Japan and Tornado in South
America.

Formation of cyclone
When warm (above 26 °C), moist air over the ocean rises upward, it causes an area of low air pressure
below. Air from surrounding areas with higher air pressure pushes in to the low pressure area. Then this
new cool air becomes warm and moist and rises too and this cycle continues. As the warm, moist air rises
 and cools the water in the air forming clouds. The Coriolis effect made by the Earth's rotation causes the
winds to rotate. As the storm system rotates faster and faster, an eye forms in the center. It has little rain
or wind. The eye wall maximum rain and the strongest winds. When the winds in the rotating storm reach
1
39 mph, the storm is called a tropical storm. And when the wind speeds reach 74 mph, the storm is
3
officially a tropical cyclone, hurricane, typhoon or cyclone based on the storm location Tropical cyclones
usually weaken when they hit land, because they are no longer being fed by the energy from the warm
ocean waters. However, they travel far inland, bringing heavy rain and wind before dying out completely.
Cyclone may last from days to week.

Indian cyclones: The 7517 km long coastline of India is world most cyclone affected stretch. Around 8% of
the total land area in India is prone to cyclones. West Bengal, Odisha, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Goa and Kerala are the most cyclone affected states of India. E.g. Cyclone Phailin originated in Vietnam in
October 2013. This cyclone affected Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Bihar and eastern parts of
Uttar Pradesh. A total of 1,34,426 people were eventually evacuated. Power and communication lines went
down across many districts. Besides economic losses Odisha recorded casualties of 44 people.

Effects:
Cyclones bring destruction to life and property. It is characterized by heavy rains and strong winds. 1)
Storm surge: It is an abnormal rise of sea level near the coast caused by a severe tropical cyclone resulting in
inundation of low lying areas of coastal regions. It drowns human beings and live-stock, erodes beaches and
embankments, destroys vegetation and reduces soil fertility.
2) Floods: Heavy and continued rains due to cyclones may cause floods and submergence of low lying areas
resulting in loss of life and property. Floods and coastal inundation pollute drinking water sources causing
eruption of epidemics.
3) Strong winds: Very strong winds may damage infrastructure, dwellings, communication systems, trees etc.
vandalizing life and property. It affects normal functioning of life.
4) Crop: It damages crops, which could lead to inflation.
5) Decline in tourist: Tourist will not come to a cyclone affected area, thereby affecting livelihood of people.
6) Storm churn: By churning up cold water, tropical cyclones tend to leave a cold wake behind them that can
depress ocean temperature and thus, stifling trailing storm.
7) Psychological impact: Disaster of any kind has long lasting fear on minds of masses. They have witness
large number of deaths, collapse of infrastructure, cries, pains and many sorrows.
Management and Mitigation of Cyclones
1) Coastal plantation: Forests act as buffer zone against cyclones. Cyclones travel unchecked in absence
of forest. The degraded forests land must be planted as plantation will act as green wall/wind break for
1
cyclones and water flow reduction in storm surges. Mangrove forests shall be managed.
4
2) Effective weather Monitoring: Cyclones can be predicted several days’ before. So, effective weather
monitoring and forecast can help in minimizing the losses due to cyclones. Warning messages should
be simple and reach in time to the masses.
3) Land Use control: Land use should be such that minimum critical activities carried out in vulnerable
areas. Buildings should be water and wind resistant. Retrofitting of the older buildings should be
mandatory. There should be maintenance of river embankments. Communication lines should be
drawn underground. Construction of strong halls in vulnerable areas.
4) Coastal Regulation Zone norms: They should be strictly enforced.
5) Insurance cover: Comprehensive state insurance cover needs to be provided for persons, their
properties and cattle.
6) Preparedness: Coastal areas should have adequate preparedness against cyclones. Wide roads for
quick evacuation, disaster resilient buildings, shelter houses etc.
7) Awareness: Focused awareness activities are required to increase public awareness of storm surge,
flooding and rainfall related to cyclone.

About 8% of the land is vulnerable to cyclones of which coastal areas experience two or three tropical
cyclones of varying intensity each year. The Indian continent is considered to be the worst cyclone
affected part of the world, as a result of low-depth ocean bed topography and coastal configuration.
The principal threats from a cyclone are in the form of gales and strong winds and high tidal
waves/storm surges. Cyclones typically strike the states of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu, but also parts of Maharashtra and Gujarat at the Arabian Sea West Coast.

8. Storm: a disturbance of the normal condition of the atmosphere, manifesting itself by winds of unusual
force or direction, often accompanied by rain, snow, hail, thunder, and lightning, or flying sand or dust. a
heavy fall of rain, snow, or hail, or a violent outbreak of thunder and lightning, unaccompanied by strong
winds.
9. A storm is any disturbed state of an environment or in an astronomical body's atmosphere especially
affecting its surface, and strongly implying severe weather. It may be marked by significant disruptions to
normal conditions such as strong wind, tornadoes, hail, thunder and lightning (a thunderstorm), heavy
precipitation (snowstorm, rainstorm), heavy freezing rain (ice storm), strong winds (tropical cyclone,
windstorm), or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere as in a dust storm, blizzard,
sandstorm, etc.
10. Storms have the potential to harm lives and property via storm surge, heavy rain or snow causing flooding
or road impassibility, lightning, wildfires, and vertical and horizontal wind shear. Systems with significant
rainfall and duration help alleviate drought in places they
1
move through. Heavy snowfall can allow special recreational activities to take place which would not be
5
possible otherwise, such as skiing and snowmobiling

11. Storm Surge:

Storm surge is an abnormal rise of water generated by a storm, over and above the predicted
astronomical tides. Storm surge should not be confused with storm tide, which is defined as the water
level rise due to the combination of storm surge and the astronomical tide.
12. climate change:
Due to climate change, deserts are expanding, while heat waves and wildfires are becoming more
common. Increased warming in the Arctic has contributed to melting permafrost, glacial retreat and sea
ice loss. Higher temperatures are also causing more intense storms, droughts, and other weather
extremes. Effects
More frequent and intense drought, storms, heat waves, rising sea levels, melting glaciers and
warming oceans can directly harm animals, destroy the places they live, and wreak havoc on
people's livelihoods and communities.
13. Global Warming:
Global warming is the long-term heating of Earth's surface observed since the pre-industrial period
(between 1850 and 1900) due to human activities, primarily fossil fuel burning, which increases heat
trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth's atmosphere. This term is not interchangeable with the term
"climate change."
14. Sea level rise:
Global sea levels are rising as a result of human-caused global warming, with recent rates being
unprecedented over the past 2,500-plus years. Sea level rise is caused primarily by two factors related to
 global warming: the added water from melting ice sheets and glaciers, and the expansion of seawater
as it warms.
15. Ozone depletion:
⮚ Ozone Depletion. When chlorine and bromine atoms come into contact with ozone in the
stratosphere, they destroy ozone molecules. One chlorine atom can destroy over 100,000 ozone
molecules before it is removed from the stratosphere. Ozone can be destroyed more quickly than it is
naturally created.
⮚ The main cause of ozone depletion and the ozone hole is manufactured chemicals, especially
manufactured halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam- blowing agents
1
(chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HCFCs, halons).
6

16. Volcanic eruptions:

⮚ A volcanic eruption is when lava and gas are released from a volcano—sometimes explosively.
The most dangerous type of eruption is called a 'glowing avalanche' which is when freshly erupted
magma flows down the sides of a volcano.
⮚ Causes:The melted rock, or magma, is lighter than the surrounding rock and rises up. This magma
collects in magma chambers, but it is still miles below the surface. When enough magma builds
up in the magma chamber, it forces its way up to the surface and erupts, often causing
volcanic eruptions.
⮚ Effects:Further effects are the deterioration of water quality, fewer periods of rain, crop
damages, and the destruction of vegetation. During volcanic eruptions and their immediate
aftermath, increased respiratory system morbidity has been observed as well as mortality among
those affected by volcanic eruptions.
⮚ Mitigation: Science yearns to discover a means to control or stop volcanic eruptions before they
begin. To date there have been no successful efforts to start, stop or reduce a volcanic
eruption; however, the ideas exists and discussion is underway.

17. Mudflow:
⮚ A mudflow or mud flow is a form of mass wasting involving "very rapid to extremely rapid
surging flow" of debris that has become partially or fully liquified by the addition of significant
 amounts of water to the source material.
⮚ mudflow, flow of water that contains large amounts of suspended particles and silt. It has a higher
density and viscosity than a streamflow and can deposit only the coarsest part of its load; this
causes irreversible sediment entrainment. Its high viscosity will not allow it to flow as far as a
water flow.

⮚ Mudflows can be caused by unusually heavy rains or a sudden thaw. They consist mainly of
mud and water plus fragments of rock and other debris, so they often behave like floods. They can
move houses off their foundations or bury a place within minutes because of incredibly strong
currents.
⮚
Mitigation:
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1) Plant ground cover on slopes to stabilize the land, and build retaining walls. 7
2) Build channels or deflection walls to direct the flow around buildings.
3) Remember: If you build walls to divert debris flow and the flow lands on a neighbor's property, you
may be liable for damages.

Some other disaster:

Cold Waves

Cold waves are recurrent phenomenon in North India. Thousands of people die of cold and related
diseases every year, most of them from poor urban areas in northern parts of the country. According to
India‟s Tenth Five Year Plan, natural disasters have affected nearly 6% of the population and 24% of
deaths in Asia caused by disasters have occurred in India.

Tsunamis

Tsunamis are giant waves, initiated by a sudden change, usually in relative position of underwater
tectonic plates. The sudden jerk is enough to propagate the wave, however, its power can be
enhanced and fed by lunar positioning and boundaries that focus its energy.

Man-made Disasters
⮚ Natural disasters and man- made disasters are these two basic categories. Natural disasters are the
disasters caused by natural forces whereas man- made disasters are caused by activities of
human beings. This is the main difference between natural and man-made disaster.
⮚ Man-made disasters have an element of human intent, negligence, or error involving a failure of a
man-made system, as opposed to natural disasters resulting from natural hazards. Such man
made disasters are crime, arson, civil disorder, terrorism, war, biological/chemical threat, cyber
attacks, etc.
 ⮚ Tthe man-made disasters are war, pollution, nuclear explosions, fires, hazardous materials
exposures, explosions, and transportation accidents.

Causes of Man-made Disasters

⮚ Human induced disasters occur due to many and varied causes. They could arise from the
indiscriminate industrialisation, over population, increased consumerism, use of hazardous substances
or processes or simply accidents of various types.
⮚ Negligence on the part of professionals as well as the public along with ignorance increases the
possibility of man-made disasters.
⮚ Manmade disaster could also be caused due to unintentional or inadvertent activity, as a fall out of
poor maintenance, low quality work or human error.
⮚ On the other hand, they could also result from willful, deliberate and intentional activity, such as
sabotage, mischief, revenge, riots, mob fury or enemy attack.
⮚ Sometimes, man-made disasters, especially those related to industrial and technological causes, are the
results of system or process malfunctioning as in the case of nuclearradiation, gas leak, explosion and
fire.
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⮚ Mainly some manmade disaster we consider for study
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1) Chemical,
2) Industrial,
3) Nuclear and
4) Fire Hazards.

1. Chemical, and Industrial Disaster:

Chemical, being at the core of modern industrial systems, has attained a very serious concern for disaster
management within government, private sector and community at large. Chemical disasters may be traumatic
in their impacts on human beings and have resulted in the casualties and also damages nature and property.
The elements which are at highest risks due to chemical disaster primarily include the industrial plant, its
employees & workers, hazardous chemicals vehicles, the residents of nearby settlements, adjacent buildings,
occupants and surrounding community. Chemical disasters may arise in number of ways, such as:-

1. Process and safety systems failures

o Human errors
o Technical errors
o Management errors
2. Induced effect of natural calamities
3. Accidents during the transportation
4. Hazardous waste processing/ disposal
5. Terrorist attack/ unrest leading to sabotage
Status of Chemical Disaster Risk in India
India has witnessed the world’s worst chemical (industrial) disaster “Bhopal Gas Tragedy” in the year 1984.
The Bhopal Gas tragedy was most devastating chemical accident in history, where over 2500 people died due
to accidental release of toxic gas Methyl Iso Cyanate (MIC).
Such accidents are significant in terms of injuries, pain, suffering, loss of lives, damage to property and
environment. India continued to witness a series of chemical accidents even after Bhopal had demonstrated
the vulnerability of the country. Only in last decade, 130 significant chemical accidents reported in India,
which resulted into 259 deaths and 563 number of major injured.
There are about 1861 Major Accident Hazard (MAH) units, spread across 298 districts and 25 states & 3
Union Territories, in all zones of country. Besides, there are thousands of registered and hazardous factories
(below MAH criteria) and un-organized sectors dealing with numerous range of hazardous material posing
serious and complex levels of disaster risks.
Safety initiatives taken in India to address chemical risk
The comprehensive legal/ institutional framework exists in our country. A number of regulations covering the
safety in transportation, liability, insurance and compensations have been enacted.
Following are the relevant provisions on chemical disaster management, prevailing in country:-
1. Explosives Act 1884 - Petroleum Act 1934
2. Factories Act 1948 - Insecticides Act 1968 3. Environment Protection
Act 1986 - Motor Vehicles Act 1988
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4. Public Liability Insurance Act 1991 - Disaster Management Act 2005 9
Government of India has further reinforced the legal framework on chemical safety and management of
chemical accidents by enacting new rules such as MSIHC Rules, EPPR Rules, SMPV Rules, CMV Rules, Gas
Cylinder Rules, Hazardous Waste Rules, Dock Workers Rules and by way of amendments to them. The
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) of India had come out with very specific guidelines on
Chemical Disaster Management. The guidelines have been prepared to provide the directions to ministries,
departments and state authorities for the preparation of their detailed disaster management plans. These
guidelines call for a proactive, participatory, multi-disciplinary and multi-sectoral approach at various levels
for chemical disaster preparedness and response. Further, NDMA has provided specific inputs to the GOM for
avoidance of future chemical disasters in the country, along with suggested amendments on the existing
framework. NDMA is also working on revamping of CIFs ( Chief Inspectorate of Factories) to strengthen
chemical safety in India. In addition, MoEF and NDMA are in process of finalizing the National Action Plan
on Chemical Industrial Disaster Management (NAP-CIDM), which will act as the roadmap for chemical
disaster management in India.

2. Nuclear Disaster

∙ The growth in the application of nuclear science and technology in the fields of power generation,
medicine, industry, agriculture, research and defence has led to an increase in the risk of occurrence of
Nuclear and Radiological emergencies.
∙ India has traditionally been vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its unique geo climatic
conditions and it has, of late, like all other countries in the world, become equally vulnerable to
various man-made disasters.
 ∙ Any radiation incident resulting in or having a potential to result in exposure and/or contamination of
the workers or the public in excess of the respective permissible limits can lead to a
nuclear/radiological emergency.
∙ Sad memories of the use of nuclear weapons dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the wide publicity
given to the reactor accidents at Three Mile Island (TMI) in USA and Chernobyl in erstwhile USSR,
have strongly influenced the public perception of any nuclear emergency or disaster to be most often
linked, erroneously though, to only these events. Even though such situations may not easily be
repeated, one must be prepared to face nuclear/radiological emergencies of lower magnitudes and
ensure that the impact of such an emergency (which,for a given magnitude, is likely to be much greater
today because of higher population densities coupled with an enhanced urban infrastructure due to
economic prosperity) is always kept under control.
∙ For improving the quality of life in society, India has embarked upon a large programme of using nuclear
energy for generation of electricity. As on date, India has 17 power reactors and five research reactors
in operation along with six power reactors under construction. It is also planned to explore setting up
Thorium based reactors to meet its ever increasing energy needs. Further, the country utilises
adioisotopes in a variety of applications in the non-power sector, viz., in the field of industry,
agriculture, medicine, research, etc. Due to the inherent safety culture, the best safety practices and
standards followed in these applications and effective regulation by the Atomic Energy Regulatory
Board, the radiation dose to which the persons working in nuclear/radiation facilities are exposed to, is
well within the permissible limits and the risk of its impact on the public domain is very low.
∙ However, nuclear emergencies can still arise due to factors beyond the control of the operating
agencies; e.g., human error, system failure, sabotage, earthquake, cyclone, flood, etc. Such failures,
even though of very low probability, may lead to an on-site or off-site emergency. To combat this,
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proper emergency preparedness plans must be in place so that there is minimum avoidable loss of life,
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livelihood, property and impact on the environment.

Do's and Dont's

The probability of a major accident at nuclear facilities leading to the release of large quantities of
radioactivity into the environment is always ensured to be negligibly small. However, even in the event of a
major release into the environment, the prompt and effective implementation of countermeasures can reduce
the radiological consequences for the public.
Preparedness for Nuclear/Radiological Emergencies

∙ The handling of nuclear emergencies requires coordination among different service groups of the
nuclear facility. In the event of potential radiological consequences in the public domain, all the
authorities at the three levels, i.e., district, state and central, will play a vital role.

Major Responsibilities of Nuclear Power Plant Operators

∙ Thisincludes the arrangements required to promptly classify an emergency, mitigate the emergency,
notify and recommend protective actions off the site consistent with international guidelines, protect
those on site, obtain off-site assistance, conduct environmental monitoring of the affected area and
assist off-site officials in keeping the public informed.
Major Responsibilities of Off-Site Officials

∙ Thisincludes the arrangements required to promptly implement protective actions and

countermeasures in the affected area.

Emergency Preparedness for Nuclear Power Plants

∙ Since the proper implementation of countermeasures can significantly reduce the consequences of an
emergency situation, it is mandatory for all nuclear facilities that there must be a comprehensive
emergency preparedness plan. Prior to the issuance of a license for the operation of a nuclear facility,
the AERB ensures that the facility has the Emergency Response Manuals for the three main types of
emergencies, viz., plant, on-site and off-site, and that the plans are in place to handle these types of
emergencies. The operators of nuclear facilities must make an assessment of the type and quantum of
release of radioactivity under various accident conditions and the extent to which it can spread into the
environment.

Handling a Plant Emergency

When the radiological consequences of an abnormal situation are expected to remain confined to the plant
boundary or a section of the plant, it is described as a plant emergency. Nuclear facilities in the country
already have the following provisions for the detection, classification, notification and mitigation of any
emergency situation:
∙ Emergency operating procedures for the assessment of an emergency condition and its mitigation. ∙
Pre-identification of any facility-specific, abnormal situation for classification of a plant and site
emergency. \
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∙ Facility-specific, approved nuclear emergency response plans specifying the jobs of all the
1
functionaries who have assigned roles during the emergency.
∙ Alerting the plant personnel by sounding the emergency siren and making an emergency
announcement.
∙ Adequate means for communicating a notification to the emergency response organisations at the
facility, the district and state authorities, CMG of DAE and the central government authorities. ∙
Identified assembly locations for plant personnel and casual visitors for their accounting, and
assessment of persons trapped in the radiological areas.
∙ Formation of rescue teams and activation of a treatment area and decontamination centre. ∙
Radiation survey around the plant and outside the plant and site boundaries.
∙ Assessment of wind speed, wind direction and the affected sector around the nuclear facility. ∙
Whenever required, the nuclear facility is able to mobilise the services of the ambulance and
paramedical staff at its site.
∙ Equipment and materials for handling a nuclear emergency are kept at a designated place of the
nuclear facility and ERC.

Handling On-Site Emergencies

 ∙ An accidental release of radioactivity or the potential of release of activity extending beyond the plant,
but confined to the site boundary, constitutes a site emergency condition. In addition to all the provisions
applicable in a plant emergency, the following additional provisions are ensured:
∙ Extensive radiological survey for an assessment of the radiological conditions within the site boundary
of the nuclear facility.
∙ Suitable prophylaxis to be made available at all assembly areas for administration to plant personnel, in
case the situation demands.
∙ Identification of temporary shelters within the facility/site for shifting plant personnel, in case
required.
∙ Provision of a fleet of vehicles for evacuation of plant personnel from the site to a safer place. ∙
Provision of fixed and portable contamination monitors to check contaminated personnel/vehicles
leaving the site.
∙ On sensing the potential of release of radioactivity which can transgress into the public domain, the
concerned district authorities are alerted to be on standby for emergency operations in the public
domain.
∙ Radiological monitoring of the environment in the EPZ (16 km radius around the plant).

Handling Off-Site Emergencies

On recognising the potential for an uncontrolled release of radioactivity into the public domain, the concerned
district authorities are alerted to be on standby for emergency response operations. In addition to all the
provisions applicable in plant emergency and site emergency, the following additional provisions are to be
ensured for handling a nuclear emergency in the public domain:

∙ Pre-identification of plant conditions which can lead to an emergency in the public domain. ∙
An assessment of the radiological status at the site boundary and in the public domain.
For handling of an off-site emergency condition in an NPP, there is an off-site emergency committee headed
by the district magistrate of the concerned district and supported by the district subcommittee, which include
chiefs of all public service departments relevant to emergency management in the district and also the Head of
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the Site Emergency Committee of the nuclear facility for technical advice. This committee takes decisions
2
pertaining to the handling of a nuclear emergency outside the site boundary and ensures implementation of
countermeasures such as sheltering, prophylaxis and evacuation and resettlement, including maintenance of
law and order and civil amenities. All the activities pertaining to the handling of an off-site emergency are
guided and coordinated from a pre-designated emergency response centre located outside the boundary of the
nuclear facility. The information and broadcasting department of the district, in association with an authorised
information officer, ensures the smooth flow of information to the media to avoid panic and spreading of
rumours.
DO's

∙ Go indoors. Stay inside.

∙ Switch on the radio/televisionand look out for public announcements from your local authority. ∙
Close doors/windows.
∙ Cover all food, water and consume only such covered items.
 ∙ Ifin the open, cover your face and body with a wet handkerchief, towel, dhoti or sari. Return home,
change/remove clothes. Have a complete wash and use fresh clothing.
∙ Extend full cooperation to local authorities and obey their instructions completely -- be it for taking
medication, evacuation, etc.
∙ You must be aware of nuclear radiation hazard. Discuss on Nuclear radiation safety among children
and family members, to reduce their fear of radiation.

Dont's

∙ Do not panic.
∙ Do not believe in rumours passed on by word of mouth from one person to another. ∙
Do not stay outside/or go outside.
∙ As far as possible, AVOID water from open wells/ponds; exposed crops and vegetables; food, water or
milk from outside.
∙ Do not disobey any instruction of the district or civil defence authorities who would be doing their best to
ensure the safety of you, your family and your property.

4. Fire Hazards: High atmospheric temperatures and dryness (low humidity) offer favorable
circumstance for a fire to start. Man made causes - Fire is caused when a source of fire like
naked flame, cigarette or bidi, electric spark or any source of ignition comes into contact
with inflammable material.
Role of growing population and subsequent industrialization, urbanization and changing lifestyle of
human beings in frequent occurrences of manmade disasters
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⮚ The world is experiencing the most abrupt shift in human settlements in history. After decades of 3
rural to urban migration, half of all humanity now lives in cities. By 2050, that figure will surge to 75
percent, with the developing world responsible for most of this increase. Mankind’s unprecedented
urbanization will create new economic opportunities. But it will also place extraordinary strains on
national and municipal authorities struggling to provide the poor inhabitants of these chaotic
agglomerations with basic security, sustainable livelihoods, and modern infrastructure.

⮚ And when it comes to natural disasters, today’s burgeoning urban centers will increasingly be on the
front lines.

⮚ Statistics on urbanization are staggering. Cities in the developing world are adding five million residents
per month—seven thousand each hour, or more than two per second. For perspective, this is the
 equivalent to adding one city the size of the United Kingdom every year. Between 2010 and 2050,
experts predict, Africa’s urban population will triple, while Asia’s will double. The vast majority of
newcomers are poor. Today, some 828 million people live in slums, including more than 60 percent of
city-dwellers in sub-Saharan Africa (and 43 percent in South-Central Asia). By 2040, the global
number of slum-dwellers will climb to two billion— nearly a quarter of humanity—as the world’s
shanty-towns, bidonvilles, and favelas add another twenty-five million per year.

⮚ From a long-term economic perspective, the shift from rural to urban living can be a boon for
national wealth. As a general rule, UN Habitat explains, “The more urbanized a country, the
higher the individual incomes.”

⮚ But the world’s rapidly growing cities are increasingly at risk of natural disasters, ranging from
catastrophic fires to landslides, massive floods, and tidal waves. This is alarming, given evidence that
such events are on the rise. According to the Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, “the
number of people reported affected by natural disasters” rose astronomically
between 1900 and 2011, from a few million early in the twentieth century to a peak of 680 million in
2000 (hovering around 300 million today). To be sure, much of this rise is attributable
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4
to evolving reporting standards and a growing global population. But alongside these changes has
been a growing global awareness of and unwillingness to tolerate the extreme suffering of “natural”
disasters.

⮚ Moreover, certain types of disasters seem clearly on the rise. Over the last three decades, during which
observation techniques have been “fairly comprehensive and consistent,” reports of major floods have
climbed from an average of less than fifty to just below two hundred per year. Incidences of tropical
storms have climbed from around ten to roughly fifteen, and the annual total of U.S. tornadoes and
global tsunamis has risen significantly. The financial costs have risen even faster. According to Gerhard
Berz, former head of Geo Risks at Munich Re, a German re insurance corporation, “losses from natural
disasters have increased eightfold in economic terms during the last four decades. The insured losses
 have even increased by a factor of fourteen.”

⮚ Beyond the insurance industry, the global business community is increasingly cognizant of the
susceptibility of rapidly growing cities to calamity. As the firm Control Risks states in its RISKMAP
2011, “The concentration of human, physical, and financial capital in cities renders them especially
vulnerable to both immediate devastation and lingering disruption to transport, commerce, and
communications in the aftermath of major disasters.”

⮚ Today’s pell-mell urbanization—typically “poorly planned and managed” by local authorities—

increasingly occurs in peripheral zones of marginal habitation, leaving hundreds of millions of people at
the mercy of natural disasters. Vulnerability is acute along coastal areas, where the strongest population
growth is occurring and where “any land remaining available for urban growth is generally risk-prone,
for instance flood plains or steep slopes subject to landslides.” Of the thirty-three cities predicted to have
populations of eight million or more by 2015, Control Risks reports, twenty-one are located in coastal
regions. Globally, some one hundred million people live less than one meter above sea level, many in
cities like Dhaka, Lagos, Mumbai, New
York, Rio de Janeiro, and Tokyo. Beyond the threat of storms and tsunamis, such low-lying cities
are acutely vulnerable to climate-change induced sea level rise.
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5

⮚ The confluence of rapid urbanization and natural disasters has been on display many times over the past
decade. Haiti’s crowded, squalid, capital, Port-au-Prince, surrounded by slopes denuded of trees,
suffered repeated, catastrophic flooding even prior to the devastating 2010 earthquake that killed
between 200,000 and 250,000 Haitians and caused an estimated $8 to $14 billion in damage. More
recently, disastrous floods in Manila were exacerbated by the lack of trees and soil to absorb torrential
rainfall.

⮚ Vulnerability of urban areas to natural disasters is hardly restricted to the developing world, of course,
as the Japanese earthquake and U.S. experience with Hurricane Katrina attest. And as any Washington,
 DC, region resident knows, cities with one million people or more suffer from what meteorologists
call the “heat island effect,” so that its “annual mean air temperature… can be 1.8- 5.4°F (1-3°C)
warmer than its surroundings.” This phenomenon tends to make storms more intense. “In Houston,
Texas, for example, another two decades of urbanization might be enough to double a small
thunderstorm’s intensity, increasing the risk of flooding.” Similar dynamics apparently played a role
last month, when China suffered its most catastrophic rainstorm in four decades, a deluge that brought
sixteen to eighteen inches of rain to some areas, killing thirty seven people and causing $1.6 billion in
damage. Some Chinese researchers attributed the storm’s power to the effects of urbanization.

⮚ As Ben Franklin’s old adage goes, “an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.” There are clear
steps that governments can take to prepare for disasters, and to increase resilience in their aftermath.
Two important steps are building local capacity to anticipate risk levels and establishing channels
through which to request resources from state, provincial, or national governments. Another priority is
emergency response training in vulnerable cities or neighborhoods. Finally, investing in—and
publishing—threat assessments and risk modeling is critical. The United States should seek to catalyze
broader global awareness of the threat that
natural disasters pose to urban environments, collaborate on disaster prevention efforts around the
world, and invest in its own disaster preparedness initiatives.
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⮚ Population growth and distribution, especially increased population density and urbanization, increases
vulnerability to disasters.
⮚ Urban areas are not disaster prone by nature; rather the socio-economic structural processes that
accelerate rapid urbanization, population movement and population concentrations substantially
increase disaster vulnerability, particularly of low-income urban dwellers.
⮚ The lack of adequate infrastructure and services, unsafe housing, inadequate and poor health services
can turn natural hazard into a disaster. For example, poor solid waste management can cause blockage
to storm water and sewage networks that can lead to water logging and flooding.
⮚ Rapid growth in the number of people living in urban areas is increasing the world's susceptibility to
natural disasters warns a recent global report by the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE), a
London body representing engineers from various fields.