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Earthquakes
An earthquake is any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the movement of seismic
waves through Earth’s rocks. The earthquakes originate in tectonic plate boundary. The
focus is point inside the earth where the earthquake started, sometimes called the
hypocenter, and the point on the surface of the earth directly above the focus is called
the epicenter.
Causes of Earthquakes
Earthquakes happen due to different natural processes beneath the Earth’s surface.
Most are caused by moving tectonic plates, but volcanic activity and collapsing
underground structures can also cause them.
1. Movement of Tectonic Plates
The Earth’s crust is made of big pieces called tectonic plates that are always moving.
These plates can move apart, come together, or slide past each other, and all can cause
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earthquakes. Sometimes the plates get stuck because of friction, so pressure builds up.
When the pressure gets too high, the plates suddenly move, sending out energy called
seismic waves that cause an earthquake.
2. Volcanic Activity
Volcanic earthquakes occur when magma moves beneath a volcano. The pressure from
the rising magma can crack rocks and shake the ground.
3. Collapse of Underground Structures
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Collapse earthquakes occur when underground structures such as caves or mines
suddenly fall in. The collapse produces seismic waves, leading to localized ground
shaking.
Effects of Earthquakes
1. Infrastructural Damage
Collapsing buildings, walls, bridges, falling furniture or objects and shattering glass.
Debris from collapsing structures is one of the primary dangers during an earthquake
since the impact of large, heavy objects can be fatal. Earthquakes sometimes cause
glass windows and mirrors to shatter and this is also quite dangerous. Earthquake
aftershocks can result in the complete collapse of buildings that were damaged during
an earthquake.
2. Fires
Earthquakes can cause electricity poles to fall and live wires to become exposed or to
start fires. Ruptured gas lines and spillage of flammable substances. Earthquake-
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generated fires are one of the most dangerous secondary hazards. These can cause
further destruction after a major earthquake. Escaping gas from broken gas lines and
the toppling of containers with flammable substances (e.g. kerosene, household
chemicals, etc.) present a significant threat of explosions and fires, which can cause
death and destruction of property. Additionally, water pipes are sometimes ruptured
during an earthquake and this compounds the problem of controlling such fires.
3. Liquefaction
When sediments with a high-water content are subjected to prolonged shaking, the
pressure of the water held in pores in the sediment gradually increases eventually, the
sediments lose all cohesive strength and begin to behave as if they were liquids.
Building and other structures sink into the ground or overturn and buried tanks and
other cavities rise to the surface. This is known as liquefaction.
4. Tsunamis
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A tsunami is a large ocean wave or series of waves that can be generated by a large
underwater earthquake. Large tsunamis can completely devastate low-lying coastal
areas.
Seismic waves
Seismic waves, also known as earthquake waves, are vibrations that travel through the
Earth as a result of sudden energy release, typically from fault movements or volcanic
activity. These waves are responsible for the ground shaking experienced during an
earthquake and can be recorded using instruments called seismographs.
There are two main types of seismic waves: body waves and surface waves. Body waves
travel through the interior of the Earth, while surface waves move along the Earth’s
exterior. Each type behaves differently depending on the materials they pass through
and the path they take.
Body waves
The first waves to be detected during an earthquake because they travel the fastest.
These are further divided into Primary waves (P-waves) and Secondary waves (S-
waves).
a. Primary waves (P-waves)
The fastest type of seismic wave and are also known as compressional waves.
They move by pushing and pulling the particles of the material they travel
through, causing the particles to move back and forth in the same direction the
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wave is going—similar to how a spring or slinky moves when you push one end.
This kind of motion allows P-waves to pass through all states of matter, including
solids, liquids, and gases, which is why they are usually the first waves to be
recorded by seismographs after an earthquake occurs.
b. Secondary waves (S-waves)
S-waves, or Secondary waves, are slower than P-waves and arrive after them
during an earthquake. They move particles side to side or up and down, at a right
angle to the direction the wave is traveling. This motion is called shear motion.
Unlike P-waves, S-waves can only travel through solids because liquids and gases
don’t support this kind of movement.
Surface waves
Surface waves travel along the Earth’s surface and usually arrive after body waves.
Although they are slower, they often produce more ground shaking. The two main types
of surface waves are Love waves and Rayleigh waves.
a. Love waves
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Love waves are a type of surface wave that move the ground in a side-to-side,
horizontal motion. As they travel along the Earth’s surface, they shake the
ground back and forth, similar to how a snake moves. This movement is
perpendicular to the direction the wave is going, which means the ground moves
side to side while the wave moves forward. Unlike other types of waves, Love
waves do not move the ground up and down, so they don’t cause any vertical
motion. However, their strong horizontal shaking can be very damaging to
buildings and roads.
b. Rayleigh waves
Rayleigh waves are a type of surface wave that move the ground in a rolling
motion, causing both up-and-down and side-to-side movement at the same time.
This combined motion is similar to how ocean waves roll across the water. As
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Rayleigh waves travel along the Earth’s surface, they make the ground rise and
fall in a circular pattern.
Ways to Attempt to Predict or Forecast Earthquakes
While no existing method can precisely predict the exact time and location of an
earthquake, scientists continue to develop various techniques to improve forecasting
accuracy. These approaches are particularly crucial for tectonically active regions such
as the Philippines, which lies along the Pacific Ring of Fire a major area of seismic
activity. Enhanced forecasting methods, including seismic monitoring, historical data
analysis, analyzing foreshocks and artificial intelligence, aim to identify precursors and
patterns associated with earthquake occurrences. In an earthquake-prone country like
the Philippines, advancing these technologies is vital for disaster risk reduction, early
warning systems, and enhancing community preparedness and resilience.
1. Real-time Monitoring (Using Instruments)
One common method is real-time monitoring, where instruments constantly
observe the Earth’s movements to detect any early signs of earthquake activity.
The most commonly used tool is the seismograph, which works by recording
vibrations in the ground. When an earthquake occurs, the shaking causes a
suspended pen or sensor inside the seismograph to move and draw wave patterns
on a rotating drum or digital screen. These wave patterns, called seismograms,
help scientists know the strength, time, and location of an earthquake.
Other instruments also support earthquake monitoring. Accelerometers measure
how fast the ground is moving during a quake. Tiltmeters detect tiny changes in
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the angle or slope of the ground, which may indicate shifting underground.
Strainmeters measure the stretching or compression of rocks, helping scientists
monitor stress buildup along fault lines.
2. Studying Past Earthquakes (Historical Data)
Another method is by studying past earthquakes using historical data. By
examining old records, fault lines, and the timing of previous earthquakes in a
specific area, scientists can estimate where future earthquakes are more likely
to occur, though not the exact time.
3. Analyzing Foreshocks
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Analyzing foreshocks is another strategy. Foreshocks are smaller earthquakes
that sometimes happen before a larger one. If a pattern of foreshocks is
detected, it might be a warning sign. This part also includes aftershocks, which
are smaller quakes that follow the main event. Studying both foreshocks and
aftershocks helps scientists understand earthquake patterns better.
4. Advanced Technology like Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Lastly, modern technology such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) is now being used to
enhance earthquake forecasting. AI can quickly process and analyze huge
amounts of seismic data, allowing it to spot patterns or unusual activity that
people might overlook. By identifying these early warning signs, AI may help
provide faster and more accurate earthquake predictions, potentially saving lives
and reducing damage.
Intensity vs. Magnitude
Magnitude and Intensity measure different characteristics of earthquakes. Magnitude
measures the energy released at the source of the earthquake. Magnitude is
determined from measurements on seismographs. Intensity measures the strength of
shaking produced by the earthquake at a certain location. Intensity is determined from
effects on people, human structures, and the natural environment.
• Calculating Earthquake Magnitude
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The magnitude of an earthquake is a number
that allows earthquakes to be compared with
each other in terms of their relative power.
For several decades, earthquake magnitudes
were calculated based on a method first
developed by Charles Richter, a seismologist
based in California. Richter used
seismograms of earthquakes that occurred in
the San Andreas fault zone to calibrate his
magnitude scale.
Two measurements are factored together to
determine the Richter magnitude of an
earthquake: the amplitude of the largest
waves recorded on a seismogram of the
earthquake, and the distance to the epicenter of the earthquake. The
maximum amplitude seismic wave – the height of the tallest one – is
measured in mm on a seismogram. The distance to the epicenter must
also be taken into account because the greater the distance from the
earthquake, the smaller the waves get. The effect of distance is factored
out of the calculation. There is no upper limit defined for the Richter
scale, but after a century of seismograph measurements, it appears that
rocks in the earth release their stress before building up enough energy
to reach magnitude 10.
The Richter scale was found to not transfer very well from the San Andreas
fault zone, a transform plate boundary, to the much more powerful
earthquakes that occur at convergent plate boundaries, particularly
subduction zone earthquakes. Therefore, the Richter scale has been
replaced by the moment magnitude scale, symbolized as Mw.
The moment magnitude scale is broadly similar to the Richter scale, but
it takes more factors into account, including the total area of the fault
that moves during the earthquake, and how much it moves. This produces
a magnitude number that is a better indicator of the total amount of
energy released by the earthquake. Because the moment magnitude scale
has replaced the Richter scale, we will assume from here on that we are
referring to moment magnitude, not Richter magnitude, when we speak
of earthquake magnitude.
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The magnitude scale portrays energy logarithmically to approximately
base 32. For example, a magnitude 6.0 earthquake releases about 32
times as much energy as a magnitude 5.0 earthquake. A magnitude 7.0
releases about 32 × 32 = 1024 times as much energy as a magnitude 5.0
earthquake. A magnitude 9.0 earthquake, which rarely occurs, releases
over a million times as much energy as a magnitude 5.0 earthquake.
• Ranking Earthquake Intensity
Earthquake intensity is very different from earthquake magnitude.
Earthquake intensity is a ranking based on the observed effects of an
earthquake in each particular place. Therefore, each earthquake
produces a range of intensity values, ranging from highest in the epicenter
area to zero at a distance from the epicenter. The most commonly used
earthquake intensity scale is the Modified Mercalli earthquake intensity
scale.
The table below shows approximately how many earthquakes occur each
year in each magnitude range and what the intensity might be at the
epicenter for each magnitude range.
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Magnitude / Intensity Comparison
The following table gives intensities that are typically observed at locations near
the epicenter of earthquakes of different magnitudes.
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