“BELIEVE YOU CAN & YOU ARE HALF WAY
THERE”
General pathology
1. Cell adaptation, cell injury, cell death
2. Inflammation
3. Wound healing
4. Hemodynamics
5. Neoplasia
6. Immunopathology
7. Genetics
5 Type of Adaptation
1. Hyperplasia – increase in number of cell
2. Hypertrophy – increase in sixe of cell
3. Atrophy decrease in the size of cell/ shrinkage of cell
4. Metaplasia – transformation of one adult cell type with another
5. Dysplasia – disordered cellular development
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Hyperplasia
• Increase in number of cell, not in size of cell, resulting in
enlargement of the organ or tissue.
• It is of two types :-
• Pathological
• Physiological
Hypertrophy
• Increase in size of cell, not number of cell, leading to an increase
in the size of the organ.
• It is of two types
• Pathological
• Physiological
ATROPHY
Decrease in the cell size and number of cell
Atrophied cell are smaller than normal but they are still viable – they do not necessarily
undergo apoptosis or necrosis.
It is of two type :-
pathological
physiological
Metaplasia
• A reversible change in which one mature/adult
cell type is replaced by another mature /adult
cell type.
• It is of two types
• Squamous
• Columnar
Dysplasia
Disordered cellular development
Characterized by cellular cytologic changes.
Cytologic changes
1. Increased in number of layer
2. Disorderly arrangement of cell from basal layer to surface layer
3. Loss of basal polarity i.e nuclei lying away from basement membrane
4. Cellular and nuclear pleomorphism
5. Increased nucleocytoplasmic ration
6. Nuclear hyperchromatism
7. Increased mitotic activity
Cell death
• Apoptosis – suicide
• Necrosis – murder
Apoptosis
Cell suicide :-
It is a pathway of cell death that is induced by a
tightly regulated intracellular program in which
cell destined to die activate enzymes degrade the
cell own nuclear DNA and cytoplasmic proteins.
The cell is phagoctosed
There is no leakage outside
So there is no inflammation
NECROSIS
• Necrosis is death of cell and tissues in the living animal
• Necrosis is defined as a localized area of death of tissue followed later by
degradation of tissue by hydrolytic enzymes liberated from dead cell.
• It is invariably accompanied by inflammatory reaction
• Coagulative necrosis
• Liuefactive necrosis
• Caseous necrosis
• Fat necrosis
• Fibrinoid necrosis
Gangrene
Gangrene is necrosis of tissue associated with superadded putrefaction
Gangrene = necrosis + putrefaction
Gas gangrene
Special form of wet gangrene caused by gas forming clostridia ( gram positive
anaerobic bacteria)
Swollen, edematous, painful, crepitant due to accumulation of gas bubbles of
carbon dioxide within the tissue formed by fermentation of sugar by bacterial
toxins.
Inflammation
• It is a bodey defense mechanism in order to eliminate or
limit the spread of injurious agent, followed by removal
of the necrosed cells and repair of damaged tissue.
• White blood cells or leucocytes are the body’s major
infection fighting cells.
Cardinal sign :-
1. Rubor – redness
2. Calor – increased local temperature
3. Tumor – swelling
4. Dolor – pain
5. Functio laesa – loss of function
Acute inflammation
Vascular event Cellular reaction
Que :- sequence of event in acute inflammation ?
a. Vasodilation – statsis – transient vasoconstriction –
increased permeability
b. Transient vaso. – stasis – vasodilation – increased
permeability
c. Transient vaso. – vasodilation – stasis – increased
permeability
d. Transient vaso – vasodilation – increased permeability –
stasis
Cellular event
1. Margination and pavementing
2. Rolling
3. Adhesion
4. Transmigration
5. Chemotaxis
6. Phagocytosis
Fig: Normal distribution with different standard distribution
Chronic inflammation
• Chronic inflammation is response of prolonged
duration in which inflammation, tissue injury
and attempts at repair coexist, in varying
combination
• Inflammation
• Tissue injury
• Attempts at repair
• Pathogenesis of granuloma
• Formation of granuloma is type IV hypersensitivity
reaction
3 steps
1. Engulfment by macrophages
2. Activation of CD4+ cell
3. Release of cytokines
EDEMA
• Edema is defined as abnormal and excessive accumulation of
fluid in the interstitial tissue space.
EFFUSION
Pathogenesis of edema
1. Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure
2. Decreased plasma oncotic pressure
3. Lymphatic obstruction
4. Sodium and water retention
5. Increased capillary permeability (inflammation)
Difference between Transudate and Exudate
Thrombosis
Pathophysiology
shock
GENETICS
22 pairs
23rd paior
Genetic inheritance of single gene disorder
• AD –
• AR –
• XD –
• XR -
Autosomal dominant inheritance disease
• Autosomal dominant traits do not skip a generation
• Autosomal dominant traits do not show gender bias
Autosomal recessive inheritance disease
- Both sexes involved
- Generation skipped
X linked dominant disorder
• Affected male will transmit it to 100% of their daughter and
none of their sons
• Affected female will transmit the disease to 50% of their sons
and daughter
X-Linked Recessive Disorder
a. The mutant recessive gene on the X chromosome expresses itself in a
male child because it is not suppressed by a normal allele
b. The mutant recessive gene on the X chromosome do NOT expresses
itself in a female child, because in the female the presence of a normal
allele on the other X-chromosome prevents the expression of the
disease. So, female only acts as carriers.
Transplantation rejection
Graft types
• Autograft
• Isograft
• Allograft
• xenograft
Neoplasm
Benign and malignant tumor :-
1. Rate of growth
2. Clinical feature
3. Gross feature
4. Microscopic feature
5. Spread of tumors
Tumor markers :-
Pathology
General pathology
Hematology
Systemic pathology
