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UNIT 4 MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS AND

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

4.1 Multistage Amplifiers 106

4.1.1 Need for Cascading 106
4.1.2 Advantages of Representation of Gain in Decibels 108
4.2 Introduction of Differential Amplifier 111
4.2.1 Basics of Differential Amplifier 112
4.2.2 Transistorised Differential Amplifier 114
4.2.3 Differential Mode Operation 115
4.2.4 common Mode operation
116
4.2.5 D.C. Analysis of Differential Amplifier
118
4.3 Tuned amplifier 120
4.3.1 Need for tuned circuits 121
4.3.2 Single tuned amplifier 121
4.4 General shape of frequency response of amplifiers 122
123
4.5 Neutralization Methods
124
4.5.1 Neutralization using coil
124
4.6 Power Amplifiers 126
4.6.1 Transformer-Coupled Class A Amplifiers 127
4.6.2 Class B Amplifiers 128
4.6.3 Class C Amplifiers 129
Review Questions

UNIT 5

FEED BACK AMPLIFIERSAND OSCILLATORS

5.1 Feedback 128

5.2 Principles of Negative Voltage Feedback In Amplifiers 129
5.3 Gain of Negative Voltage Feedback Amplifier 130
5.4 Advantages of Negative Voltage Feedback 131
5.5 Effects of Negative Current Feedback 137
5.6 The Feedback Voltage Amplifier (Series-Shunt) 138
5.7 Oscillators: 140
5.8 The Hartley Oscillator 141
5.9 The Colpitts Oscillator 142
5.10 Wien Bridge Oscillator 145

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5.11 Quartz Crystal Oscillators 150

Review Questions

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EC8353 Electronic Devices And Circuits

Syllabus
Class/Sem: II EEE /III Sem

Unit I PN JUNCTION DEVICES 9

PN junction diode –structure, operation and V-I characteristics, diffusion and transient
capacitance - Rectifiers – Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier,– Display devices- LED, Laser
diodes- Zener diode- characteristics-Zener Reverse characteristics – Zener as regulator

Unit II TRANSISTORS 9
BJT, JFET, MOSFET- structure, operation, characteristics and Biasing UJT, Thyristor and
IGBT - Structure and characteristics.

Unit III AMPLIFIERS 9

BJT small signal model – Analysis of CE, CB, CC amplifiers- Gain and frequency
response – MOSFET small signal model– Analysis of CS and Source follower – Gain and
frequency response- High frequency analysis.

Unit IV MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS AND DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER 9

BIMOS cascade amplifier, Differential amplifier – Common mode and Difference mode
analysis – FET input stages – Single tuned amplifiers – Gain and frequency response –
Neutralization methods, power amplifiers –Types (Qualitative analysis).

Advantages of negative feedback – voltage / current, series , Shunt feedback –positive

feedback – Condition for oscillations, phase shift – Wien bridge, Hartley, Colpitts and Crystal
oscillators.
Total (L:45+T:15): 60 Periods

Text Books:
1. DAVid A. Bell ,”Electronic Devices and Circuits”, Prentice Hall of India, 2004.
2. Sedra and smith, “Microelectronic Circuits “ Oxford University Press, 2004.

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UNIT I PN JUNCTION DEVICES

1.1 SEMICONDUCTOR

A semiconductor is a material which has electrical conductivity to a degree between that of

a metal (such as copper) and that of an insulator (such as glass). Semiconductors are the foundation
of modern electronics, including transistors, solar cells, light -emitting diodes (LEDs), quantum dots
and digital and analog integrated circuits.

DIODE

Diode – Di + ode

Di means two and ode means electrode. So physical contact of two electrodes is known as
diode and its important function is alternative current to direct current.

1.2 REVIEW OF INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

1.2.1 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

The concentration of carriers is strongly dependent on the temperature. At low temperatures,

the valence band is completely full making the material an insulator. Increasing the temperature
leads to an increase in the number of carriers and a corresponding increase in conductivity.
This characteristic shown by intrinsic semiconductor is different from the behaviour of most
metals, which tend to become less conductive at higher temperatures due to increased phonon
scattering.

Both silicon and germanium are tetravalent, i.e. each has four electrons (valence
electrons) in their outermost shell. Both elements crystallize with a diamond-like structure, i.e. in
such a way that each atom in the crystal is inside a tetrahedron formed by the four atoms which are
closest to it. Each atom shares its four valence electrons with its four immediate neighbours, so that
each atom is involved in four covalent bonds.

1.2.2 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

An extrinsic semiconductor is one that has been doped with impurities to modify the
number and type of free charge carriers. An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor that has
been doped, that is, into which a doping agent has been introduced, giving it different electrical
properties than the intrinsic (pure) semiconductor.

Doping involves adding doping atoms to an intrinsic semiconductor, which changes the
electron and hole carrier concentrations of the semiconductor at thermal equilibrium. Dominant

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carrier concentrations in an extrinsic semiconductor classify it as either an n-type or p-type

semiconductor.

A pure or intrinsic conductor has thermally generated holes and electrons. However these
are relatively few in number. An enormous increase in the number of charge carriers can by
achieved by introducing impurities into the semiconductor in a controlled manner. The result is
the formation of an extrinsic semiconductor. This process is referred to as doping. There are
basically two types of impurities: donor impurities and acceptor impurities. Donor impurities are
made up of atoms (arsenic for example) which have five valence electrons. Acceptor impurities are
made up of atoms (gallium for example) which have three valence electrons.

The two types of extrinsic semiconductor are

 N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

Extrinsic semiconductors with a larger electron concentration than hole concentration are
known as n-type semiconductors. The phrase 'n-type' comes from the negative charge of the
electron. In n-type semiconductors, electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority
carriers. N-type semiconductors are created by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with donor
impurities.

 P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

As opposed to n-type semiconductors, p-type semiconductors have a larger hole

concentration than electron concentration. The phrase 'p-type' refers to the positive charge of the
hole. In p-type semiconductors, holes are the majority carriers and electrons are the minority
carriers. P-type semiconductors are created by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with acceptor
impurities. P-type semiconductors have Fermi energy levels below the intrinsic Fermi energy level.

The Fermi energy level lies closer to the valence band than the conduction band in a p- type
semiconductor. Gallium has 3 valence electrons, however, there are 4 covalent bonds to fill. The 4th
bond therefore remains vacant producing a hole. The holes are said to be the majority carriers and
the electrons are said to be the minority carriers.

1.3 PN JUNCTION DIODE

When the N and P-type semiconductor materials are first joined together a very large density
gradient exists between both sides of the junction so some of the free electrons from the donor
impurity atoms begin to migrate across this newly formed junction to fill up the holes in the P-
type material producing negative ions.

1.3.1 FORWARD BIAS CONDITION

When positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type and negative terminal to
N-type of the PN junction diode that is known as forward bias condition.

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 Operation

The applied potential in external battery acts in opposition to the internal potential barrier which
disturbs the equilibrium.

As soon as equilibrium is disturbed by the application of an external voltage, the Fermi level is no
longer continuous across the junction.

Under the forward bias condition the applied positive potential repels the holes in P type region so
that the holes move towards the junction and the applied positive potential repels the electrons in N
type region so that the electrons move towards the junction.

When the applied potential is more than the internal barrier potential the depletion region and
internal potential barrier disappear.

Figure PN junctions under forward bias

As the forward voltage increased for VF < Vo, the forward current IF almost zero because
the potential barrier prevents the holes from P region and electrons from N region to flow across
the depletion region in opposite direction.

V-I characteristics of a diode under forward bias

For VF > Vo, the potential barrier at the junction completely disappears and hence, the
holes cross the junction from P to N type and electrons cross the junction to opposite direction,
resulting large current flow in external circuit.

A feature noted here is the cut in voltage or threshold voltage VF below which the

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current is very small. At this voltage the potential barrier is overcome and the current through
the junction starts to increase rapidly.

 Cut in voltage is 0.3V for germanium and 0.7 for silicon.

1.3.2 UNDER REVERSE BIAS CONDITION

When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type and positive terminal to N-type
of the PN junction diode that is known as forward bias condition.
 Operation

The holes from the majority carriers of the P side move towards the negative terminal of the
battery and electrons which from the majority carrier of the N side are attracted towards the
positive terminal of the battery.

Figure PN junctions under reverse bias

Hence the resultant potential barrier is increased which prevents the flow of majority carriers in both
directions. The depletion width W is proportional to under reverse bias.

 V-I characteristics

Theoretically no current flow in the external circuit. But in practice a very small amount of current
of the order of few microamperes flows under reverse bias.

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Figure V-I characteristics under reverse bias

Electrons forming covalent bonds of semiconductor atoms in the P and N type regions
may absorb sufficient energy from heat and light to cause breaking covalent bonds. So electron hole
pairs continuously produced.

Consequently the minority carriers electrons in the P region and holes in the N region,
wander over to the junction and flow towards their majority carrier side giving rise a small
reverse current. This current is known as reverse saturation current Io.
The magnitude of this current is depends on the temperature because minority carrier is
thermally broken covalent bonds.

1.4 Transition capacitances:

1. When P-N junction is reverse biased the depletion region act as an insulator or as a dielectric
medium and the p-type an N-type region have low resistance and act as the plates.
2. Thus this P-N junction can be considered as a parallel plate capacitor.
3. This junction capacitance is called as space charge capacitance or transition capacitance and is
denoted as CT .
4. Since reverse bias causes the majority charge carriers to move away from the junction , so the
thickness of the depletion region denoted as W increases with the increase in reverse bias voltage.
Where dQ is the increase in charge and dV is the change or increase in voltage.
6. The depletion region increases with the increase in reverse bias potential the resulting transition
capacitance decreases.
7. The formula for transition capacitance is given as CT = Aε/W, where A is the cross sectional area
of the region, and W is the width.

1.5 Diffusion capacitance:

1. When the junction is forward biased, a capacitance comes into play , that is known as diffusion
capacitance denoted as CD. It is much greater than the transition capacitance.
2. During forward biased the potential barrier is reduced. The charge carriers moves away from the
junction and recombine.
3. The density of the charge carriers is high near the junction and reduces or decays as the distance
increases.
4. Thus in this case charge is stored on both side of the junction and varies with the applied potential.
So as per definition change in charge with respect to applied voltage results in capacitance which here
is called as diffusion capacitance.
5. The formula for diffusion capacitance is CD = τID / ηVT , where τ is the mean life time of the
charge carrier, ID is the diode current and VT is the applied forward voltage, and η is generation
recombination factor.
6. The diffusion capacitance is directly proportional to the diode current.
7. In forward biased CD >> CT . And thus CT can be neglected.

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1.6 RECTIFIERS

Rectifiers are classified according to the period of conduction.

They are

 Half Wave Rectifier

 Full Wave Rectifier

1.6.1 Half Wave Rectifier:

The main supply voltage is given to the transformer which will increase or decrease the
voltage and give to the diode. In most of the cases we will decrease the supply voltage by using the
step down transformer here also the output of the step down transformer will be in AC. This
decreased AC voltage is given to the diode which is connected serial to the secondary winding of the
transformer, diode is electronic component which will allow only the forward bias current and will
not allow the reverse bias current. From the diode we will get the pulsating DC and give to the load
resistance RL.

1.6.2 Working of Half Wave Rectifier:

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The input given to the rectifier will have both positive and negative cycles. The half rectifier
will allow only the positive half cycles and omit the negative half cycles. So first we will see how
half wave rectifier works in the positive half cycles.

 Positive Half Cycle:

 In the positive half cycles when the input AC power is given to the primary winding of the
step down transformer, we will get the decreased voltage at the secondary winding which is given to
the diode.
 The diode will eliminate the variations in the supply and give the pulsating DC voltage to the
load resistance RL. We can get the pulsating DC at the Load resistance.

 Negative Half Cycle:

 In the negative half cycle the current will flow in the anti-clockwise direction and the diode
will go in to the reverse bias. In the reverse bias the diode will not conduct so, no current in flown
from anode to cathode, and we cannot get any power at the load resistance.
 Only small amount of reverse current is flown from the diode but this current is almost
negligible. And voltage across the load resistance is also zero.

1.6.3 Characteristics of Half Wave Rectifier:

There are some characteristics to the half wave rectifier they are

 Efficiency: The efficiency is defined as the ratio of input AC to the output DC.
Efficiency, Ƞ = P dc / Pac
DC power delivered to the load, Pdc = I2dc RL = ( Imax/pi ) 2 RL
AC power input to the transformer, Pac = Power dissipated in junction of diode + Power
dissipated in load resistance RL

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= I2rms RF + I2rms RL = {I2MAX/4}[RF + RL]

Rectification Efficiency, Ƞ = Pdc / Pac = {4/ 2}[RL/ (RF + RL)] = 0.406/{1+ RF/RL }If
RF is neglected, the efficiency of half wave rectifier is 40.6%.

 Ripple factor: It is defined as the amount of AC content in the output DC. It nothing but
amount of AC noise in the output DC. Less the ripple factor, performance of the rectifier is
more. The ripple factor of half wave rectifier is about 1.21 (full wave rectifier has about
0.48). It can be calculated as follows:

The effective value of the load current I is given as sum of the rms values of
harmonic currents I1, I2, I3, I4 and DC current Idc.
I2 =I2dc+I21+I22+I24 = I2dc +I2ac

Where Kf is the form factor of the input voltage. Form factor is given as

Kf = Irms /Iavg = (Imax/2)/ (Imax/pi) = pi/2 = 1.57

So, ripple factor, γ = (1.572 – 1) = 1.21

 Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF): The TUF is defined as the ratio of DC power is
delivered to the load and the AC rating of the transformer secondary. Half wave rectifier has
around 0.287 and full wave rectifier has around 0.693.

Half wave rectifier is mainly used in the low power circuits. It has very low performance when it is
compared with the other rectifiers.

1.7 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

Full wave rectifier rectifies the full cycle in the waveform i.e. it rectifies both the positive and
negative cycles in the waveform. We have already seen the characteristics and working of Half
Wave Rectifier. This Full wave rectifier has an advantage over the half wave i.e. it has average
output higher than that of half wave rectifier. The number of AC components in the output is less
than that of the input.

The full wave rectifier can be further divided mainly into following types.

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1. Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

2. Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

1.7.1 Centre-Tap Full Wave Rectifier

We have already discussed the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier, which uses four diodes, arranged
as a bridge, to convert the input alternating current (AC) in both half cycles to direct current (DC).
In the case of centre-tap full wave rectifier, only two diodes are used, and are connected to the
opposite ends of a centre-tapped secondary transformer as shown in the figure below. The centre-tap
is usually considered as the ground point or the zero voltage reference point.

 Working of Centre-Tap Full Wave Rectifier

As shown in the figure, an ac input is applied to the primary coils of the transformer. This input
makes the secondary ends P1 and P2 become positive and negative alternately. For the positive half
of the ac signal, the secondary point D1 is positive, GND point will have zero volt and P2 will be
negative. At this instant diode D1 will be forward biased and diode D2 will be reverse biased. As
explained in the Theory Behind P-N Junction and Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode, the diode
D1 will conduct and D2 will not conduct during during the positive half cycle. Thus the current flow
will be in the direction P1-D1-C-A-B-GND. Thus, the positive half cycle appears across the load
resistance RLOAD.

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During the negative half cycle, the secondary ends P1 becomes negative and P2 becomes positive.
At this instant, the diode D1 will be negative and D2 will be positive with the zero reference point
being the ground, GND. Thus, the diode D2 will be forward biased and D1 will be reverse biased.
The diode D2 will conduct and D1 will not conduct during the negative half cycle. The current flow
will be in the direction P2-D2-C-A-B-GND.

Centre-tap Full-wave Rectifier-Waveform

 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) of Centre-Tap Full Wave Rectifier

PIV is the maximum possible voltage across a diode during its reverse biased period. Let us analyze
the PIV of the centre-tapped rectifier from the circuit diagram. During the first half or the positive
half of th input ac supply, the diode D1 is positive and thus conducts and provided no resistance at
all. Thus, the whole of voltage Vs developed in the upper-half of the ac supply is provided to the load
resistance RLOAD. Similar is the case of diode D2 for the lower half of the transformer secondary.

Therefore, PIV of D2 = Vm + Vm = 2Vm

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PIV of D1 = 2Vm

Centre-Tap Rectifier Circuit Analysis

 Peak Current
The instantaneous value of the voltage applied to the rectifier can be written as
Vs = Vsm Sinwt
Assuming that the diode has a forward resistance of RFWD ohms and a reverse resistance
equal to infinity, the current flowing through the load resistance RLOAD is given as
Im = Vsm/(RF + RLoad)
 Output Current
Since the current is the same through the load resistance RL in the two halves of the ac cycle,
magnitude od dc current Idc, which is equal to the average value of ac current, can be
obtained by integrating the current i1 between 0 and pi or current i2 between pi and 2pi.

Output current of centre Tap rectifier

 DC Output Voltage

DC Output Voltage of centre Tap Rectifier

 Root Mean Square (RMS) Value of Current

RMS or effective value of current flowing through the load resistance RL is given as

RMS Value of Current of centre Tap Rectifier

 Root Mean Square (RMS) Value of Output Voltage

RMS value of voltage across the load is given as

RMS Value of Output Voltage of Centre Tap Rectifier

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 Rectification Efficiency
Power delivered to load,

Rectification Efficiency of Centre Tap Rectifier

 Ripple Factor
Form factor of the rectified output voltage of a full wave rectifier is given as

 Regulation
The dc output voltage is given as

1.7.2 Full wave bridge rectifier.

A Full wave rectifier is a circuit arrangement which makes use of both half cycles of input
alternating current (AC) and convert them to direct current (DC). In our tutorial on Half wave
rectifiers, we have seen that a half wave rectifier makes use of only one half cycle of the input
alternating current. Thus a full wave rectifier is much more efficient (double+) than a half wave
rectifier. This process of converting both half cycles of the input supply (alternating current) to direct
current (DC) is termed full wave rectification.

Full wave rectifier can be constructed in 2 ways. The first method makes use of a center
tapped transformer and 2 diodes. This arrangement is known as Center Tapped Full Wave

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Rectifier. The second method uses a normal transformer with 4 diodes arranged as a bridge. This
arrangement is known as a Bridge Rectifier.

Full Wave Rectifier Theory

To understand full wave bridge rectifier theory perfectly, you need to learn half wave rectifier
first. In the tutorial of half wave rectifier we have clearly explained the basic working of a rectifier. In
addition we have also explained the theory behind a pn junction and the characteristics of a pn
junction diode.

Full Wave Rectifier Working & Operation

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier – Circuit Diagram with Input and Output Wave Forms

 During the first half cycle

During first half cycle of the input voltage, the upper end of the transformer secondary winding is
positive with respect to the lower end. Thus during the first half cycle diodes D1 and D3 are forward
biased and current flows through arm AB, enters the load resistance RL, and returns back flowing

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through arm DC. During this half of each input cycle, the diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased and
current is not allowed to flow in arms AD and BC. The flow of current is indicated by solid arrows in
the figure above. We have developed another diagram below to help you understand the current flow
quickly. See the diagram below – the green arrows indicate beginning of current flow from source
(transformer secondary) to the load resistance. The red arrows indicate return path of current from
load resistance to the source, thus completing the circuit.

Flow of current in Bridge Rectifier

During second half cycle of the input voltage, the lower end of the transformer secondary
winding is positive with respect to the upper end. Thus diodes D2 and D4 become forward biased and
current flows through arm CB, enters the load resistance RL, and returns back to the source flowing
through arm DA. Flow of current has been shown by dotted arrows in the figure. Thus the direction
of flow of current through the load resistance RL remains the same during both half cycles of the
input supply voltage. See the diagram below – the green arrows indicate beginning of current flow
from source (transformer secondary) to the load resistance. The red arrows indicate return path of
current from load resistance to the source, thus completing the circuit.

1.8 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

A light emitting diode (LED) is known to be one of the best optoelectronic devices out of
the lot. The device is capable of emitting a fairly narrow bandwidth of visible or invisible light
when its internal diode junction attains a forward electric current or voltage.

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The visible lights that an LED emits are usually orange, red, yellow, or green. The invisible
light includes the infrared light. The biggest advantage of this device is its high power to light
conversion efficiency. That is, the efficiency is almost 50 times greater than a simple tungsten
lamp.

The response time of the LED is also known to be very fast in the range of 0.1
microseconds when compared with 100 milliseconds for a tungsten lamp. Due to these advantages,
the device wide applications as visual indicators and as dancing light displays.

We know that a P-N junction can connect the absorbed light energy into its proportional
electric current. The same process is reversed here. That is, the P-N junction emits light when
energy is applied on it. This phenomenon is generally called electro luminance, which can be
defined as the emission of light from a semi-conductor under the influence of an electric field.

The charge carriers recombine in a forward P-N junction as the electrons cross from the N-
region and recombine with the holes existing in the P-region. Free electrons are in the conduction
band of energy levels, while holes are in the valence energy band.

Thus the energy level of the holes will be lesser than the energy levels of the electrons.
Some part of the energy must be dissipated in order to recombine the electrons and the holes.
This energy is emitted in the form of heat and light.

All the semiconductorss listed above can be used. An N-type epitaxial layer is grown
upon a substrate, and the P-region is produced by diffusion. The P-region that includes the
recombination of charge carriers is shown is the top. Thus the P-region becomes the device surface.
In order to allow more surface area for the light to be emitted the metal anode connections
are made at the outer edges of the P-layer.

For the light to be reflected as much as possible towards the surface of the device, a gold
film is applied to the surface bottom. This setting also enables to provide a cathode connection. The
re-absorption problem is fixed by including domed lenses for the device. All the wires in the
electronic circuits of the device is protected by encasing the device.

The light emitted by athe device depends on the type of semiconductor material used.
Infrared light is produced by using Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) as semiconductor. Red or
yellowlight is produced by using Gallium -Arsenide-Phosphorus (GaAsP) as semiconductor.
 LED Circuit Symbol

The circuit symbol of LED consists of two arrow marks which indicate the radiation emitted by the
diode.

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Symbol of LED
1.8.1 LED Characteristics

Figure 5.3 LED characteristics curve

The commercially used LED‘s have a typical voltage drop between 1.5 Volt to 2.5 Volt or
current between 10 to 50 milliamperes. The exact voltage drop depends on the LED current,
colour, tolerance, and so on.

1.8.2 LED as an Indicator

The circuit shown below is one of the main applications of LED. The circuit is designed by wiring
it in inverse parallel with a normal diode, to prevent the device from being reverse biased.
The value of the series resistance should be half, relative to that o f a DC circuit.

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Figure 5.35 LED as an indicator

LEDS displays are made to display numbers from segments. One such design is the seven-
segment display as shown below. Any desired numerals from 0-9 can be displayed by passing
current through the correct segments. To connect such segment a common anode or common
cathode cathode configuration can be used. Both the connections are shown below. The LED‘s
are switched ON and OFF by using transistors.

 Advantages of LED’s

 Very low voltage and current are enough to drive the LED.
 Voltage range – 1 to 2 volts.
 Current – 5 to 20 mill amperes.
 Total power output will be less than 150 mill watts.
 The response time is very less – only about 10 nanoseconds.
 The device does not need any heating and warm up time.
 Miniature in size and hence light weight.
 Have a rugged construction and hence can withstand shock and vibrations.
 An LED has a life span of more than 20 years.

 Disadvantages of LED
 A slight excess in voltage or current can damage the device.
 The device is known to have a much wider bandwidth compared to the laser.

1.9 Laser diode

A laser diode, or LD, is an electrically pumped semiconductor laser in which the active laser
medium is formed by a p-n junction of a semiconductor diode similar to that found in a light-emitting
diode.

The laser diode is the most common type of laser produced with a wide range of uses that
include, but are not limited to, fiber optic communications, barcode readers, laser pointers,
CD/DVD/Blu-ray Disc reading and recording, laser printing, laser scanning and increasingly
directional lighting sources.

A laser diode is electrically a P-i-n diode. The active region of the laser diode is in the
intrinsic (I) region, and the carriers, electrons and holes, are pumped into it from the N and P regions
respectively.
While initial diode laser research was conducted on simple P-N diodes, all modern lasers use
the double-hetero structure implementation, where the carriers and the photons are confined in order
to maximize their chances for recombination and light generation.
Unlike a regular diode used in electronics, the goal for a laser diode is that all carriers
recombine in the I region, and produce light. Thus, laser diodes are fabricated using direct bandgap
semiconductors. The laser diode epitaxial structure is grown using one of the crystal growth
techniques, usually starting from an N doped substrate, and growing the I doped active layer,

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followed by the P doped cladding, and a contact layer. The active layer most often consists of
quantum wells,

1.9.1Laser diode L/I characteristic

One of the most commonly used and important laser diode specifications or characteristics is
the L/I curve. It plots the drive current supplied against the light output.

Laser diode L/I Characteristic

From this characteristic, it can be seen that there is a threshold current below which the laser
action does not take place. The laser diode should be operated clear of this point to ensure reliable
operation over the full operating temperature range as the threshold current rises with increasing
temperature. It is typically found that the laser threshold current rises exponentially with temperature.

 Laser Diode Specifications & Characteristics

a summary or overview of laser diode specifications, parameters and characteristics used in

defining laser diode performance for datasheets.

In this section

 Laser diode technology

 Laser diode types

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 Structure & materials

 Theory & operation
 Specs & characteristics
 Lifetime, failure & reliability
 Other diodes

When using a laser diode it is essential to know its performance characteristics. Accordingly laser
diode specifications are required when designing equipment using laser diodes or for maintenance
using near equivalents.

Like any electronics components, many of the specifications are relatively generic, but other
parameters will tend to be more focussed on the particular component. This is true for laser diode
specifications and characteristics.

There are a number of laser diode specifications, or laser diode characteristics that are key to the
overall performance and these are outlined.

1.10 A ZENER DIODE

Figure 4.6 Diode symbol

 However, the Zener Diode or "Breakdown Diode" as they are sometimes called, arebasically
the same as the standard PN junction diode but are specially designed to have a lowpre-
determined Reverse Breakdown Voltage that takes advantage of this high reverse voltage.

 The point at which a zener diode breaks down or conducts is called the "Zener Voltage"
(Vz).The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon
PNjunction.
 When biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passingthe
rated current, but when a reverse voltage is applied to it the reverse saturation currentremains
fairly constant over a wide range of voltages.
 The reverse voltage increases until thediodes breakdown voltage VB is reached at which point
a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the depletion layer and the current flowing
through the zener diode increasesdramatically to the maximum circuit value (which is usually
limited by a series resistor).

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 Thisbreakdown voltage point is called the "zener voltage" for zener diodes.

 Avalanche Breakdown: There is a limit for the reverse voltage. Reverse voltage can increase
until the diode breakdown voltage reaches. This point is called Avalanche Break down region.
At this stage maximum current will flow through the zener diode. This breakdown point is
referred as ―Zener voltageǁ.

The point at which current flows can be very accurately controlled (to less than 1%tolerance) in
the doping stage of the diodes construction giving the diode a specific zenerbreakdown voltage, (Vz)
ranging from a few volts up to a few hundred volts. This zenerbreakdown voltage on the I-V curve is
almost a vertical straight line.

1.10.1 Zener diode characteristics

1.10.2 Zener Regulator:

When zener diode is forward biased it works as a diode and drop across it is 0.7 V. When it works

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in breakdown region the voltage across it is constant (VZ) and the current through diode is decided
by the external resistance. Thus, zener diode can be used as
a voltage regulator in the configuration shown in figure 2 for regulating the dc voltage. It
maintains the output voltage constant even through the current through it changes.

Figure 2 Figure 3

To operate the zener in breakdown region Vs should always be greater then Vz. Rs is used
to limit the current. If the Vs voltage changes, operating point also changes simultaneously but
voltage across zener is almost constant. The first approximation of zener diode is a voltage source
of Vz magnitude and second approximation includes the resistance also. The two approximate
equivalent circuits are shown in below figure

If second approximation of zener diode is considered, the output voltage varies slightly as
shown in figure The zener ON state resistance produces more I * R drop as the current
increases. As the voltage varies form V1 to V2 the operating point shifts from Q1 to Q2.

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The voltage at Q1 is

V1 = I1 RZ +VZ

and at Q2

V2 = I2 RZ +VZ

Thus, change in voltage is V2 – V1 = ( I2 – I1 ) RZ

Review Questions

PART-B

1. With a neat diagram explain the working of a PN junction diode in forward bias and
reverse bias and show the effect of temperature on its V-I characteristics. (16)
2. Explain V-I characteristics of Zener diode. (8)
3. Draw the circuit diagram and explain the working of full wave bridge rectifier and derive the
expression for average output current and rectification efficiency. (8)
5. Explain the following regulator circuits : (i) Transistorized shunt regulator. (8) (ii) Zener diode
shunt regulator. (8)
6. Draw the circuit diagram and explain the operation of full wave rectifier using center tap
transformer and using bridge rectifier without center tap transformer. Obtain the
expression for peak inverse voltage. (16)
7. With neat diagram explain the construction and working of LED. (8)

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UNIT 2 TRANSISTORS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The transistor is the main building block ―elementǁ of electronics. It is a semiconductor

device and it comes in two general types: the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) and the Field
Effect Transistor (FET).

It is named as transistor which is an acronym of two terms: ―transfer-of-resistor.ǁ It

means that the internal resistance of transistor transfers from one value to another values depending
on the biasing voltage applied to the transistor. Thus it is called Transfer resistor: i.e.
TRANSISTOR.

A bipolar transistor (BJT) is a three terminal semiconductor device in which the operation
depends on the interaction of both majority and minority carriers and hence the name bipolar.

The voltage between two terminals controls the current through the third terminal. So it is
called current controlled device. This is the basic principle of the BJT

 TYPES
There are two types of bipolar transistors

2.1.1 TRANSISTOR CONSTRUCTION

PNP Transistor: In PNP transistor a thin layer of N-type silicon is sandwiched between two layers
of P-type silicon.

NPN Transistor: In NPN transistor a thin layer of P-type silicon is sandwiched between two layers
of N-type silicon. The two types of BJT are represented in figure 2.1

Figure 2.1 Transistors: NPN, PNP

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The symbolic representation of the two types of the BJT is shown in figure 2.2
Figure 2.2 circuit symbol: NPN transistor ,PNP transistor
Area:[C>E>B]
Area of emitter layer is medium.
Doping level:[E>C>B]
Junctions:
The junction between collector layer and base layer is called as collector-base junction
or C-B junction.
The junction between base layer and emitter layer is called as base-emitter junction
or B-E junction. The two junctions have almost same potential barrier voltage of 0.6V to
0.7V, just like in a diode.

Equivalent diode representation:

The transistor formed by back to back connection of two diodes

Figure 2.3 The equivalent diode representation for the NPN and PNP transistors

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The states of the two pn junctions can be altered by the external circuitry connected to the
transistor. This is called biasing the transistor.

Usually the emitter- base junction is forward biased and collector –base junction is reverse
biased. Due to forward bias on the emitter- base junction an emitter current flows through the base
into the collector. Though, the collector –base junction is reverse biased, almost the entire emitter
current flows through the collector circuit.

Figure 2.4 Transistor biasing: PNP transistor, NPN transistor

There are two junctions in bipolar junction transistor. Each junction can be forward or reverse
biased independently. Thus there are four modes of operations:

Table 2.1 Modes of operation of transistor

Emitter-Base Collector- Base

Modes
junction junction

Cutoff Reverse Reverse

Active Forward Reverse

Saturation Forward Forward

Reverse Reverse Forward

active

Forward Active

In this mode of operation, emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is
reverse biased. Transistor behaves as a source. With controlled source characteristics the BJT can
be used as an amplifier and in analog circuits.

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Cut off

When both junctions are reverse biased it is called cut off mode. In this situation there is nearly
zero current and transistor behaves as an open switch.

Saturation

In saturation mode both junctions are forward biased large collector current flows with a small
voltage across collector base junction. Transistor behaves as an closed switch.

Reverse Active

It is opposite to forward active mode because in this emitter base junction is reverse biased and
collector base junction is forward biased. It is called inverted mode. It is no suitable for
[Link] the reverse active mode has application in digital circuits and certain
analog switching circuits.

Figure 2.5 Transistor current flow directions

- The arrow is always drawn on the emitter The arrow always point toward the n-type

- The arrow indicates the direction of the emitter current:

pnp:E-> B

npn: B-> E

IC = the collector current, IB = the base current, IE = the emitter current

2.2 OPERATION OF AN NPN TRANSISTOR

Emitter base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse biased. Due to
emitter base junction is forward biased lot of electrons from emitter entering the base region.

Base is lightly doped with P-type impurity. So the number of holes in the base region is very
small.

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Due to this, electron- hole recombination is less (i.e,) few electrons(<5%) combine with holes
to constitute base current(IB)
The remaining electrons (>95%) crossover into collector region, to constitute collector current(IC).

Figure 2.6 Current in NPN

transistor

Figure 2.7 Current in PNP

transistor

Emitter base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse biased. Due to
emitter base junction is forward biased lot of holes from emitter entering the base region and
electrons from base to emitter region.

Base is lightly doped with N-type impurity. So the number of electrons in the base region
is very small.

Due to this, electron- hole recombination is less (i.e,) few holes (<5%) combine with electrons
to constitute base current(IB)

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2.3 CONFIGURATION OF TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT

A transistor is a three terminal device. But require ‗4‘ terminals for connecting it in a
circuits.
(i.e.) 2 terminals for input, 2 terminals for output.
Hence one of the terminal is made common to the input and output circuits.
Common terminal is grounded.

 TYPES OF CONFIGURATIONS

Three types of configuration is available

1) Common base(CB) configuration

2) Common emitter (CE) configuration
3) Common collector (CC) configuration

2.3.1 COMMON BASE(CB) CONFIGURATION

Figure 2.10 Circuit to determine CB static characteristics

It is also called as grounded base configuration. Emitter is used as a input terminal

where as collector is the output terminal.

Input characteristics:

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltage to input current
whereas output voltage is constant.

To determine input characteristics, the collector base voltage VCB is kept constant at zero and
emitter current IE is increased from zero by increasing [Link] is repeated for higher
fixed values of VCB.

A curve is drawn between emitter current and emitter base voltage at constant collector base

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voltage is shown in figure [Link] VCB is zero EB junctions is forward biased. So it

behaves as a diode so that emitter current increases rapidly.

Figure 2.11 CB input characteristics

 Output Characteristics

From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IE, Ic is independent of VCB
and the curves are parallel to the axis of [Link] the emitter base junction is forward biased
the majority carriers that is electrons from the emitter region are injected into the base region.

In CB configuration a variation of the base-collector voltage results in a variation of the

quasi- neutral width in the base. The gradient of the minority-carrier density in the base
therefore changes, yielding an increased collector current as the collector-base current is
increased. This effect is referred to as the Early effect.

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Figure 2.12 CB output characteristics

2.3.2 CE CONFIGURATION

Figure 2.13 Circuit to determine CE static characteristics

 Input Characteristics

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltages to input

current whereas output voltage is constant.

To determine input characteristics, the collector base voltage VCB is kept constant at
zero and base current IB is increased from zero by increasing [Link] is repeated for
higher fixed values of VCE.

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A curve is drawn between base current and base emitter voltage at constant collector
base voltage is shown in figure2.14. Here the base width decreases. So curve moves right as
VCE increases.

 Output Characteristics

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltage to output current
whereas input current is constant.

To determine output characteristics, the base current IB i s kept constant at zero and
collector current Ic is increased from zero by increasing [Link] is repeated for higher
fixed values of IB.

From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IB, Ic is independent of VCB
and the curves are parallel to the axis of VCE.

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Figure 2.15 CE output Characteristics

The output characteristic has 3 basic regions:

- Active region –defined by the biasing arrangements.

- Saturation region- region of the characteristics to the left of VCB = 0V.

Active region Saturation region Cut-off region

BE and CB junction is Region below the line
IE increased, IC forward bias of IE=0 A
increased. Small changes in VCB BE and CB is reverse
BE junction forward will cause big different biase
bias and CB junction to IC No current flow at
reverse bias. The allocation for this collector, only leakage
Refer to the graph, IC≈ region is to the left of current.
IE VCB=0V.
IC not depends on VCB
Suitable region for the
transistor working as
amplifier.

In common collector configuration circuit is shown in figure. Here collector is

grounded and it is used as the common terminal for both input and output. It is
also called as grounded collector configuration. Base is used as a input
terminal whereas emitter is the output terminal.

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Figure 2.16 Circuits to determine CC static characteristics

 Input Characteristics

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltage to input

current whereas output voltage is constant.

Figure 2.17 CC input characteristics

 Output Characteristics

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltage to output current

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whereas input current is constant.

To determine output characteristics, the base current IB is kept constant at zero and
emitter current IE is increased from zero by increasing VEC. This is repeated for higher
fixed values of IB.

From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IB, IE is independent of VEB
and the curves are parallel to the axis of VEC.

Figure 2.18 CC output characteristics

2.4 Field Effect Transistor:

The field effect transistor is a semiconductor device, which depends for its operation on the
control of current by an electric field. There are two of field effect transistors:

1. JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor)

2. MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) The FET has

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several advantages over conventional transistor.

1. In a conventional transistor, the operation depends upon the flow of majority and minority
carriers. That is why it is called bipolar transistor. In FET the operation depends upon the flow
of majority carriers only. It is called unipolar device.
2. The input to conventional transistor amplifier involves a forward biased PN junction with its
inherently low dynamic impedance. The input to FET involves a reverse biased PN junction hence
the high input impedance of the order of M-ohm.
3. It is less noisy than a bipolar transistor.
4. It exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current.
5. It has thermal stability.
6. It is relatively immune to radiation.

The main disadvantage is its relatively small gain bandwidth product in comparison with
conventional transistor.

2.4.1 Operation of FET:

Fig. 1

Ohmic contacts are then added on each side of the channel to bring the external connection.
Thus if a voltage is applied across the bar, the current flows through the channel.

The terminal from where the majority carriers (electrons) enter the channel is called source
designated by S. The terminal through which majority carriers leaves the channel is called
drain and designated by D. For an N-channel device, electrons are the majority carriers.
Hence the circuit behaves like a dc voltage VDS applied across a resistance RDS. The
resulting current is the drain current ID. If VDS increases, ID
increases proportionally.

Now on both sides of the n-type bar heavily doped regions of p-type impurity have been formed
by any method for creating pn junction. These impurity regions are called gates (gate1 and gate2)
as shown in fig. 2.

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fig. 2.

As with all PN junctions, a depletion region is formed on the two sides of the reverse biased PN
junction. The current carriers have diffused across the junction, leaving only uncovered positive
ions on the n side and negative ions on the p side. The depletion region width increases with the
magnitude of reverse bias. The conductivity of this channel is normally zero because of the
unavailability of current carriers.

The potential at any point along the channel depends on the distance of that point from the drain,
points close to the drain are at a higher positive potential, relative to ground, then points close to
the source. Both depletion regions are therefore subject to greater reverse voltage near the drain.
Therefore the depletion region width increases as we move towards drain. The flow of electrons
from source to drain is now restricted to the narrow channel between the no conducting depletion
regions. The width of this channel determines the resistance between drain and source.

Consider now the behavior of drain current ID vs drain source voltage VDS. The gate source
voltage is zero therefore VGS= 0. Suppose that VDS is gradually linearly increased linearly from
0V. ID also increases.

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Since the channel behaves as a semiconductor resistance, therefore it follows ohm's law. The region
is called ohmic region, with increasing current, the ohmic voltage drop between the source and the
channel region reverse biased the junction, the conducting portion of the channel begins to constrict
and ID begins to level off until a specific value of VDS is reached, called the pinch of voltage VP.

At this point further increase in VDS do not produce corresponding increase in ID. Instead, as VDS
increases, both depletion regions extend further into the channel, resulting in a no more cross section,
and hence a higher channel resistance. Thus even though, there is more voltage, the resistance is also
greater and the current remains relatively constant. This is
called pinch off or saturation region. The current in this region is maximum current that FET can
produce and designated by IDSS. (Drain to
source current with gate shorted)

As with all pn junctions, when the reverse voltage exceeds a certain level, avalanche breakdown
of pn junction occurs and ID rises very rapidly as shown in fig. 3.

Consider now an N-channel JFET with a reverse gate source voltage as shown in fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Fig. 5

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The additional reverse bias, pinch off will occur for smaller values of | VDS |, and the maximum
drain current will be smaller. A family of curves for different values of VGS(negative) is shown in
fig. 5.

Suppose that VGS= 0 and that due of VDS at a specific point along the channel is +5V with respect
toground. Therefore reverse voltage across either p-n junction is now 5V. If VGS is decreased from 0
to –1V the net reverse bias near the point is 5 - (-1) = 6V. Thus for any fixed value of VDS, the
channel width decreases as VGS is made more negative.

Thus ID value changes correspondingly. When the gate voltage is negative enough, the depletion
layers touch each other and the conducting channel pinches off (disappears). In this case the drain
current is cut off. The gate voltage that produces cut off is symbolized VGS(off) . It is same as pinch
off voltage.

Transductance Curves:

The transductance curve of a JFET is a graph of output current (ID) vs input voltage
(VGS) as shown in fig. 1.

Fig. 1

By reading the value of ID and VGS for a particular value of VDS, the transductance curve can be

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plotted. The transductance curve is a part of parabola. It has an equation of

Data sheet provides only IDSS and VGS(off) value. Using these values the transductance curve can
be plotted.

2.5 MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor)

It is also called IGFET (Insulated Gate FET) because gate terminal is insulated from
channel. Therefore it has extremely high input resistance.

 Types of MOSFET

It has two types

N-channel
P-channel

The enhancement-type MOSFET is usually referred to as an E-MOSFET, and the depletion

type, a D-MOSFET. The drain current in a MOSFET is controlled by the gate-source voltage VGS.

2.5.1 Depletion mode-MOSFET [D-MOSFET]

In depletion mode of operation the bias voltage on the gate reduce the number of charge
carriers in the channel and therefore reduce the drain current [Link] operates in both
depletion
mode and enhancement mode.

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 Symbol

2.5.2 Construction

Figure 3.6 structure of n-channel D-MOSFET

It consists of lightly doped p-type substrate in which two highly doped n-regions are
diffused.
The source and drain terminals are connected through metallic contacts to n-doped

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regions linked by an n-channel. The gate is also connected to a metal contact surface but
remains insulated from the n-channel by a very thin silicon dioxide (SiO2) layer. SiO2 is
a particular type of insulator referred to as a dielectric that sets up opposing (as revealed
by the prefix di-) electric fields within the dielectric when exposed to an externally
applied field.
Then the thin layer of metal aluminium is formed over the Sio2 layer. This metal overs the
entire channel region and it forms the gate(G).

2.5.3 Operation of N-channel D-MOSFET

Here N-base (Drain) is connected to positive supply. It act as a reverse bias. Due to this,
depletion region gets increases.
Free electron from n-channel are attracted towards positive potential of drain terminal.
This establishes current through channel flows from drain to source and denoted as
IDSS.
Pinch of voltage

The pinch off voltage is the voltage at which the junction is depleted of charge carriers.

Case (ii) “whenand is increased from zero”

The negative charge on gate repels conduction electrons from the channel and attract holes
from the p-type substrate.
Due to this electron-hole recombination occurs and reduce the number of free electrons in
the channel available for conduction, reducing Drain current (ID).
When negative voltage of is incresed the pinch of voltage decreased. When is
further increased the channel is fully depleted and no current flows through it.

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The negative voltage depletion MOSFET.

 Characteristics curve

Two types

D-MOSFET‘s are biased to operate in two modes :depletion or enhancement mode.

Figure 3.8 Drain and transfer characteristics

o In this mode bias on the gate increases the number of charge carriers in the
channel and increases the drain current (ID).

o It operates only in the enhancement mode and has no depletion mode of

[Link] has no physical channel.

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 Symbol of E-MOSFET

Figure 3.9 symbol of n-channel and p0channel E-MOSFET

Figure 3.10 Construction of n-channel and p-channel E-MOSFET

In the basic construction of the n-channel enhancement-type MOSFET, a slab of p-type

material is formed from a silicon base and is again referred to as thesubstrate. As with the

depletion-type MOSFET, the substrate is sometimes internally connected to the source terminal,
while in other cases a fourth lead is made available for external control of its potential level.

The SiO2 layer is still present to isolate the gate metallic platform from the region
between the drain and source, but now it is simply separated from a section of the p-typ
material.

In summary, therefore, the construction of an enhancement-type MOSFET is quite

similar to that of the depletion-type MOSFET, except for the absence of a channel between the
drain and source terminals.

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 Operation

Figure 3.11 N-channel E-MOSFET under applied bias

If VGS is set at 0 V and a voltage applied between the drain and source of the device,
the absence of an n-channel (with its generous number of free carriers) will result in a
current of effectively zero amperes—quite different from the depletion- type MOSFET and
JFET where ID - IDSS.
It is not sufficient to saturation level as occurred for the JFET and depletion-type
The conductivity of the channel is enhanced by the positive bias voltage on the gate, the
device is known as enhancement MOSFET. E-MOSFET‘s are normally called as ―OFF
– MOSFETǁ
 Characteristics of E-MOSFET

Drain characteristics curve

a) N-channe b) P-channel

Figure 3.12 Drain characteristics curve a) n-channel b) p-channel

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2.6 BIASING

2.6.1 Fixed Bias or Base Bias:

In order for a transistor to amplify, it has to be properly biased. This means forward biasing the
base emitter junction and reverse biasing collector base junction. For linear amplification, the
transistor should operate in active region ( If IE increases, IC increases, VCE decreases
proportionally).

The source VBB, through a current limit resistor RB forward biases the emitter diode and VCC
through resistor RC (load resistance) reverse biases the

The dc base current through RB is given by

IB = (VBB - VBE) / RB

or VBE = VBB - IB RB

Normally VBE is taken 0.7V or 0.3V. If exact voltage is required, then the input characteristic
( IB vs VBE) of the transistor should be used to solve the above equation. The load line for
the input circuit is drawn on input characteristic. The two points of the load line can be
obtained as given below

For IB = 0, VBE = VBB.

and For VBE = 0, IB = VBB/ RB.

The intersection of this line with input characteristic gives the operating point Q as shown in fig.
2. If an ac signal is connected to the base of the transistor, then variation in VBE is about Q -

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point. This gives variation in IB and hence IC.

This equation involves two unknown VCE and IC and therefore can not be solved. To solve
this equation output characteristic ( ICvs VCE) is used.

The load equation is the equation of a straight line and given by two points: IC= 0,

VCE = VCC

& VCE = 0, IC= VCC / RC

The intersection of this line which is also called dc load line and the characteristic gives the
operating point Q as shown in fig. 3.

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Fig. 3

The point at which the load line intersects with IB = 0 characteristic is known as cut off point.
At this point base current is zero and collector current is almost negligibly small. At cut off the
emitter diode comes out of forward bias and normal transistor action is lost. To a close
approximation.

The intersection of the load line and IB = IB(max) characteristic is known as saturation point
. At this point IB= IB(max), IC= IC(sat). At this point collector diodes comes out of reverse
bias and again transistor action is lost. To a close approximation,

IC(sat) VCC / RC(approximately ).

The IB(sat) is the minimum current required to operate the transistor in saturation region. If the
IB is less than IB (sat), the transistor will operate in active region. If IB > IB (sat) it always
operates in saturation region.

If the transistor operates at saturation or cut off points and no where else then it is
operating as a switch is shown in fig. 4.

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Fig. 4

VBB = IB RB+ VBE

IB = (VBB – VBE ) / RB

If IB> IB(sat), then it operates at saturation, If IB = 0, then it operates at cut off.

Once the Q point is established an ac input is connected. Due to this the ac source the base
current varies. As a result of this collector current and collector voltage also varies and the
amplified output is obtained.

If the Q-point is not selected properly then the output waveform will not be exactly the input
waveform. i.e. It may be clipped from one side or both sides or it may be distorted one.

 Stability of Operating Point

Let us consider three operating points of transistor operating in common emitter
amplifier.

1. Near cut off

2. Near saturation
3. In the middle of active region

If the operating point is selected near the cutoff region, the output is clipped in negative half
cycle as shown in fig. 1.

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Fig. 1

Fig. 2 Fig. 3

If the operating point is selected in the middle of active region, then there is no clipping and the
output follows input faithfully as shown in fig. 3. If input is large then clipping at both sides will
take place. The first circuit for biasing the transistor is CE configuration is fixed bias.

In biasing circuit shown in fig. 4(a), two different power supplies are required. To avoid

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the use of two supplies the base resistance RB is connected to VCC as shown in fig.
4(b).

Fig. 4(a) Fig. 4(b)

Now VCC is still forward biasing emitter diode. In this circuit Q point is very unstable. The base
resistance RB is selected by noting the required base current IB for operating point Q.

Voltage across base emitter junction is approximately 0.7 V. Since VCC is usually very high

i.e. IB = VCC/ RB

Since IB is constant therefore it is called fixed bias circuit.

2.7 UNI JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT)

Unijunction transistor (abbreviated as UJT), also called the double-base diode is a 2-layer,
3-terminal solid-state (silicon) switching device. The device has-a unique characteristic that when
it is triggered, its emitter current increases re generatively (due to negative resistance
characteristic) until it is restricted by emitter power supply. Since the device has one pn junction
and three leads it is commonly called UJT.

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Figure 5.1 UJT structure, Equivalent circuit and Symbol

2.7.1 Construction of a UJT

The symbol for unijunction transistor is shown in figure. The emitter leg is drawn at an
angle to the vertical line representing the N-type material slab and the arrowhead points in the
direction of conventional current when the device is forward-biased, active or in the conducting
state. The basic arrangement for the UJT is shown in figure.

A complementary UJT is formed by diffusing an N-type emitter terminal on a P-type base.

Except for the polarities of voltage and current, the characteristics of a complementary UJT are
exactly the same as those of a conventional UJT.

The device has only one junction, so it is called the unijunction device.

The device, because of one P-N junction, is quite similar to a diode but it differs from an
ordinary diode as it has three terminals.

The structure of a UJT is quite similar to that of an N-channel JFET. The main difference is
that P-type (gate) material surrounds the N-type (channel) material in case of JFET and the
gate surface of the JFET is much larger than emitter junction of UJT.

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In a unijunction transistor the emitter is heavily doped while the N-region is lightly doped,
so the resistance between the base terminals is relatively high, typically 4 to 10 kilo Ohm
when the emitter is open.

The N-type silicon bar has a high resistance and the resistance between emitter and base-1
is larger than that between emitter and base-2. It is because emitter is closer to base-2 than
base-1.

UJT is operated with emitter junction forward- biased while the JFET is normally operated
with the gate junction reverse-biased.

UJT does not have ability to amplify but it has the ability to control a large ac power with a
small signal. It exhibits a negative resistance characteristic and so it can be employed as an
oscillator.

2.7.2 UJT parameters

RBBO : It is the resistance between the terminals B1 and B2. In simple words, it is
the resistance of the N-Type bar when measured lengthwise. If RB1 is resistance of the bar from
E to B1 and RB2 is the resistance of the bar from E to B2, then RBBO can be expressed as
RBBO= RB1
+RB2. The typical range of RBBO is from 4KΩ to 10KΩ.

Intrinsic standoff ratio (η) : It is the ratio of RB1 to the sum of RB1 and RB2. It can be
expressed as η = RB1/(RB1+RB2) or η = RB1/RBBO. The typical range of intrinsic standoff ratio
is from 0.4 to 0.8

 Operation of a UJT

Imagine that the emitter supply voltage is turned down to zero. Then the intrinsic stand-off
voltage reverse-biases the emitter diode, as mentioned above. If VB is the barrier voltage of the
emitter diode, then the total reverse bias voltage is VA + VB = η VBB + VB. For silicon VB = 0.7
V.

Now let the emitter supply voltage VE be slowly increased. When VE becomes equal to
η VBB, IEo will be reduced to zero. With equal voltage levels on each side of the diode,

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neither reverse nor forward current will flow.

Figure 5.3 operation UJT under (i) VE=0 (ii) applied VE

When emitter supply voltage is further increased, the diode becomes forward-biased as
soon as it exceeds the total reverse bias voltage (ηVBB + VB). This value of emitter voltage VE
is called the peak-point voltage and is denoted by VP. When VE = VP, emitter current IE starts to
flow through RB1 to ground, that is B1. This is the minimum current that is required to trigger the
UJT. This is called the peak-point emitter current and denoted by IP. Ip is inversely proportional to
the interbase voltage, VBB.

 UJT Characteristics

Figure 5.4 static Emitter Characteristics for a UJT

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The static emitter characteristic (a curve showing the relation between emitter voltage VE
and emitter current IE) of a UJT at a given inter base voltage VBB is shown in figure. From figure
it is noted that for emitter potentials to the left of peak point, emitter current IE never exceeds
IEo . The current IEo corresponds very closely to the reverse leakage current ICo of the
conventional BJT. This region, as shown in the figure, is called the cut-off region. Once
conduction is established at VE = VP the emitter potential VE starts decreasing with the
increase in emitter current IE. This Corresponds exactly with the decrease in resistance RB for
increasing current IE. This device, therefore, has a negative resistance region which is stable
enough to be used with a great deal of reliability in the areas of applications listed earlier.
Eventually, the valley point reaches, and any further increase in emitter current IE places the
device in the saturation region, as shown in the figure5.4.

Three other important parameters for the UJT are IP, VV and IV and are defined below:

Peak-Point Emitter Current Ip : It is the emitter current at the peak point. It represents the
rnimrnum current that is required to trigger the device (UJT). It is inversely proportional to the
interbase voltage VBB.

Valley Point Voltage VV: The valley point voltage is the emitter voltage at the valley point. The
valley voltage increases with the increase in interbase voltage VBB.

 Special Features of UJT.

The special features of a UJT are :

1. A stable triggering voltage (VP)— a fixed fraction of applied inter base voltage VBB.

2. A very low value of triggering current.

3. A high pulse current capability.

4. A negative resistance characteristic.

5. Low cost.

2.7.3 Applications of UJT.

 Relaxation oscillators.

 Switching Thyristors like SCR, TRIAC etc.

 Magnetic flux sensors.

 Voltage or current limiting circuit.

 Bistable oscillators.

 Voltage or current regulators.

 Phase control circuits.

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 UJT relaxation oscillator.

Figure 5.5 UJT relaxation oscillator

The circuit diagram of a UJT relaxation oscillator is given shown above. R1 and R2 are
current limiting resistors. Resistor R and capacitor C determines the frequency of the oscillator.

Where η is the intrinsic standoff ratio and ln stand for natural logarithm.

When power supply is switched ON the capacitor C starts charging through resistor R. The
capacitor keeps on charging until the voltage across it becomes equal to 0.7V plus ηVbb. This
voltage is the peak voltage point ―Vpǁ denoted in the characteristics curve (Fig:2). After this
point the emitter to RB1 resistance drops drastically and the capacitor starts discharging through
this path. When the capacitor is discharged to the valley point voltage ―Vvǁ (refer Fig : 1) the
emitter to RB1 resistance climbs again and the capacitor starts charging. This cycle is repeated and
results in a sort of sawtooth waveform across the capacitor. The saw tooth waveform across the
capacitor ofa typical UJT relaxation oscillator is shown in the figure below.

Figure 5.6 wave across the capacitor in a UJT relaxation oscillator

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2.8 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

2.8.1 Introduction

The SCR stand for Silicon Control Rectifier, it is used in industries because it can handle
high values of current and voltage.

Three terminals

Cathode - N-layer (opposite end)

Gate - P-layer near the cathode

Three junctions - four layers

Connect power such that the anode is positive with respect to the cathode - no current will flow

Figure 5.7 Basic Structure, equivalent transistor model and symbol of SCR

 Construction

When a pn junction is added to a junction transistor the resulting three pn junction

device is called a SCR. ordinary rectifier (pn) and a junction transistor (npn) combined in one
unit to form pnpn device.

Three terminals are taken : one from the outer p- type material called anode a second from
the outer n- type material called cathode K and the third from the base of transistor called Gate.
GSCR is a solid state equivalent of thyratron. The gate anode and cathode of SCR
correspond to the grid plate and cathode of thyratron SCR is called thyristor.

 Working Principle

Load is connected in series with anode the anode is always kept at positive
potential w.r.t cathode.

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 SCR Operation / Working

The Silicon Control Rectifier SCR start conduction when it is forward biased. For this
purpose the cathode is kept at negative and anode at positive. When positive clock pulse is applied
at the gate the SCR turns ON.

When forward bias voltage is applied to the Silicon Control Rectifier SCR, the junction J1
and J3 become forward bias while the junction J2 become reverse bias.

When we apply a clock pulse at the gate terminal, the junction J2 become forward bias and
the Silicon Control Rectifier SCR start [Link] Silicon Control Rectifier SCR turn ON and
OFF very quickly, At the OFF state the Silicon Control Rectifier SCR provide infinity resistance
and in ON state, it offers very low resistance, which is in the range of 0.01O to 1O.

 SCR Firing & Triggering

The Silicon Control Rectifier SCR is normally operated below the forward break over voltage
(VBO). To turn ON the Silicon Control Rectifier SCR we apply clock pulse at the gate terminal
which called triggering of Silicon Control Rectifier, but when the Silicon Control Rectifier SCR
turned ON, now if we remove the triggering voltage, the Silicon Control Rectifier SCR will remain
in ON state. This voltage is called Firing voltage.

No voltage applied to the gate, j2 is reverse biased while j1 and j3 are FB . J1 and J3 is
just in npn transistor with base open .no current flows through the load RL and SCR is cut off. If
the applied voltage is gradually increased a stage is reached when RB junction J2 breakdown .the
SCR now conducts heavily and is said to be ON state. the applied voltage at which SCR
conducts heavily without gate voltage is called Break over Voltage.

 When Gate is Positive [Link] Cathode:-

The SCR can be made to conduct heavily at smaller applied voltage by applying small
positive potential to the gate.J3 is FB and J2 is RB the electron from n type material start moving
across J3 towards left holes from p type toward right. Electrons from j3 are attracted across
junction J2 and gate current starts flowing. as soon as gate current flows anode current
increases. the increased anode current in turn makes more electrons available at J2 breakdown
and SCR starts conducting heavily. the gate loses all control if the gate voltage is removed
anode current does not decrease at all. The only way to stop conduction is to reduce the applied
voltage to zero.

 Break over Voltage

It is the minimum forward voltage gate being open at which SCR starts conducting
heavily i.e turned on.

 Peak Reverse Voltage ( PRV)

It is the maximum reverse voltage applied to an SCR without conducting in the reverse direction.

 Holding Current

It is the maximum anode current gate being open at which SCR is turned off from on
conditions.

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2.8.2 V-I Characteristics of SCR

Figure 5.9 V-I Characteristics of SCR

characteristics. OABC is theforward characteristics of the SCR at Ig =0. if the

suppliedvoltage is increased from zero point A is reached .SCR starts conducting voltage
across SCR
suddenly drops (dotted curve AB) most of supply voltage appears across RL

 Reverse Characteristics

When anode is –ve w.r.t cathode the curve b/w V&I is known as reverse characteristics
reverse voltage come across SCR when it is operated with ac supply reverse voltage is increased
anode current remains small avalanche breakdown occurs and SCR starts conducting heavily is
known as reverse breakdown voltage.

 Application

 SCR as a switch
 SCR Half and Full wave rectifier
 SCR as a static contactor
 SCR for power control
 SCR for speed control of [Link] motor
 Over light detector

2.8.3 DIAC (DIODE A.C. SWITCH)

The DIAC is a full-wave or bi-directional semiconductor switch that can be turned on in

both forward and reverse [Link] DIAC gains its name from the contraction of the words
DIode Alternating Current.

The DIAC is widely used to assist even triggering of a TRIAC when used in AC switches.

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also in starter circuits for florescent lamps.

A Diac is two terminal , three layer bi directional device which can be switched from its
off state for either polarity of applied voltage.

 Circuit symbol

The DIAC circuit symbol is generated from the two triangles held between two lines as
shown below. In some way this demonstrates the structure of the device which can be considered
also as two junctions

Figure 5.10 symbol of DIAC

 Construction

The DIAC can be constructed in either npn or pnp form. The two leads are connected to p
regions of silicon separated by an n- region. The structure of DIAC is similar to that of a
transistor differences are

 There is no terminal attached to the base layer

 The three regions are nearly identical in size. The doping concentrations are identical to
give the device symmetrical properties.

The DIAC can e fabricated as either a two layer or a five layer structure. In the three layer
structure the switching occurs when the junction that is reverse biased experiences reverse
breakdown. The three layer version of the device is the more common and can have a break-over
voltage of around 30 V. Operation is almost symmetrical owing to the symmetry of the device.

A five layer DIAC structure is also available. This does not act in quite the same manner,
although it produces an I-V curve that is very similar to the three layer version. It can be considered
as two break-over diodes connected back to back.

Figure 5.11 The structure of a DIAC

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For most applications a three layer version of the DIAC is used. It provides sufficient
improvement in switching characteristics. For some applications the five layer device may be used.

 Operation

When a positive or negative voltage is applied across the terminals of Diac only a small
leakage current Ibo will flow through the device as the applied voltage is increased , the leakage
current will continue to flow until the voltage reaches breakover voltage Vbo at this point
avalanche breakdown of the reverse biased junction occurs and the device exhibits negative
resistance i.e current through the device increases with the decreasing values of applied voltage
the voltage across the device then drops to break back voltage Vw.

 V- I characteristics of a DIAC

Figure 5.11 V- I characteristics of a DIAC

When the positive or negative applied voltage is equal to or greater than tha breakdown
voltage Diac begins to conduct and voltage drop across it beco mes a few volts conduction then
continues until the device current drops below its holding current breakover voltage and holding
current values are identical for the forward and reverse regions of operation.

 Applications

Diacs are used for triggering of triacs in adjustable phase control of a c mains power.
Applications are light dimming heat control universal motor speed [Link] the DIAC is
placed in series with the gate of a TRIAC. DIACs are often used in conjunction with TRIACs
because these devices do not fire symmetrically as a result of slight differences between the two
halves of the device. This results in harmonics being generated, and the less symmetrical the device
fires, the greater the level of harmonics produced. It is generally undesirable to have high levels of
harmonics in a power system.

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Figure 5.12 Typical DIAC / TRIAC circuit configuration

To help in overcoming this problem, a DIAC is often placed in series with the gate. This
device helps make the switching more even for both halves of the cycle. This results from the fact
that its switching characteristic is far more even than that of the TRIAC. Since the DIAC prevents
any gate current flowing until the trigger voltage has reached a certain voltage in either direction,
this makes the firing point of the TRIAC more even in both directions.

2.8.4 TRIAC

The TRIAC is a three terminal semiconductor device for controlling current. It gains its
name from the term TRIode for Alternating Current.

It is effectively a development of the SCR or thyristor, but unlike the thyristor which is only
able to conduct in one direction, the TRIAC is a bidirectional device.

 TRIAC symbol

Figure 5.13 TRIAC symbol for circuit diagrams

On the TRIAC symbol there are three terminals. These are the Gate and two other terminals
are often referred to as an "Anode" or "Main Terminal". As the TRIAC has two of these they are
labelled either Anode 1 and Anode 2 or Main Terminal, MT1 and MT2.

 TRIAC basics

The TRIAC is a component that is effectively based on the thyristor. It provides AC

switching for electrical systems. Like the thyristor, the TRIACs are used in many electrical
switching applications. They find particular use for circuits in light dimmers, etc., where they
enable both halves of the AC cycle to be used.

This makes them more efficient in terms of the usage of the power available. While it is
possible to use two thyristors back to back, this is not always cost effective for low cost and
relatively low power applications.

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Figure 5.14 TRIAC symbol, equivalent as two thyristors

In order to improve the switching of the current waveform and ensure it is more
symmetrical is to use a device external to the TRIAC to time the triggering pulse. A DIAC placed
in series with the gate is the normal method of achieving this.

Figure 5.15 DIAC and TRIAC connected together

 Operation

With switch S open, there will be no gate current and the triac is cut off. Even with no
current the triac can be turned on provided the supply voltage becomes equal to the breakover
voltage.
When switch S is closed, the gate current starts flowing in the gate circuit. Breakover
voltage of triac can be varied by making proper currnt flow. Triac starts to conduct
wheather MT2 is positive or negative w.r.t MT1.

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Figure 5.16 TRIAC operation under biasing

If terminal MT2 is positive w.r.t MT1 the TRIAC is on and the conventional current will
flow from MT2 to MT1. If terminal MT2 is negative w.r.t MT1 the TRIAC is again turned on
and the conventional current will flow from MT1 to MT2.

Figure 5.16 The V-I Characteristics curve for TRIAC

The V-I curve for triac in the Ist and IIIrd quadrants are essentially identical to SCR in the
Ist [Link] triac can be operated with either positive or negative gate control voltage but in
normal operation usually the gate voltage is positive in quadrant I and negative in quadrant III.
The supply voltage at which the triac is ON depends upon gate current. The greater gate current
and smaller supply voltage at which triac is turned on. This permits to use triac to control a,c.
power in a load from zero to full power in a smooth and continuous manner with no loss in the
controlling device.

 Advantages and disadvantages

When requiring to switch both halves of an AC waveform there are two options that are
normally considered. One is to use a TRIAC, and the other is to use two thyristors connected back
to back - one thyristor is used to switch one half of the cycle and the second connected in the
reverse direction operates on the other half [Link] there are two options the advantages and
disadvantages of using a TRIAC must be weighed up.

 Advantages

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Can switch both halves of an AC waveform

Single component can be used for full AC switching

 Disadvantages

A TRIAC does not fire symmetrically on both sides of the waveform

Switching gives rise to high level of harmonics due to non-symmetrical switching

More susceptible to EMI problems as a result of the non-symmetrical switching

Care must be taken to ensure the TRIAC turns off fully when used with inductive loads.

 Applications

TRIACs are used in a number of applications. However they tend not to be used in high
power switching applications - one of the reasons for this is the non-symmetrical switching
characteristics. For high power applications this creates a number of difficulties, especially with
electromagnetic interference.

However TRIACs are still used for many electrical switching applications:

 Electric fan speed controls

 Small motor controls

 Control of small AC powered domestic appliances

2.8.5 INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR

The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor also called an IGBT for short, is something of a cross
between a conventional Bipolar Junction Transistor, (BJT) and a Field Effect Transistor, (MOSFET)
making it ideal as a semiconductor switching device.

The IGBT transistor takes the best parts of these two types of transistors, the high input
impedance and high switching speeds of a MOSFET with the low saturation voltage of a bipolar
transistor, and combines them together to produce another type of transistor switching device that is
capable of handling large collector-emitter currents with virtually zero gate current drive.

 Typical IGBT
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The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor, (IGBT) uses the insulated gate (hence the first part of its
name) technology of the MOSFET with the output performance characteristics of a conventional
bipolar transistor, (hence the second part of its name). The result of this hybrid combination is that
the ―IGBT Transistorǁ has the output switching and conduction characteristics of a bipolar
transistor but is voltage-controlled like a MOSFET.

IGBTs are mainly used in power electronics applications, such as inverters, converters and power
supplies, were the demands of the solid state switching device are not fully met by power bipolars
and power MOSFETs. High-current and high-voltage bipolars are available, but their switching
speeds are slow, while power MOSFETs may have high switching speeds, but high-voltage and high-
current devices are expensive and hard to achieve.

The advantage gained by the insulated gate bipolar transistor device over a BJT or MOSFET is
that it offers greater power gain than the bipolar type together with the higher voltage operation and
lower input losses of the MOSFET. In effect it is an FET integrated with a bipolar transistor in a form
of Darlington configuration as shown.

We can see that the insulated gate bipolar transistor is a three terminal, transconductance
device that combines an insulated gate N-channel MOSFET input with a PNP bipolar transistor
output connected in a type of Darlington configuration. As a result the terminals are labelled as:
Collector, Emitter and Gate. Two of its terminals (C-E) are associated with a conductance path and
the third terminal (G) associated with its control.

The amount of amplification achieved by the insulated gate bipolar transistor is a ratio
between its output signal and its input signal. For a conventional bipolar junction transistor, (BJT) the
amount of gain is approximately equal to the ratio of the output current to the input current, called
Beta.

For a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor or MOSFET, there is no input current
as the gate is isolated from the main current carrying channel. Therefore, an FET‘s gain is equal to
the ratio of output current change to input voltage change, making it a transconductance device and
this is also true of the IGBT. Then we can treat the IGBT as a power BJT whose base current is
provided by a MOSFET.
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The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor can be used in small signal amplifier circuits in much
the same way as the BJT or MOSFET type transistors. But as the IGBT combines the low conduction
loss of a BJT with the high switching speed of a power MOSFET an optimal solid state switch exists
which is ideal for use in power electronics applications.

Also, the IGBT has a much lower ―on-stateǁ resistance, RON than an equivalent MOSFET.
This means that the I2R drop across the bipolar output structure for a given switching current is much
lower. The forward blocking operation of the IGBT transistor is identical to a power MOSFET.

When used as static controlled switch, the insulated gate bipolar transistor has voltage and
current ratings similar to that of the bipolar transistor. However, the presence of an isolated gate in an
IGBT makes it a lot simpler to drive than the BJT as much less drive power is needed.

An insulated gate bipolar transistor is simply turned ―ONǁ or ―OFFǁ by activating

and deactivating its Gate terminal. A constant positive voltage input signal across the Gate and the
Emitter will keep the device in its ―ONǁ state, while removal of the input signal will cause it to
turn
―OFFǁ in much the same way as a bipolar transistor or MOSFET.

Because the IGBT is a voltage-controlled device, it only requires a small voltage on the Gate
to maintain conduction through the device unlike BJT‘s which require that the Base current is
continuously supplied in a sufficient enough quantity to maintain saturation.

Also the IGBT is a unidirectional device, meaning it can only switch current in the
―forward directionǁ, that is from Collector to Emitter unlike MOSFET‘s which have bi-directional
current switching capabilities (controlled in the forward direction and uncontrolled in the reverse
direction).

The principal of operation and Gate drive circuits for the insulated gate bipolar transistor are
very similar to that of the N-channel power MOSFET. The basic difference is that the resistance
offered by the main conducting channel when current flows through the device in its ―ONǁ state
is very much smaller in the IGBT. Because of this, the current ratings are much higher when
compared with an equivalent power MOSFET.

The main advantages of using the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor over other types of
transistor devices are its high voltage capability, low ON-resistance, ease of drive, relatively fast
switching speeds and combined with zero gate drive current makes it a good choice for moderate
speed, high voltage applications such as in pulse-width modulated (PWM), variable speed control,

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switch-mode power supplies or solar powered DC-AC inverter and frequency converter applications
operating in the hundreds of kilohertz range.

A general comparison between BJT‘s, MOSFET‘s and IGBT‘s is given in the following table.

IGBT Comparison Table

Power Power
IGBT
Device Bipolar MOSFET
Characteristic
Voltage Rating High <1kV High <1kV Very High >1kV
Current Rating High <500A Low <200A High >500A
Input Drive Current Voltage Voltage
20-200 hFE VGS 3-10V VGE 4-8V
Input Impedance Low High High
Output Impedance Low Medium Low
Switching Speed Slow (uS) Fast (nS) Medium
Cost Low Medium High

One of the main advantages of the IGBT transistor is the simplicity by which it can be driven
ON or OFF or in its linear active region as a power amplifier. With its lower on-state conduction
losses and its ability to switch high voltages without damage makes this transistor ideal for driving
inductive loads such as coil windings, electromagnets and DC motors.

Review questions:

1. Compare the following DMOSFET& EMOSFET (8)

2. N-channel MOSFET & P-channel MOSFET. (8)
3. Explain the biasing technique for JFET. (16)
4. Explain the construction and characteristics of JFET. (16)
5. Explain the construction and characteristics of EMOSFET. (16)
6. Explain the construction and characteristics of DMOSFET. (16)
7. Explain the biasing characteristics of MOSFET. (16)
8. Explain the working and principle of operation of UJT and mention its applications.(16)
9. Explain the working and characteristics of SCR and its applications. (16)
10. Briefly explain the operation of DIAC (8)
11. Briefly explain the operation of TRIAC (8)

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UNIT 3 AMPLIFIERS

3.1 BJT SMALL SIGNAL MODEL

3.1.1 CE, CB and CC Amplifiers:

An amplifier is used to increase the signal level. It is used to get a larger signal output from
a small signal input. Assume a sinusoidal signal at the input of the amplifier. At the output, signal
must remain sinusoidal in waveform with frequency same as that of input. To make the transistor
work as an amplifier, it is to be biased to operate in active region. It means base-emitter junction is
forward biased and base-collector junction is reverse biased.

In the absence of input signal, only D.C. voltage is present in the circuit. It is known as zero signal
or no signal condition or quiescent condition. D.C. collector-emitter voltage VCE, D.C. collector
current IC and base current IB is the quiescent operating point for the amplifier. Due to this base
current varies sinusoidaly as shown in the below figure.

Fig. IBQ is quiescent DC base current

If the transistor is biased to operate in active region, output is linearly proportional to the input.
The collector current is β times larger than the input base current in CE configuration. The

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collector current will also vary sinusoidally about its quiescent value ICQ. The output voltage will
also vary sinusoidally as shown in the below figure.

Variations in the collector current and voltage between collector and emitter due to change in base
current are shown graphically with the help of load line in the above figure.

Fig. Practical common-emitter amplifier circuit

From above circuit, it consists of different circuit components. The functions of these components
are as follows:

1. Biasing Circuit:
Resistors R1, R2 and RE forms the voltage divider biasing circuit for CE amplifier and it sets
the proper operating point for CE amplifier.

2. Input Capacitor C1:

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C1 couples the signal to base of the transistor. It blocks any D.C. component present in the
signal and passes only A.C. signal for amplification.

3. Emitter Bypass Capacitor CE:

CE is connected in parallel with emitter resistance RE to provide a low reactance path to the
amplified A.C. This will reduce the output voltage and reducing the gain value.

4. Output Coupling Capacitor C2:

C2 couples the output of the amplifier to the load or to the next stage of the
amplifier. It blocks D.C. and passes only A.C. part of the amplified signal.

Need for C1, C2, and CE:

The impedance of the capacitor is given by,

XC = 1/ (2∏fc)

The phase relationship between the input and output voltages can be
determined by considering the effect of positive and negative half cycle separately. The
collector current is β times the base current, so the collector current will also increases. This
increases the voltage drop across RC.

VC = VCC - ICRC

Increase in IC results in a drop in collector voltage VC, as VCC is constant. Vi

increases in a positive direction, Vo goes in negative direction and negative half cycle of output
voltage can be obtained for positive half cycle at the input.

In negative half cycle of input, A.C. and D.C. voltage will oppose each other.
This will reduce the base current. Accordingly collector current and drop across RC both will
reduce and it increases the output voltage. So positive half cycle at the output for negative half
cycle at the input can be obtained. So there is a phase shift of 180º between input and output
voltages for a common emitter amplifier.

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From above circuit, D.C. biasing is provided by R1, R2 and RE. The load
resistance is capacitor coupled to the emitter terminal of the transistor. When a signal is applied to
base of the transistor, VB is increased and decreased as the signal goes positive and negative
respectively.

From figure, VE = VB - VBE

Consider VBE is constant, so the variation in VB appears at emitter and emitter

voltage VE will vary same as base voltage VB. In common collector circuit, emitter terminal
follows the signal voltage applied to the base. It is also known as emitter follower.

3.1.4 Common Base Amplifier Circuit:

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From above circuit, the signal source is coupled to the emitter of the transistor through C1. The
load resistance RL is coupled to the collector of the transistor through C2. The positive going pulse
of input source increases the emitter voltage. As base voltage is constant, forward bias of emitter-
base junction reduces. This reduces Ib, Ic and drop across Rc.

Vo = VCC - ICRC

Reduction in IC results in an increase in Vo. Positive going input produces positive going output
and vice versa. So there is no phase shift between input and output in common base amplifier.

3.2 Small Signal Low Frequency h-parameter Model:

Where, Ii – input current to the amplifier

Vi - input voltage to the amplifier

Io – output current of the amplifier

Vo – output voltage of the amplifier

Input current is an independent variable. Input voltage and output current are dependent variables.
Input current and output voltage are independent variables.

This can be written in the equation form as,

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The above equation can also be written using alphabetic notations,

 Definitions of h-parameter:
The parameters in the above equations are defined as follows:

h12 – fraction of output voltage at input with input open circuited, it is unitless

h21 – forward current transfer ratio or current gain with output short circuited, it is

unitless

h22 – output admittance with input open circuited in mhos

 Benefits of h-parameters:
1. Real numbers at audio frequencies
2. Easy to measure
3. Can be obtained from the transistor static characteristic curve
4. Convenient to use in circuit analysis and design
5. Most of the transistor manufacturers specify the h-parameters

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3.2.1 h-Parameters for all three configurations:

Transistor can be represented as two port network by making anyone terminal common between
input and output. There are three possible configurations in which a transistor can be used, there is
a change in terminal voltage and current for different transistor configurations. To designate the
type of configuration another subscript is added to h-parameters.

hie = h11e– input resistance in CE configuration

hfb = h21b – short circuit current gain in CB configuration

The basic circuit of hybrid model is same for all three configurations, only parameters are
different.

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 Determination of h-parameters from characteristics:

Consider CE configuration, its functional relationship can be defined from the following
equations:

The input characteristic curve gives the relationship between input voltage VBE and input
current IB for different values of output voltage VCE. The following figure shows the typical
input characteristic curve for CE configuration.

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 Determination of hie and hre from characteristic curve:

Parameter hie:

Parameter hre:

 Determination of hfe and hoe from output characteristic curve:

Parameter hfe:

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Parameter hoe:

hoe =

3.2.2 Method for analysis of a transistor circuit:

The analysis of transistor circuits for small signal behaviour can be made by following simple
guidelines. These guidelines are,

1. Draw the actual circuit diagram

2. Replace coupling capacitors and emitter bypass capacitor by short circuit
3. Replace D.C. source by a short circuit
5. Replace the transistor by its h-parameter model
Problem 1:

For the common base circuit shown in figure, transistor parameters are hib = 22Ω,

hfb = -0.98, hob = 0.49µA/V, hrb = 2.9*10-4. Calculate the values of input resistance, output
resistance, current gain and voltage gain for the given circuit.

Solution:

Change the given figure into h-parameter equivalent model.

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a) Current gain

b) Input Resistance

d) Overall voltage gain

e) Overall current gain

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Ro‘ = Ro || RL‘ = 1.21M || 5.45K = 5.425KΩ

Comparison of Transistor Configurations:

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3.3 General shape of frequency response of amplifiers:

To plot this curve, input voltage to the amplifier is kept constant and frequency of input
signal is continuously varied. The output voltage at each frequency of input signal is noted and the
gain of the amplifier is calculated. For an audio frequency amplifier, the frequency range is quite
large from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. In this frequency response, the gain of the amplifier remains constant
in mid-frequency while the gain varies with frequency in low and high frequency regions of the
curve. Only at low and high frequency ends, gain deviates from ideal characteristics. The decrease
in voltage gain with frequency is called roll-off.

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3.3.1 Definition of cut-off frequencies and bandwidth:

The range of frequencies can be specified over which the gain does not deviate more than
70.7% of the maximum gain at some reference mid-frequency.

Bandwidth of the amplifier = f2 - f1

The frequency f2 lies in high frequency region while frequency f1 lies in low frequency
region. These two frequencies are also called as half-power frequencies since gain or output
voltage drops to 70.7% of maximum value and this represents a power level of one half the power
at the reference frequency in mid-frequency region.

3.4 Low frequency analysis of amplifier to obtain lower cut-off frequency:

 Decibel Unit:

The decibel is a logarithmic measurement of the ratio of one power to another or one
voltage to another. Voltage gain of the amplifier is represented in decibels (dBs). It is given by,

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Voltage gain in dB = 20 log Av

Power gain in decibels is given by,

Power gain in dB = 10 log Ap

Where Av is greater than one, gain is positive and when Av is less than one, gain is
negative. The positive and negative gain indicates that the amplification and attenuation
respectively. Usually the maximum gain is called mid frequency range gain is assigned a 0 db
value. Any value of gain below mid frequency range can be referred as 0 db and expressed as a
negative db value.

Example:

Assume that mid frequency gain of a certain amplifier is 100. Then,

Voltage gain = 20 log 100 = 40 db

At f1 and f2 Av = 100/√2 = 70.7

Fig. Normalized voltage gain vs frequency

From above figure, it shows that the voltage gain at f1 and f2 is less than 3db of the maximum
voltage gain. Due to this the frequencies f1 and f2 are also called as 3 db frequencies. At f1 & f2
power gain drops by 3 db. For all frequencies within the bandwidth, amplifier power gain is at
least half of the maximum power gain. This bandwidth is also referred to as 3 db bandwidth.

 Significance of octaves and decades:

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The octaves and decades are the measures of change in frequency. A ten times
change in frequency is called a decade. Otherwise, an octave corresponds to a doubling or halving
of the frequency.

Example:

An increase in frequency from 100 Hz to 200 Hz is an octave.

A decrease in frequency from 100 kHz to 50 kHz is also an octave.

Fig. Frequency response showing significance of decade and octave

 Midband gain:

It is defined as the band of frequencies between 10 f1 and 0.1 f2. It is denoted as midband
gain or Amid.

The voltage gain of the amplifier outside the midband is approximately given as,

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In midband,

Midband:

Below the midband,

As a result, the equation becomes,

Above midband,

As a result, the equation becomes,

Above midband:

 Problem:

For an amplifier, midband gain = 100 and lower cutoff frequency is 1 kHz. Find the gain of an
amplifier at frequency 20 Hz.

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Solution:

Below midband:

3.4.1 Effect of various capacitors on frequency response:

 Effect of coupling capacitors:

At medium and high frequencies, the factor f makes Xc very small, so that all coupling
capacitors behave as short circuits. At low frequencies, Xc increases. This increase in Xc drops the
signal voltage across the capacitor and reduces the circuit gain. As signal frequencies decrease,
capacitor reactance increase and gain continues to fall, reducing the output voltage.

 Effect of Bypass capacitors:

At lower frequencies, bypass capacitor CE is not a short. So emitter is not at ac ground.
Xc in parallel with RE creates an impedance. The signal voltage drops across this impedance
reducing the circuit gain.

 Effect of internal transistor capacitances:

At high frequencies, coupling and bypass capacitors act as short circuit and do not affect
the amplifier frequency response. At high frequencies, internal capacitances, commonly known as
junction capacitances. The following figure shows the junction capacitances for both BJT and
FET. Incase of BJT, Cbe is the base emitter junction capacitance and Cbc is the base collector
junction capacitance. Incase of FET, Cgs is the internal capacitance between gate and source and Cgd
is the internal capacitance between gate and drain.

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Fig. Internal transistor capacitances

3.5 MOSFET small signal model Amplifiers

It provides an excellent voltage gain with high input impedance. Due to these
characteristics, it is often preferred over BJT.

Three basic FET configurations

3.5.1 MOSFET low frequency a.c Equivalent circuit

Figure shows the small signal low frequency a.c Equivalent circuit for n-channel JFET.

Fig3.1 small signal model of JFET

 Common Source Amplifier With Fixed Bias

Figure shows Common Source Amplifier With Fixed Bias. The coupling capacitor C1 and C2
which are used to isolate the d.c biasing from the applied ac signal act as short circuits for ac
analysis.

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Fig3.2 Common source circuit of JFET

The following figure shows the low frequency equivalent model for Common Source Amplifier
With Fixed Bias. It is drawn by replacing

 All capacitors and d.c supply voltages with short circuit

 JFET with its low frequency a.c Equivalent circuit

 Input Impedance Zi
o Zi = RG
 Output Impedance Zo

Fig3.4 Equivalent circuit model of MOSFET for output

It is the impedance measured looking from the output side with input voltage Vi equal to Zero.

As Vi=0,Vgs =0 and hence gmVgs =0 . And it allows current source to be replaced by an open
circuit.

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So,

3.5.2Common source amplifier with self bias(Bypassed Rs)

Figure shows Common Source Amplifier With self Bias. The coupling capacitor C1 and C2 which
are used to isolate the d.c biasing from the applied ac signal act as short circuits for ac analysis.
Bypass capacitor Cs also acts as a short circuits for low frequency analysis.

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Fig3.5 Common source amplifier model of MOSFET

Fig3.6 Small signal model for Common source amplifier model of MOSFET

The negative sign in the voltage gain indicates there is a 180o phase shift between input and output
voltages.

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 Common source amplifier with self bias (unbypassed Rs)

Fig3.7 Common source amplifier model of MOSFET

Fig3.8 Small signal model for Common source amplifier model of MOSFET

 Input Impedance Zi

o Zi = RG

 Output Impedance Zo
It is given by

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 Common source amplifier with Voltage divider bias(Bypassed Rs)

Fig3.9 Common source amplifier with Voltage divider bias(Bypassed Rs)

The following figure shows the low frequency equivalent model for Common Source Amplifier
With voltage divider Bias

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Fig3.10 small model of Common source amplifier with Voltage divider bias(Bypassed Rs)

The parameters are given by

 Common Drain Amplifier

In this circuit, input is applied between gate and source and output is taken between source and
drain.

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Fig3.12 Circuit of Common Drain amplifier

In this circuit, the source voltage is

Vs = VG+VGS

When a signal is applied to the MOSFET gate via C1 ,VG varies with the signal. As VGS is fairly
constant and Vs = VG+VGS, Vs varies with Vi.

Fig3.13 small model of Common Drain amplifier

Input Impedance Zi

Fig3.13 Simplified small model of Common Drain amplifier

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Zi = RG

Output Impedance Zo

It is given by

Voltage gain (Av)

It is given by

But

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Substitute the value Vo and Vi. Then

Table summarizes the performance of common drain amplifier

3.6 High frequency analysis of MOSFET:

3.6.1 Common source amplifier at high frequencies:

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Input Admittance:

Input capacitance (Miller Effect):

This increase in input capacitance Ci over the capacitance from gate to source is called Miller
effect.

Output Admittance:

From above figure, the output impedance is obtained by looking into the drain with the input
voltage set equal to zero. If Vi = 0 in figure, rd , Cds and Cgd in parallel. Hence the output
admittance with RL considered external to the amplifier is given by,

3.6.2 Common Drain Amplifier at High Frequencies:

Fig. Common Drain Amplifier Circuit & Small signal equivalent circuit at high

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frequencies

Voltage gain:
The output voltage Vo can be found from the product of the short circuit and the

 Input Admittance:

Input Admittance Yi can be obtained by applying Miller‘s theorem to Cgs. It is

given by,

 Output Admittance:

Output Admittance Yo with Rs considered external to the amplifier, it is given by,

At low frequencies, output resistance Ro is given by,

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Let us consider a typical common source amplifier as shown in the above figure.

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From above figure, it shows the high frequency equivalent circuit for the given amplifier circuit. It
shows that at high frequencies coupling and bypass capacitors act as short circuits and do not
affect the amplifier high frequency response. The equivalent circuit shows internal capacitances
which affect the high frequency response.

The internal capacitance Cgd can be splitted into Cin(miller) and Cout(miller) as shown in the following
figure.

Where

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From simplified high frequency equivalent circuit, it has two RC networks which affect the high
frequency response of the amplifier. These are,

1. Input RC network
2. Output RC network

Fig. Input RC network

From above figure,

This network is further reduced as follows since Rs << RG

Fig. Reduced input RC network

The critical frequency for the reduced input RC network is,

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Output RC network:

The critical frequency for the above circuit is,

fc =

It is not necessary that these frequencies should be equal. The network which has lower critical
frequency than other network is called dominant network.

The phase shift in high frequency is

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Review questions.
PART-B
1. Describe the methods of determination of h-parameters from its static Input and output
characteristics. (8)
2. Draw and explain the h-parameter equivalent circuit of a transistor in CC configuration.
derive the expressions for input impedance ,output impedance, voltage gain and current gain
(16)
3. Explain the switching characteristics of a transistor with neat sketch. (10)
4. Describe the static input and output characteristics of CB configuration of a transistor with
neat circuit diagram. (16)
5. Derive the expression for current gain, input impedance and voltage gain of a CE
Transistor Amplifier. (16)
6. Draw the circuit for determining the transistor common base characteristics and explain how
the characteristics are measured and draw the graphs. (16)
8. Explain the midband analysis of single stage CE, CB and CC amplifiers. (16)
9. Explain the analysis of low frequency response of RC coupled amplifiers. (16)
10. Compare the characteristics of the different configurations of BJT amplifiers.(8)
11. Draw and explain the hybrid π model of a CE configuration of a transistor and derive the
necessary expressions.(16)
12. Draw and explain the h-parameter equivalent circuit of a transistor in CE configuration.
derive the expressions for input impedance ,output impedance, voltage gain and current gain
(16)

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UNIT 4 MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS AND DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

4.1 Multistage Amplifiers

In practice, we need amplifier which can amplify a signal from a very weak source such
as a microphone, to a level which is suitable for the operation of another transducer
such as loudspeaker . This is achieved by cascading number of amplifier stages, known
as multistage amplifier
4.1.1 Need for Cascading
For faithful amplification amplifier should have desired voltage gain, current gain and it
should match its input impedance with the source and output impedance with the load.
Many times these primary requirements of the amplifier can not be achieved with single
stage amplifier, because of the limitation of the transistor/FET parameters. In such
situations more than one amplifier stages are cascaded such that input and output stages
provide impedance matching requirements with some amplification and remaining
middle stages provide most of the amplification.
We can say that,

 When the amplification of a single stage amplifier is not sufficient, or,


Two Stage Cascaded Amplifier

Vi1 is the input of the first stage and Vo2 is the output of second stage.
So,Vo2/Vi1 is the overall voltage gain of two stage amplifier.

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n-Stage Cascaded Amplifier

Voltage gain :
The resultant voltage gain of the multistage amplifier is the product of voltage gains of
the various stages.
Av = Avl Av2 ... Avn
Gain in Decibels

Decibel, dB denotes power ratio. Negative values of number of dB means that the power
P2 is less than the reference power P1 and positive value of number of dB means the
power P2 is greater than the reference power P1.
For an amplifier, P1 may represent input power, and P2 may represent output power.
Both can be given as

Where Ri and Ro are the input and output impedances of the amplifier
[Link],

If the input and output impedances of the amplifier are equal i.e. Ri = Ro= R, then

Gain of Multistage Amplifier in dB

The gain of a multistage amplifier can be easily calculated if the gain of the individual
stages are known in dB, as shown below

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20 log10 Av = 20 log10 Avl + 20 log10Av2 +… + 20 log10 Avn

Thus, the overall voltage gain in dB of a multistage amplifier is the decibel voltage
gains of the individual stages. It can be given as
AvdB = AvldB + Av2dB + ... + AvndB
4.1.2 Advantages of Representation of Gain in Decibels
Logarithmic scale is preferred over linear scale to represent voltage and power gains
because of the following reasons :

 In multistage amplifiers, it permits to add individual gains of the stages to calculate

overall gain.
 It allows us to denote, both very small as well as very large quantities of linear, scale
by considerably small figures.
For example, voltage gain of 0.0000001 can be represented as -140 dB and voltage gain
of 1,00,000 can be represented as 100 dB.

 Many times output of the amplifier is fed to loudspeakers to produce sound which is
received by the human ear. It is important to note that the ear responds to the sound
intensities on a proportional or logarithmic scale rather than linear scale. Thus use of dB
unit is more appropriate for representation of amplifier gains.
Methods of coupling Multistage Amplifiers

1. RC coupling 2. Transformer coupling 3. Direct coupling

 RC coupling
Figure shows RC coupled amplifier using transistors. The output signal of first stage is
coupled to the input of the next stage through coupling capacitor and resistive load at
the output terminal of first stage

The coupling does not affect the quiescent point of the next stage since the coupling
capacitor Cc blocks the d.c. voltage of the first stage from reaching the base of the
second stage. The RC network is broadband in nature. Therefore, it gives a wideband

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frequency response without peak at any frequency and hence used to cover a complete
A.F amplifier bands. However its frequency response drops off at very low frequencies
due to coupling capacitors and also at high frequencies due to shunt capacitors such as
stray capacitance.

 Transformer Coupling

This type of coupling is used to match the impedance between output an input
cascaded stage. Usually, it is used to match the larger output resistance of AF power
amplifier to a low impedance load like loudspeaker. As we know, transformer blocks
d.c, providing d.c. isolation between the two stages. Therefore, transformer coupling
does not affect the quiescent point of the next stage.
Frequency response of transformer coupled amplifier is poor in comparison with that an
RC coupled amplifier. Its leakage inductance and inter winding capacitances does not
allow amplifier to amplify the signals of different frequencies equally well. Inter
winding capacitance of the transformer coupled may give rise resonance at certain
frequency which makes amplifier to give very high gain at that frequency. By putting
shunting capacitors across each winding of the transformer, we can get resonance at any
desired RF frequency. Such amplifiers are called tuned voltage amplifiers. These
provide high gain at the desired of frequency, i.e. they amplify selective frequencies. For

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this reason, the transformer-coupled amplifiers are used in radio and TV receivers for
amplifying RF signals. As d.c. resistance of the transformer winding is very low, almost
all d.c. voltage applied by Vcc is available at the collector. Due to the absence of
collector resistance it eliminates unnecessary power loss in the resistor.

 Direct Coupling

Due to absence of RC components, frequency response is good but at higher

frequencies shunting capacitors such as stray capacitances reduce gain of the amplifier.
The transistor parameters such as VBE and β change with temperature causing the
collector current and voltage to change. Because of direct coupling these changes appear
at the base of next stage, and hence in the output. Such an unwanted change in the
output is called drift and it is serious problem in the direct coupled amplifiers.

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4.2 Introduction of Differential Amplifier

A device which accepts an input signal and produces an output signal proportional to
the input, is called an amplifier. An amplifier which amplifies the difference between
The two input signals is called differential amplifier. The differential amplifier
configuration is used in variety of analog circuits. The. differential amplifier is an
essential and basic building block in modern IC amplifier .The Integrated Circuit (IC)
technology is well known now a days, due to which the design of complex circuits
become very simple. The IC version of operational amplifier is inexpensive, takes up
less space and consumes less power. The. differential amplifier is the basic building
block of such IC operational amplifier.

The Differential Amplifier amplifies the difference between two input voltage signal.
Hence it is also called as difference amplifier.
Consider an ideal differential amplifier shown in the Fig. A

V1 and V2 are the two input signals while Vo is the output. Each signal is measured with
respect to the ground.
From Equation 1 we can write,

where AD is the constant of proportionality. The AD is the gain with which

differential amplifier amplifies the difference between two input signals. Thus it is
called differential gain of the differential amplifier.
Thus, Ad = Differential gain
The difference between the two inputs (V1 - V2) is generally called difference voltage

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and denoted as Vd.

...(3)
Hence the differential gain can be expressed as,

...(4)
Generally the differential gain is expressed in its decibel (dB) value as,
...(5)

 Common Mode Gain Ac

If we apply two input voltages which are equal in all the respects to the differential
amplifier i.e. V1 = Vz then ideally the output voltage Vo = (V1 - V2) Ad, must be
[Link] the output voltage of the practical differential amplifier not only depends on
thedifference voltage but also depends on the average common level of the two inputs.
Such an average level of the two input signals is called common mode signal denoted
as VC

Practically, the differential amplifier produces the output voltage proportional to such
common mode signal, also.
The gain with wich it amplifies the common mode signal to produce the output is called
common mode gain of the differential amplifier AC.
..(7)
Thus there exists some finite output for V1 = V2 due to such common mode gain AC,
in case of practical differential amplifiers.
So the total output of any differential amplifier can be expressed as,
..(8)
For an ideal differential amplifier, the differential gain Ad, must be infinite
while the common mode gain must be zero.
But due to mismatch in the internal circuitry, there is some output available for
V1 = V2 and gain AC is not practically zero. The value of such common mode gain AC
very small while the value of the differential gain Ad is always very large.

 Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

When the same voltage is applied to both the inputs, the differential amplifier is said to
be operated in a common mode configuration. Many disturbance signals, noise signal
appear as a common input signal to both the input terminals of the differential
amplifier. Such a common signal should be rejected by the differential amplifier.
The ability of a differential amplifier to reject a common mode signal is expressed by
a ratio called common mode rejection ratio denoted as CMRR.
It is defined as the ratio of the differential voltage gain Ad to common mode voltage
gain AC

….(9)

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…..(10)

4.2.2 Transistorised Differential Amplifier

The transistorised differential amplifier basically uses the emitter biased circuits
which are identical in characteristics. Such two identical emitter biased circuits are

are equal.

The magnitudes of + Vcc and – V EE are also same. The differential amplifier can be
obtained by using such two emitter biased circuits. This is achieved by connectinemitter
E1 of Q1 to the emitter E2 of Q2. Due to this, R E1 appears in parallel with R E2and the
combination can be replaced by a single resistance denoted as R E. The base B1of Q1 is
connected to the input 1 which is V S1 while the base B 2 of Q2 is connected tothe input
2 which is Vs2. The supply voltages are measured with respect to ground. Thebalanced
output is taken between the collector C1 of Q1 and the collector C2 of Q 2. Suchan
amplifier is called emitter coupled differential amplifier. The two collectorresistances
are same hence can be denoted as R C..
The output can be taken between two collectors or in between one of the twocollectors
and the ground. When the output is taken between the two collectors, none of
them is grounded then it is called balanced output, double ended output or
floatingoutput. When the output is taken between any of the collectors and the ground, it
is calledunbalanced output or single ended output. The complete circuit diagram of such
a basicdual input, balanced output differential amplifier is shown in the Fig.

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As the output is taken between two output terminals, none of them is grounded, it is
called balanced output differential amplifier.
Let us study the circuit operation in the two modes namely
i) Differential mode operation
ii)Common mode operation

4.2.3 Differential Mode Operation

Assume that the sine wave on the base of Q 1is positive going while on the base of Q 2
is negative going. With a positive going signal on the base of Q 1, m amplified negative
going signal develops on the collector of Q1. Due to positive going signal, current
through R E also increases and hence a positive going wave is developed across R E. Due
to negative going signal on the base of Q2, an amplified positive going signal develops
on the collector of Q 2. And a negative going signal develops across R E, because of
emitter follower action of Q 2. So signal voltages across R E, due to the effect of Q1 and
Q2 are equal in magnitude and 180o out of phase, due to matched pair of transistors.
Hence these two signals cancel each other and there is no signal across the emitter
resistance. Hence there is no a.c. signal current flowing through the emitter resistance.

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Hence R E in this case does not introduce negative feedback. While Vo is the output
taken across collector of Q1 and collector of Q 2. The two outputs on collector L and 2
are equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity. And Vo is the difference between these
two signals, e.g. +10 - (-10) = + 20.
Hence the difference output Vo is twice as large as the signal voltage from
either collector to ground

4.2.4 common Mode operation

In this mode, the signals applied to the base of Q1 and Q2 are derived from the same
source. So the two signals are equal in magnitude as well as in phase. The circuit
diagram is shown in the Fig.
While the two signals causes in phase signal voltages of equal magnitude to appear
across the two collectors of Q 1 and Q2. Now the output voltage is the difference
between the two collector voltages, which are equal and also same in phase,
Eg. (20) - (20) = 0. Thus the difference output Vo is almost zero, negligibly small.
ideally it should be zero.

 Configurations of Differential Amplifier

The differential amplifier, in the difference amplifier stage in the op-amp, can be used in
four configurations :
i) Dual input balanced output differential amplifier.
ii) Dual input, unbalanced output differential amplifier.
iii) Single input, balanced output differential amplifier.
iv) Single input, unbalanced output differential amplifier.

The differential amplifier uses two transistors in common emitter configuration. If

output is taken between the two collectors it is called balanced output or double ended
output. While if the output is taken between one collector with respect to ground it
iscalled unbalanced output or single ended output. If the signal is given to both the input
terminals it is called dual input, while if the signal is given to only one input terminal
and other terminal is grounded it is called single input or single ended input Out of these
four configurations the dual input, balanced output is the basic differential amplifier
configuration. This is shown in the Fig. (a). The dual input,unbalanced output
differential amplifier is shown in the Fig.(b). The single input,balanced output

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differential amplifier is shown in the Fig (c) and the single input,unbalanced output
differential amplifier is shown in the Fig. (d).

The d.c. analysis means to obtain the operating point values i.e. I Cq and V CEQ for the
transistors used. The supply voltages are d.c. while the input signals are a.c., so d.c.
equivalent circuit can be obtained simply by reducing the input a.c. signals to zero. The
d.c. equivalent circuit thus obtained is shown in the Fig.. Assuming Rs 1 = R S2, the
source resistance is simply denoted by Rs ,

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.
The transistors Q1 and Q 2 are matched transistors and hence for such a matched pair
we can assume :
i) Both the transistors have the same characteristics.
ii) R E1 = R E2 hence R E= R E1 ll R E2.
iii) R C1 = R c 2 hence denoted as R C.
As the two transistors are matched and circuit is symmetrical, it is enough to find out
operating point I CQ and V CEQ, for any one of the two transistors. The same is applicable
for the other transistor.
Apply-g KVL to base-emitter loop of the transistor Q1,

….(1)

….(2)

….(3)

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 Communication circuit widely uses tuned amplifier and they are used in MW
& SW radio frequency 550 KHz – 16 MHz, 54 – 88 MHz, FM 88 – 108 MHz, cell
phones 470 - 990 MHz

 Band width is 3 dB frequency interval of pass band and –30 dB frequency interval

 Tune amplifiers are also classified as A, B, C similar to power amplifiers based

on conduction angle of devices.

Series resonant circuit

Series resonant features minimum impedance (RS) at resonant.

 f r = ½√LC; q = L/Rs at resonance L=1/c, BW=fr/Q

 It behaves as purely resistance at resonance, capacitive below and inductive above

resonance

Paralel resonant circuit

 Paralel resonance features maximum impedance at resonance = L/RsC

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 At resonance Fr=1/2√1/(LC-Rs2/L2); if Rs=0, fr=1/2√(LC)

 At resonance it exhibits pure resistance and elow fr parallel circuit exhibits

inductive and above
capacitive impedance

4.3.1 Need for tuned circuits:

To understand tuned circuits, we first have to understand the phenomenon of self-

induction. And to understand this, we need to know about induction. The first discovery
about the interaction between electric current and magnetism was the realization that an
electric current created a magnetic field around the conductor. It was then discovered
that this effect could be enhanced greatly by winding the conductor into a coil. The
effect proved to be two-way: If a conductor, maybe in the form of a coil was placed in a
changing magnetic field, a current could be made to flow in it; this is called induction.

Now imagine that we remove the current source. Without a steady current to uphold it,
the magnetic field starts to disappear, but this means our coil is again in a variable field
which induces a current into it. This time the current is in the direction of the applied
current, delaying the decay of the current and the magnetic field till the stored energy is
spent. This can give a funny effect: Since the coil must get rid of the stored energy, the
voltage over it rises indefinitely until a current can run somewhere! This means you can
get a surprising amount of sparks and arching when coils are involved. If the coil is
large enough, you can actually get an electric shock from a low-voltage source like an
ohmmeter.

4.3.2 Single tuned amplifier.

Single Tuned Amplifiers consist of only one Tank Circuit and the amplifying frequency
range isdetermined by it. By giving signal to its input terminal of various Frequency
Ranges. The Tank Circuit onits collector delivers High Impedance on resonant
Frequency, Thus the amplified signal is CompletelyAvailable on the output Terminal.
And for input signals other than Resonant Frequency, the tank circuit provides lower
impedance, hence most of the signals get attenuated at collector Terminal.

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Ri- input resistance of the next stage

The equivalent circuit is simplified by

Simplified equivalent circuit

Where,
A-Voltage gain of the amplifier
C-tuned circuit capacitance

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4.4 General shape of frequency response of amplifiers:

To plot this curve, input voltage to the amplifier is kept constant and frequency of input
signal is continuously varied. The output voltage at each frequency of input signal is
noted and the gain of the amplifier is calculated. For an audio frequency amplifier, the
frequency range is quite large from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. In this frequency response, the
gain of the amplifier remains constant in mid-frequency while the gain varies with
frequency in low and high frequency regions of the curve. Only at low and high
frequency ends, gain deviates from ideal characteristics. The decrease in voltage gain
with frequency is called roll-off.

4.4.1 Definition of cut-off frequencies and bandwidth:

The range of frequencies can be specified over which the gain does not deviate more
than 70.7% of the maximum gain at some reference mid-frequency.

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From above figure, the frequencies f1 & f2 are called lower cut-off and upper cut-off
frequencies.
Bandwidth of the amplifier is defined as the difference between f2 & f1.
Bandwidth of the amplifier = f2 - f1

4.5 NEUTRALIZATION METHODS

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PP
A
R
O
C
U
ST

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4.5.1 Neutralization using coil

The ideal amplifier would deliver 100 percent of the power it draws from the dc power
supply to its load. In practice, 100 percent efficiency cannot be achieved (at this time)
because every amplifier uses some percentage of the power it draws from the dc power
supply.

The efficiency of an amplifier is the ratio of ac output power to dc input power, written
as a percentage. By formula:

The lower the position of the Q-point on the dc load line, the higher the maximum
theoretical efficiency of a given amplifier. Typical Q-point locations for class A, B, AB,
and C amplifiers are shown in Figure 11.1 of the text.

AC Load Lines

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The ac load line is a graph of all possible combinations of ic and vce for a given
amplifier. Under normal circumstances, the ac and dc load lines for a given amplifier are
not identical (see Figure 11.3 of the text).

Amplifier Compliance

The compliance (PP) of an amplifier is the limit that the output circuit places on its
peak-to-peak output voltage. The compliance for a given amplifier is found using the
following equations:

PP = 2lCQrC and PP = 2VCEQ

These equations are developed as illustrated in Figure 11.1.

FIGURE 11.1 Amplifier compliance.

 When an amplifier has a value of PP = 2VCEQ, exceeding the value of PP results in

saturation clipping.
 When an amplifier has a value of PP = 2lCQrC, exceeding the value of PP results in
cutoff clipping. However, the circuit will experience nonlinear distortion before the
amplifier peak-to-peak output reaches the value of PP.

4.6.1 Transformer-Coupled Class A Amplifiers

A transformer-coupled class A amplifier is shown in Figure 11.2. The transformer is

used to couple the amplifier output signal to its load.

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FIGURE 11.2 A transformer-coupled class A amplifier.

The dc biasing of the transformer-coupled class A amplifier is similar to that of other

amplifiers, outside of the fact that the value of VCEQ is designed to be as close as
possible to the value of VCC.

Plotting the ac load line of a transformer-coupled class A amplifier is demonstrated in

Section 11.3.3 of the text. The following are typical characteristics for the transformer-
coupled circuit:

 The maximum output voltage is very close to 2VCEQ and therefore, can approach the
value of 2VCC.

The maximum theoretical efficiency of a transformer-coupled class A amplifier is 50%.

In practice, the transformer-coupled amplifier has a value of < 25%. The high
theoretical value is a result of assuming that VCEQ = VCC and ignoring transformer (and
other) circuit losses. The efficiency of a transformer-coupled circuit is calculated as
shown in Example 11.7 of the text.

The transformer-coupled class A amplifier has the following advantages over the RC-
coupled circuit:

 Higher efficiency.
 It is relatively simple to match the amplifier and load impedance using a transformer.
 A transformer-coupled circuit can easily be converted to a tuned amplifier; that is, a
circuit that provides a specific value of gain over a specified range of operating
frequencies.

4.6.2 Class B Amplifiers

The class B amplifier is a two-transistor circuit that is designed to improve on the

efficiency characteristics of class A amplifiers. A class B amplifier is shown in Figure
11.3. The Q-point values for the circuit in Figure 11.3 are found using

where ICO is the collector cutoff current rating for the transistor.

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FIGURE 11.3 Class B amplifier.

The circuit shown in Figure 11.3 is a complementary-symmetry amplifier, or a push-pull

emitter follower. The circuit contains one npn transistor (Q1) and one pnp transistor
(Q2). The circuit contains complementary transistors; that is, npn and pnp transistors
with identical characteristics

Class C amplifiers were briefly mentioned in Chapter 11. The transistor in a class C
amplifier conducts for less than 180° of the input cycle. A basic class C amplifier is
illustrated in Figure 17.14.

FIGURE 17.14 Class C amplifier.

The most important aspect of the dc operation of this amplifier is that it is biased deeply
into cutoff, meaning that VCEQ VCC and ICQ 0 A. If a negative supply is used to bias the
base circuit, the value of VBB usually fulfills the following relationship:

–VBB = 1 V – Vin(pk)

The ac operation of the class C amplifier is based on the characteristics of the parallel-
resonant tank circuit. If a single current pulse is applied to the tank circuit, the result is a
decaying sinusoidal waveform (as shown in Figure 17.43b of the text). The waveform

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shown is a result of the charge/discharge cycle of the capacitor and inductor in the tank
circuit, and is commonly referred to as the flywheel effect.

To produce a sine wave that does not decay, we must repeatedly apply a current pulse
during each full cycle. At the peak of each positive alternation of the input signal, the
tank circuit in a class C amplifier gets the current pulse it needs to produce a complete
sine wave at the output. This concept is illustrated in Figure 17.44 of the text. Note that
T1, T2, and T3 are inverted at the output relative to the input. This is due to the fact that a
common-emitter amplifier produces a 180° voltage phase shift. Note that the bandwidth,
Q, and QL characteristics of a class C amplifier are the same as those for any tuned
discrete amplifier.

One final point about the class C amplifier. In order for this amplifier to work properly,
the tank circuit must be tuned to the same frequency as the input signal, or to some
harmonic of that frequency. For instance, you could tune the class C amplifier to the
third harmonic of the input and have an output that is three times the input frequency.
As such, the class C amplifier can be used as a frequency multiplier.

Review questions:

1. How to eliminate the cross over distortion.

2. Explain the heat sink design.

4. Explain working about differential amplifier and derive expression for CMRR
5. Explain transfer characteristics of differential amplifier and derive expression for the
same.
6. Explain about single tuned amplifiers
7. Compare the characteristics power amplifiers.
8. Make complete analysis of single tuned amplifier &derive the necessary expressions.
9. Neutrodyne neutralization techniques
10. Hazeltine neutralization techniques
11. Draw a neat circuit diagram and explain working of cascade amplifier and derive the
expression for gain and frequency.
12. Describe the input stages of FET amplifiers.

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UNIT 5

UNIT – I

FEED BACK AMPLIFIERS AND OSCILLATORS

INTRODUCTION

A practical amplifier has a gain of nearly one million i.e. its output is one million times
the input. Consequently, even a casual disturbance at the input will appear in the
amplified form in the output. There is a strong tendency in amplifiers to introduce
hum due to sudden temperature changes or stray electric and magnetic fields.
Therefore, every high gain amplifier tends to give noise along with signal in its output.
The noise in the output of an amplifier is undesirable and must be kept to as small a
level as possible. The noise level in amplifiers can be reduced considerably by the use
of negative feedback i.e. by injecting a fraction of output in phase opposition to the
input signal. The object of this chapter is to consider the effects and methods of
providing negative feedback in transistor amplifiers.

5.1 Feedback

(i) Positive feedback. When the feedback energy (voltage or current) is in phase with
the input signal and thus aids it, it is called positive feedback. This is illustrated in Fig.
1.1. Both amplifier and feedback network introduce a phase shift of 180°. The result is a
360° phase shift around the loop, causing the feedback voltage Vf to be in phase with
the input signal Vin.

Figure 1.1

The positive feedback increases the gain of the amplifier. However, it has the
disadvantages of increased distortion and instability. Therefore, positive feedback is
seldom employed in amplifiers. One important use of positive feedback is in
oscillators. As we shall see in the next chapter, if positive feedback is sufficiently

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large, it leads to oscillations. As a matter of fact, an oscillator is a device that converts

d.c. power into a.c. power of any desired frequency.

(ii) Negative feedback. When the feedback energy (voltage or current) is out of phase
with the input signal and thus opposes it, it is called negative feedback. This is
illustrated in Fig. 1.2. As you can see, the amplifier introduces a phase shift of 180° into
the circuit while the feedback network is so designed that it introduces no phase shift
(i.e., 0° phase shift). The result is that the feedback voltage Vf is 180° out of phase with
the input signal Vin.

Negative feedback reduces the gain of the amplifier. However, the advantages of
negative feedback are: reduction in distortion, stability in gain, increased
bandwidth and improved input and output impedances. It is due to these
advantages that negative feedback is frequently employed in amplifiers.

5.2 Principles of Negative Voltage Feedback In Amplifiers

A feedback amplifier has two parts viz an amplifier and a feedback circuit. The
feedback circuit usually consists of resistors and returns a fraction of output energy
back to the input. Fig. 1.3 *shows the principles of negative voltage feedback in an
amplifier. Typical values have been assumed to make the treatment more illustrative.
The output of the amplifier is 10 V. The fraction mv of this output i.e. 100 mV is
fedback to the input where it is applied in series with the input signal of 101 mV. As
the feedback is negative, therefore, only 1 mV appears at the input terminals of the
amplifier. Referring to Fig. 1.3, we have, Gain of amplifier without feedback,

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Figure 1.3

The following points are worth noting :

 When negative voltage feedback is employed, the voltage actually applied to the
amplifier is extremely small. In this case, the signal voltage is 101 mV and the
negative feedback is 100 mV so that voltage applied at the input of the amplifier is only
1 mV.

 In a negative voltage feedback circuit, the feedback fraction mv is always between 0

and 1.

 The gain with feedback is sometimes called closed-loop gain while the gain without
feedback is called open-loop gain. These terms come from the fact that amplifier and
feedback circuits form a ―loopǁ. When the loop is ―openedǁ by disconnecting
the feedback circuit from the input, the amplifier's gain is Av, the ―open-loopǁ
gain. When the loop is ―closedǁ by connecting the feedback circuit, the gain decreases
to Avf , the ―closed-loopǁ gain.

5.3 Gain of Negative Voltage Feedback Amplifier

Consider the negative voltage feedback amplifier shown in Fig. 1.4. The gain of the
amplifier without feedback is Av. Negative feedback is then applied by feeding a
fraction mv of the output voltage e0 back to amplifier input. Therefore, the actual input
to the amplifier is the signal voltage eg minus feedback voltage mv e0 i.e.,

Actual input to amplifier = eg − mv e0

The output e0 must be equal to the input voltage eg − mv e0 multiplied by gain Av of

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the amplifier i.e.,

It may be seen that the gain of the amplifier without feedback is Av. However, when
negative voltage feedback is applied, the gain is reduced by a factor 1 + Av mv. It may
be noted that negative voltage feedback does not affect the current gain of the circuit.

5.4 Advantages of Negative Voltage Feedback

The following are the advantages of negative voltage feedback in amplifiers :

(i) Gain stability. An important advantage of negative voltage feedback is that the
resultant gain of the amplifier can be made independent of transistor parameters or the
supply voltage variations.

For negative voltage feedback in an amplifier to be effective, the designer deliberately

makes the product Av mv much greater than unity. Therefore, in the above relation, 1
can be neglected as compared to Av mv and the expression becomes :

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It may be seen that the gain now depends only upon feedback fraction mv i.e.,
on the characteristics of feedback circuit. As feedback circuit is usually a voltage
divider (a resistive network), therefore, it is unaffected by changes in temperature,
variations in transistor parameters and frequency. Hence, the gain of the amplifier is
extremely stable.

(ii) Reduces non-linear distortion. A large signal stage has non-linear distortion
because its voltage gain changes at various points in the cycle. The negative voltage
feedback reduces the nonlinear distortion in large signal amplifiers. It can be proved
mathematically that :

It is clear that by applying negative voltage feedback to an amplifier, distortion is

reduced by a factor 1 + Av mv.

(iv) Increases circuit stability. The output of an ordinary amplifier is easily changed
due to variations in ambient temperature, frequency and signal amplitude. This changes
the gain of the amplifier, resulting in distortion. However, by applying negative voltage
feedback, voltage gain of the amplifier is stabilised or accurately fixed in value.

This can be easily explained. Suppose the output of a negative voltage feedback
amplifier has increased because of temperature change or due to some other
reason. This means more negative feedback since feedback is being given from the
output. This tends to oppose the increase in amplification and maintains it stable. The
same is true should the output voltage decrease. Consequently, the circuit stability is
considerably increased.

(v) Increases input impedance and decreases output impedance. The negative
voltage feedback increases the input impedance and decreases the output
impedance of amplifier. Such a change is profitable in practice as the amplifier can
then serve the purpose of impedance matching.

(a) Input impedance. The increase in input impedance with negative voltage feedback
can be explained by referring to Fig. 13.5. Suppose the input impedance of the amplifier
is Zin without feedback and Z ′in with negative feedback. Let us further assume that
input current is i1. Referring to Fig. 13.5, we have,

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But eg/i1 = Z ′i n , the input impedance of the amplifier with negative voltage feedback.

It is clear that by applying negative voltage feedback, the input impedance of the
amplifier is increased by a factor 1 + Aν mv. As Aν mv is much greater than unity,
therefore, input impedance is increased considerably. This is an advantage, since the
amplifier will now present less of a load to its source circuit.

(b) Output impedance. Following similar line, we can show that output
impedance with negative voltage feedback is given by :

It is clear that by applying negative feedback, the output impedance of the amplifier is
decreased by a factor 1 + Aν mν. This is an added benefit of using negative voltage
feedback. With lower value of output impedance, the amplifier is much better suited to
drive low impedance loads.

Feedback Circuit

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The function of the feedback circuit is to return a fraction of the output voltage to the
input of the amplifier. Fig. 13.6 shows the feedback circuit of negative voltage feedback
amplifier. It is essentially a potential divider consisting of resistances R1 and R2. The
output voltage of the amplifier is fed to this potential divider which gives the feedback
voltage to the input. Referring to Fig. 13.6, it is clear that :

Figure 1.6

Principles of Negative Current Feedback

Now a fraction mi of this output current is fedback to the input through Rf.
The fact that arrowhead shows the feed current being fed forward is because it is
negative feedback.

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Figure 1.7

Feedback current, If = mi Iout

Note that negative current feedback reduces the input current to the amplifier and hence
its current gain.

Current Gain with Negative Current Feedback

Referring to Fig. 13.6, we have, Iin = I1 + If = I1 + mi Iout

But Iout = Ai I1, where Ai is the current gain of the amplifier without feedback. Iin = I1

+ mi Ai I1 (ä Iout = Ai I1)

This equation looks very much like that for the voltage gain of negative voltage
feedback amplifier. The only difference is that we are dealing with current gain rather
than the voltage gain.

The following points may be noted carefully :

(i) The current gain of the amplifier without feedback is Ai. However, when negative
current feedback is applied, the current gain is reduced by a factor (1 + mi Ai).

(ii) The feedback fraction (or current attenuation) mi has a value between 0 and 1.

(iii) The negative current feedback does not affect the voltage gain of the amplifier.

5.5 Effects of Negative Current Feedback

The negative current feedback has the following effects on the performance of
amplifiers :

(i) Decreases the input impedance. The negative current feedback decreases the

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input impedance of most amplifiers.

Let

Zin = Input impedance of the amplifier without feedback

Z ′in = Input impedance of the amplifier with negative current feedback

Figure 1.8

Thus the input impedance of the amplifier is decreased by the factor (1 + mi Ai). Note
the primary difference between negative current feedback and negative voltage
feedback. Negative current feedback decreases the input impedance of the amplifier
while negative voltage feedback increases the input impedance of the amplifier.

Increases the output impedance. It can be proved that with negative current
feedback, the output impedance of the amplifier is increased by a factor (1 + mi Ai).

Z ′out = Zout (1 + mi Ai)

where

Zout = output impedance of the amplifier without feedback

Z ′out = output impedance of the amplifier with negative current feedback

The reader may recall that with negative voltage feedback, the output impedance of
the amplifier is decreased.

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Increases bandwidth. It can be shown that with negative current feedback, the
bandwidth of the amplifier is increased by the factor (1 + mi Ai).

BW′ = BW (1 + mi Ai)

where

BW = Bandwidth of the amplifier without feedback

BW′ = Bandwidth of the amplifier with negative current feedback

5.6 The Feedback Voltage Amplifier (Series-Shunt)

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5.7 Oscillators:

An oscillator may be described as a source of alternating voltage. It is different than amplifier.

An amplifier delivers an output signal whose waveform corresponds to the input signal but
whose power level is higher. The additional power content in the output signal is supplied by
the DC power source used to bias the active device.

The amplifier can therefore be described as an energy converter, it accepts energy from the
DC power supply and converts it to energy at the signal frequency. The process of energy
conversion is controlled by the input signal, Thus if there is no input signal, no energy
conversion takes place and there is no output signal.

Oscillators may be classified in terms of their output waveform, frequency range components,
or circuit configuration.

If the output waveform is sinusoidal, it is called harmonic oscillator otherwise it is called

relaxation oscillator, which include square, triangular and saw tooth waveforms.

Oscillators employ both active and passive components. The active components provide
energy conversion mechanism. Typical active devices are transistor, FET etc.

Passive components normally determine the frequency of oscillation. They also influence
stability, which is a measure of the change in output frequency (drift) with time, temperature
or other factors. Passive devices may include resistors, inductors, capacitors, transformers, and
resonant crystals.

Capacitors used in oscillators circuits should be of high quality. Because of low losses and

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Damped Oscillations

If we now place the curve for inductive reactance on top of the curve for capacitive
reactance so that both curves are on the same axes, the point of intersection will give us the
resonance frequency point, ( ƒr or ωr ) as shown below.

Resonance Frequency

where: ƒr is in Hertz, L is in Henries and C is in Farads. Then the frequency at which this will happen

is given as:

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Then by simplifying the above equation we get the final equation for Resonant

Frequency, ƒr in a tuned LC circuit as:

Where:

L is the Inductance in Henries C is the Capacitance in Farads ƒr is the Output Frequency in Hertz

This equation shows that if either L or C are decreased, the frequency increases. This output
frequency is commonly given the abbreviation of ( ƒr ) to identify it as the "resonant frequency". To
keep the oscillations going in an LC tank circuit, we have to replace all the energy lost in each
oscillation and also maintain the amplitude of these oscillations at a constant level.

The amount of energy replaced must therefore be equal to the energy lost during each cycle. If
the energy replaced is too large the amplitude would increase until clipping of the supply rails
occurs. Alternatively, if the amount of energy replaced is too small the amplitude
would eventually decrease to zero over time and the oscillations would stop.

The simplest way of replacing this lost energy is to take part of the output from the LC tank
circuit, amplify it and then feed it back into the LC circuit again. This process can be achieved using
a voltage amplifier using an op-amp, FET or bipolar transistor as its active device.

However, if the loop gain of the feedback amplifier is too small, the desired oscillation decays to
zero and if it is too large, the waveform becomes distorted. To produce a constant oscillation,
the level of the energy fed back to the LC network must be accurately controlled.

Then there must be some form of automatic amplitude or gain control when the amplitude tries to
vary from a reference voltage either up or down. To maintain a stable oscillation the overall gain

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of the circuit must be equal to one or unity. Any less and the oscillations will not start or die away
to zero,

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any more the oscillations will occur but the amplitude will become clipped by the supply rails
causing distortion. Consider the circuit below.

Basic Transistor LC Oscillator Circuit

The changing current flowing in one coil circuit induces, by electromagnetic induction, a potential
voltage in the other (transformer effect) so as the oscillations occur in the tuned circuit,
electromagnetic energy is transferred from coil L to coil L2 and a voltage of the same frequency
as that in the tuned circuit is applied between the base and emitter of the transistor.

In this way the necessary automatic feedback voltage is applied to the amplifying transistor.
The amount of feedback can be increased or decreased by altering the coupling between the
two coils L and L2. When the circuit is oscillating its impedance is resistive and the collector
and base voltages are 180 out of phase. In order to maintain oscillations (called frequency
stability) the voltage applied to the tuned circuit must be "in-phase" with the oscillations occurring in
the tuned circuit.

Therefore, we must introduce an additional 180o phase shift into the feedback path between the
collector and the base. This is achieved by winding the coil of L2 in the correct direction relative to
coil L giving us the correct amplitude and phase relationships for the Oscillatorscircuit or by
connecting a phase shift network between the output and input of the amplifier.

TheLC Oscillator is therefore a "Sinusoidal Oscillator" or a "Harmonic Oscillator" as it is more

commonly called. LC oscillators can generate high frequency sine waves for use in radio
frequency (RF) type applications with the transistor amplifier being of a Bipolar Transistor or FET.

Harmonic Oscillators come in many different forms because there are many different ways to
construct an LC filter network and amplifier with the most common being the Hartley LC Oscillator,
Colpitts LC Oscillator, Armstrong OscillatorandClapp Oscillator to name a few.

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5.8 The Hartley Oscillator

The main disadvantages of the basic LC Oscillator circuit we looked at in the previous tutorial is that
they have no means of controlling the amplitude of the oscillations and also, it is difficult to tune the
oscillator to the required frequency.
If the cumulative electromagnetic coupling between L1 and L2 is too small there would be
insufficient feedback and the oscillations would eventually die away to zero Likewise if the
feedback was too strong the oscillations would continue to increase in amplitude until they
were limited by the circuit conditions producing signal distortion. So it becomes very
difficult to "tune" the oscillator.

However, it is possible to feed back exactly the right amount of voltage for constant amplitude
oscillations. If we feed back more than is necessary the amplitude of the oscillations can be
controlled by biasing the amplifier in such a way that if the oscillations increase in amplitude, the
bias is increased and the gain of the amplifier is reduced.

One big advantage of automatic base bias in a voltage controlled oscillator, is that the oscillator
can be made more efficient by providing a Class-B bias or even a Class-C bias condition of the
transistor. This has the advantage that the collector current only flows during part of the
oscillation cycle so the quiescent collector current is very small.

Then this "self-tuning" base oscillator circuit forms one of the most common types of LC
parallel resonant feedback oscillator configurations called the Hartley Oscillator circuit.

Hartley Oscillator Tuned Circuit

In the Hartley Oscillator the tuned LC circuit is connected between the collector and the
base of the transistor amplifier. As far as the oscillatory voltage is concerned, the emitter is
connected to a tapping point on the tuned circuit coil.

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The feedback of the tuned tank circuit is taken from the centre tap of the inductor coil or
even two separate coils in series which are in parallel with a variable capacitor, C as shown.

The Hartley circuit is often referred to as a split-inductance oscillator because coil L is centre-
tapped. In effect, inductance L acts like two separate coils in very close proximity with the
current flowing through coil section XY induces a signal into coil section YZ below.

An Hartley Oscillator circuit can be made from any configuration that uses either a single
tapped coil (similar to an autotransformer) or a pair of series connected coils in parallel with a
single capacitor as shown below.

Basic Hartley Oscillator Circuit

Then there is a 180 phase change in the voltage between the Base and Collector and this
along with the original 180 phase shift in the feedback loop provides the correct phase relationship of
positive feedback for oscillations to be maintained.

The amount of feedback depends upon the position of the "tapping point" of the inductor. If
this is moved nearer to the collector the amount of feedback is increased, but the output taken
between the Collector and earth is reduced and vice versa.

Resistors, R1 and R2 provide the usual stabilizing DC bias for the transistor in the normal manner
while the capacitors act as DC-blocking capacitors.

In this Hartley Oscillator circuit, the DC Collector current flows through part of the coil and for
this reason the circuit is said to be "Series-fed" with the frequency of oscillation of the Hartley
Oscillator being given as.

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The frequency of oscillations can be adjusted by varying the "tuning" capacitor, C or by

varying the position of the iron-dust core inside the coil (inductive tuning) giving an output over a
wide range of frequencies making it very easy to tune. Also the Hartley Oscillator produces
an output amplitude which is constant over the entire frequency range.

As well as the Series-fed Hartley Oscillator above, it is also possible to connect the tuned
tank circuit across the amplifier as a shunt-fed oscillator as shown below.

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Shunt-fed Hartley Oscillator Cricuit

The Radio Frequency Coil (RFC), L2 is an RF choke which has a high reactance at the
frequency of oscillations so that most of the RF current is applied to the LC tuning tank circuit via
capacitor, C2 as the DC component passes through L2 to the power supply. A resistor could be
used in place of the RFC coil, L2 but the efficiency would be less.

5.9 The Colpitts Oscillator

The Colpitts Oscillator, named after its inventor Edwin Colpitts is another type of LC
oscillator design. In many ways, the Colpitts oscillator is the exact opposite of the Hartley
Oscillator we looked at in the previous tutorial. Just like the Hartley oscillator, the tuned tank
circuit consists of an LC resonance sub-circuit connected between the collector and the base of a
single stage transistor amplifier producing a sinusoidal output waveform.

The basic configuration of the Colpitts Oscillator resembles that of the Hartley Oscillator
but the difference this time is that the centre tapping of the tank sub-circuit is now made at the
junction of a "capacitive voltage divider" network instead of a tapped autotransformer type
inductor as in the Hartley oscillator.

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Colpitts Oscillator Circuit

The Colpitts oscillator uses a capacitor voltage divider as its feedback source.

The two capacitors, C1 and C2 are placed across a common inductor, L as shown so that C1, C2 and
L forms the tuned tank circuit the same as for the Hartley oscillator circuit.

Basic Colpitts Oscillator Circuit

The transistor amplifiers emitter is connected to the junction of capacitors, C1 and C2 which are
connected in series and act as a simple voltage divider. When the power supply is firstly
applied, capacitors C1 and C2 charge up and then discharge through the coil L. The oscillations
across the capacitors are applied to the base-emitter junction and appear in the amplified at the
collector output. The amount of feedback depends on the values of C1 and C2 with the smaller
the values of C the greater will be the feedback.

The required external phase shift is obtained in a similar manner to that in the Hartley oscillator
circuit with the required positive feedback obtained for sustained un-damped
oscillations. The amount of feedback is determined by the ratio of C1 and C2 which are generally
"ganged" together to provide a constant amount of feedback so as one is adjusted the other
automatically follows.

The frequency of oscillations for a Colpitts oscillator is determined by the resonant

frequency of the LC tank circuit and is given as:

where CT is the capacitance of C1 and C2 connected in series and is given as:.

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The configuration of the transistor amplifier is of a Common Emitter Amplifier with the
output signal 180o out of phase with regards to the input signal. The additional 180o phase
shift require for oscillation is achieved by the fact that the two capacitors are connected together in
series but
in parallel with the inductive coil resulting in overall phase shift of the circuit being zero or o
360 .
Resistors, R1 and R2 provide the usual stabilizing DC bias for the transistor in the normal manner
while the capacitor acts as a DC-blocking capacitors. The radio-frequency choke (RFC) is used to
provide a high reactance (ideally open circuit) at the frequency of oscillation, ( ƒr ) and a low
resistance at DC.

Colpitts Oscillator using an Op-amp

Colpitts Oscillator Op-amp Circuit

The advantages of the Colpitts Oscillatorover the Hartley oscillators are that the Colpitts
oscillator produces a more purer sinusoidal waveform due to the low impedance paths of the
capacitors at high frequencies. Also due to these capacitive reactance properties the Colpitts
oscillator can operate at very high frequencies into the microwave region.

5.10 WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

One of the simplest sine wave oscillators which uses a RC network in place of the conventional
LC tuned tank circuit to produce a sinusoidal output waveform, is the Wien Bridge Oscillator.

The Wien Bridge Oscillator is so called because the circuit is based on a frequency-selective form of
the Whetstone bridge circuit. The Wien Bridge oscillator is a two-stage RC coupled amplifier
circuit that has good stability at its resonant frequency, low distortion and is very easy to tune
making it a popular circuit as an audio frequency oscillator

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Wien Bridge Oscillator

The output of the operational amplifier is fed back to both the inputs of the amplifier. One part of the
feedback signal is connected to the inverting input terminal (negative feedback) via the
resistor divider network of R1 and R2 which allows the amplifiers voltage gain to be adjusted
within narrow limits.

Also the voltage gain of the amplifier circuit MUST be equal to three "Gain =3" for oscillations to
start. This value is set by the feedback resistor network, R1 and R2 for an inverting amplifier and is
given as the ratio -R1/R2.

Also, due to the open-loop gain limitations of operational amplifiers, frequencies

above
1MHz are unachievable without the use of special high frequency op-amps. Then for
oscillations to occur in a Wien Bridge Oscillator circuit the following conditions must apply.

1. With no input signal the Wien Bridge Oscillator produces output oscillations.

2. The Wien Bridge Oscillator can produce a large range of frequencies.

3. The Voltage gain of the amplifier must be at least 3.

4. The network can be used with a Non-inverting amplifier.

5. The input resistance of the amplifier must be high compared to R so that the RC network
is not overloaded and alter the required conditions.

6. The output resistance of the amplifier must be low so that the effect of external loading

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is minimised.

7. Some method of stabilizing the amplitude of the oscillations must be provided because if
the voltage gain of the amplifier is too small the desired oscillation will decay and stop and if it is
too large the output amplitude rises to the value of the supply rails, which saturates the op-amp and
causes the output waveform to become distorted.

8. With amplitude stabilisation in the form of feedback diodes, oscillations from the oscillator can go
on indefinitely.

5.11 Quartz Crystal Oscillators

One of the most important features of any oscillator is its frequency stability, or in other words its
ability to provide a constant frequency output under varying load conditions. Some of the
factors that affect the frequency stability of an oscillator include: temperature, variations in the load
and changes in the DC power supply.

Frequency stability of the output signal can be improved by the proper selection of the
components used for the resonant feedback circuit including the amplifier but there is a limit
to the stability that can be obtained from normal LC and RC tank circuits.

Crystal Oscillator

When a voltage source is applied to a small thin piece of quartz crystal, it begins to change
shape producing a characteristic known as the Piezo-electric effect.

This piezo-electric effect is the property of a crystal by which an electrical charge produces a
mechanical force by changing the shape of the crystal and vice versa, a mechanical force applied to
the crystal produces an electrical charge.

Then, piezo-electric devices can be classed as Transducersas they convert energy of one
kind into energy of another (electrical to mechanical or mechanical to electrical).

This piezo-electric effect produces mechanical vibrations or oscillations which are used to replace the

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LC tank circuit in the previous oscillators.

There are many different types of crystal substances which can be used as oscillators with the
most important of these for electronic circuits being the quartz minerals because of their
greater mechanical strength.

The quartz crystal used in a Quartz Crystal Oscillator is a very small, thin piece or wafer of
cut quartz with the two parallel surfaces metallised to make the required electrical connections. The
physical size and thickness of a piece of quartz crystal is tightly controlled since it affects the final
frequency of oscillations and is called the crystals "characteristic frequency". Then once cut and
shaped, the crystal can not be used at any other frequency. In other words, its size and shape
determines its frequency.

The equivalent circuit for the quartz crystal shows an RLC series circuit, which represents the
mechanical vibrations of the crystal, in parallel with a capacitance, Cp which represents the electrical
connections to the crystal. Quartz crystal oscillators operate at "parallel resonance", and the
equivalent impedance of the crystal has a series resonance where Cs resonates with inductance, L
and a parallel resonance where L resonates with the series combination of Cs and Cp as shown.

Crystal Reactance

The slope of the reactance against frequency above, shows that the series reactance at frequency ƒs
is inversely proportional to Cs because below ƒs and above ƒp the crystal appears capacitive,
i.e. dX/dƒ, where X is the reactance.

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A quartz crystal has a resonant frequency similar to that of a electrically tuned tank circuit
butwith a much higher Q factor due to its low resistance, with typical frequencies ranging from
4kHz to
10MHz. The cut of the crystal also determines how it will behave as some crystals will vibrate at
more than one frequency. Also, if the crystal is not of a parallel or uniform thickness it has
two or more resonant frequencies having both a fundamental frequency and harmonics such as
second or third harmonics. However, usually the fundamental frequency is more stronger or
pronounced than the others and this is the one used. The equivalent circuit above has three reactive
components and there are two resonant frequencies, the lowest is a series type frequency and
the highest a parallel type resonant frequency.

We have seen in the previous tutorials, that an amplifier circuit will oscillate if it has a loop gain
greater or equal to one and the feedback is positive. In a Quartz Crystal Oscillator circuit
the oscillator will oscillate at the crystals fundamental parallel resonant frequency as the crystal
always wants to oscillate when a voltage source is applied to it.

Colpitts Crystal Oscillator:

The design of a Crystal Oscillator is very similar to the design of the Colpitts Oscillator
we looked at in the previous tutorial, except that the LC tank circuit has been replaced by a quartz
crystal as shown below.

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These types of Crystal Oscillators are designed around the common emitter amplifier stage of a
Colpitts Oscillator. The input signal to the base of the transistor is inverted at the transistors output.
The output signal at the collector is then taken through a 180o phase shifting network which
includes the crystal operating in a series resonant mode. The output is also fed back to the
input which is "in-phase"

with the input providing the necessary positive feedback. Resistors, R1 and R2 bias the resistor in
aClass

Re is chosen so that the loop gain is slightly greater than unity.

Capacitors, C1 and C2 are made as large as possible in order that the frequency of
oscillations can approximate to the series resonant mode of the crystal and is not dependant
upon the values of these capacitors.

The circuit diagram above of the Colpitts Crystal Oscillator circuit shows that capacitors, C1 and
C2 shunt the output of the transistor which reduces the feedback signal.

Therefore, the gain of the transistor limits the maximum values of C1 and C2.

The output amplitude should be kept low in order to avoid excessive power dissipation in the crystal
otherwise could destroy itself by excessive vibration.

Pierce Oscillator

The Pierce oscillator is a crystal oscillator that uses the crystal as part of its feedback path and
therefore has no resonant tank circuit. The Pierce Oscillator uses a JFET as its amplifying device as
it provides a very high input impedance with the crystal connected between the output Drain
terminal and the input Gate terminal as shown below.

Pierce Crystal Oscillator

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In this simple circuit, the crystal determines the frequency of oscillations and operates on its
series resonant frequency giving a low impedance path between output and input.

There is a 180° phase shift at resonance, making the feedback positive. The amplitude of the
output sine wave is limited to the maximum voltage range at the Drain terminal.

Review questions:

1. Explain voltage series and shunt feedback amplifier with an example. (16)
2. Describe the characteristics of Negative feedback. (8)
3. Describe the characteristics Positive feedback. (8)
4. Explain the current series and shunt feedback amplifier with an example. (16)
5. Explain the principle of operation and derive the expression for wein bridge
oscillator.(16)
6. Explain the principle of operation and derive the expression for colpitts oscillator.(16)

7. Derive the expression and characteristics of oscillator i.

RC Phase shift. (8)
ii. Hartley. (8)
8. Explain the operation and advantages of crystal oscillators. (16)

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9. Comparison of positive and negative feedback(8)

10. Explain the voltage series and current shunt feedback amplifier with an example. (16)
11. Explain the current series and voltage shunt feedback amplifier with an example. (16)
12. Explain about high frequency oscillator working principle.(16)

PP
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