1.

) ELCL YCLEC

3.) SISITOM
4.) PHPRAESO

5.) MPHAESETA

6.) PESAHNAA

7.) LOTEHAPES
CELL CYCLE
WHAT IS A CELL CYCLE?
● Cells divide into new cells through a series of events that take place in
steps. The products formed in each round replicate the process in the next
round.
● A cell cycle is thus a sequence of events that a cell goes through as it grows
and divides to produce new cells. Therefore, it can be called the life cycle
of a cell.
● Cell division is responsible for a newborn baby gradually growing into an
adult. Similarly, a caterpillar turning into a butterfly. Other living
organisms, such as a plant or bacteria, also follow a series of developmental
stages following birth until reproduction.
CELL CYCLE
 PHASES OF THE CELL CYCLE
The process of cell division is more straightforward in lower, single-
celled (prokaryotes) organisms than higher multicellular
(eukaryotes) ones. The reason is that a prokaryotic cell has a
relatively simpler cell organization with a single circular
chromosome, absence of a nucleus, and few cell organelles. In
contrast, eukaryotic cells have multiple chromosomes present
within a nucleus and various organelles.

A eukaryotic cell cycle consists of two main parts: 1.) interphase

and 2.) mitotic (M) phase, and an alternative part called the G0-
phase.
 INTERPHASE
It is the first phase of the cell cycle, recognized by the
growth period where the chromosome gets
duplicated as the cell prepares for division.
Interphase happens between one cell division or
mitotic (M) phase and the next. It is the longest part
of the cell cycle involving three sub-phases. The
typical duration of this phase is 23 hours.
1. G1 – phase
• Also known as the first – gap phase.
• During this period, the cells grow in size,
synthesize cell organelles and other
macromolecules such as proteins that serve as the
building block of the cell.
• The cells also accumulate sufficient energy
required for division.
2. S – phase
• Also known as the synthesis phase.
• The existing DNA is copied within the nucleus.
• This process of DNA synthesis is also known as
DNA – replication.
• The centrosome is also duplicated during this
phase and gives rise to spindle fibers. The entire
S-phase requires energy expenditure to proceed.
3. G2 – phase
• This is the second gap phase and is somewhat
similar to the G1 – phase.
• During this period, the cells grow further in size,
making more proteins and organelles.
• All preparations for mitosis get completed before
the cells enter the mitotic phase.
 MITOTIC (M) PHASE
This period is also known as the cell division phase
and occurs just after the G2 – phase. Here, the cell
divides its genetic material (DNA) and cytoplasm to
form two new cells.
a. Mitosis or Karyokinesis
• It is the nuclear division period and consists of four
phases: PROPHASE, METAPHASE, ANAPHASE,
and TELOPHASE.
• During this phase, the cell divides the nucleus and
gets separated into two daughter cells, where each
daughter cell receives a complete set of
chromosomes.
 PROPHASE
• The main occurrences in prophase are
the condensation of the chromatin
reticulum and the disappearance of the
nucleolus.
 METAPHASE
• Metaphase is a stage of mitosis in the
eukaryotic cell cycle in which chromosomes
are at their second-most condensed and
coiled stage. These chromosomes, carrying
genetic information, align in the equator of
the cell before being separated into each of
the two daughter cells.
 ANAPHASE
• Anaphase, is the stage of mitosis after
the process of metaphase, when
replicated chromosomes are split and
the newly-copied chromosomes are
moved to opposite poles of the cell
 TELOPHASE
• Telophase is the fifth and final
phase of mitosis, the process that
separates the duplicated genetic
material carried in the nucleus of a
parent cell into two identical
daughter cells.
b. Cytokinesis
• It is the process by which the cytoplasm of the cell
splits to form two independent cells.
• The phase of cytokinesis begins towards the end
of mitosis such that the two processes overlap.
• Cytokinesis is the shortest phase of the cell cycle
that occurs differently in plants and animals.
✓ The division in plant cells occurs by forming a cell plate
structure in the middle of the cell. The cell plate is made of
components made of the cell membrane and cell wall.
✓ The division in animal cells happens when a band of
cytoskeletal fibers known as contractile rings forms just below
the cell membrane in the metaphase plate’s position. The
contractile rings contract inwards, thus creating a depression
or crack, called cleavage furrow. The cracks increase, and
slowly the membrane cleaves to form two daughter cells at
the end of the cell cycle.
 G0 – phase
• Some cells do not immediately enter another round of
preparatory phase or interphase following the division or
mitosis. Instead, they exit the G1 growth phase and enter
a resting stage called G0 – phase.
• G0 is also called the alternative phase of the cell cycle.
• Some cells enter the G0 – phase temporarily until an
outside signal triggers the onset of G1. In contrast, other
cells that either never divide or seldom divide, such as
nerve cells or cardiac cells, remain in G0 – phase
permanently.
 BINARY FISSION
• Binary fission, asexual reproduction by a
separation of the body into two new bodies.
In the process of binary fission, an organism
duplicates its genetic material, or
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and then
divides into two parts (cytokinesis), with each
new organism receiving one copy of DNA.
 REGULATION OF CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle occurs in an orderly and natural manner. A group of
proteins called regulatory proteins ensures an error-free process.
There are some checkpoints whose purpose is to control the
system and determine whether the cell will start or delay the next
phase of the cell cycle. The main checkpoints are:
• G1 – checkpoint
• G2 – checkpoint
• M – checkpoint
 Cell Growth (G1) CHECKPOINT
Present just before the entry into S-phase, it
makes the critical decision whether the cell will
enter the S-phase. The decision is based on
whether the cell is big enough and has
synthesized proteins necessary for DNA
synthesis.
 DNA SYNTHESIS (G2) CHECKPOINT

Checks errors in the DNA-synthesis phase and, based

on the result, bars the entry into the M-phase. This
checkpoint helps to prevent the occurrence of cancer in
higher animals. Suppose there is an error in DNA
replication. In that case, the G2 checkpoint prevents the
cell from progressing further in the cell cycle and
checks the error in the newly formed DNA.
 M – CHECKPOINT
This occurs near the end of the metaphase
stage. It checks whether all sister chromatids
are correctly attached to the spindle fibers. The
M-checkpoint ensures that equal division of
chromosome occurs between the two daughter
cells.
NOTE: In case the above cell cycle
regulators do not function properly, the
organism may end up with too few or too
many cells. Apart from the above
checkpoints, many growth factors and
chemicals stimulate the cell to progress
through the cell cycle.
 When Control Is Lost: Cancer
• Certain genes contain the information necessary to make the
proteins that regulate cell growth and division. If one of these
genes is mutated, the protein may not function, and regulation of
cell growth and division can be disrupted.
• Cancer, the uncontrolled growth of cells, may result. Cancer is
essentially a disorder of cell division. Cancer cells do not
respond normally to the body’s control mechanisms.
• Some mutations cause cancer by over-producing growth-
promoting molecules, thus speeding up the cell cycle. Others
cause cancer by inactivating the control proteins that normally
act to slow or stop the cell cycle.
 Purpose and Importance of the Cell Cycle
• The function of the cell cycle is to prepare the cell for
future division. Imagine a cell dividing without
growing and reproducing the cellular machinery.
Each round of cell division will result in a gradual
decrease in the daughter cell, which becomes half in
size of the parent cell. The genetic material also
reduces in the daughter cell. This situation
summarizes the importance of growth before cell
division. Thus, to accomplish growth and prepare for
cell division, cells need to undergo different phases.
THE END