PHYS 3011 Chapter 2

- Lagrangian Mechanics -
Part I: Principle of Least Action and Lagrange’s Equation
Lecturer: Dr. Y. H. Lai

CUHK Department of Physics 2023-2024 (Term 2)

1
 “Paths” in a position-time graph

xi

ti

Consider a particle moving in 1 dimension. Suppose its position is 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑖 when 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖 and 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 when 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑓 .
Let x(t) be its position as a function of time.

Different x(t) gives different paths in the position-time graph, as shown above.
2
 The Lagrangian and the Action
(particle in 1-dimensional space)
Given a path x(t) for the particle of mass m.
Then, at time t,
The kinetic energy :

1
𝑇 = 2 𝑚𝑥(𝑡)2

xi The potential energy:

ti 𝑈 = 𝑈(𝑥(𝑡)) (depending on the problem)

The Lagrangian is defined as: 𝐿(𝑥, 𝑥) = 𝑇 − 𝑈

𝑡𝑓
The Action is defined as: 𝑆= 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑖

3
 Hamilton’s principle (principle of least action)
(particle in 1-dimensional space)

Hamilton’s principle (particle in 1-dimensional space):

Of all the possible paths along which a particle may move from one point to another within a specified time interval,
the actual path followed is that which minimizes the action 𝑆.

𝑡𝑓
𝑆= 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑖

This minimization problem can be solved by using calculus of variation. To minimize S, the path has to satisfy:

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿
− =0 This is known as the Lagrange equation of motion.
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥
(or Euler-Lagrange equation)

4
 Equivalence of Lagrange’s and Newton’s Equations
(particle in 1-dimensional space)

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿
− =0 Lagrange’s eqn.
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥

𝜕 𝑇−𝑈 𝑑 𝜕 𝑇−𝑈
⟹ − =0
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑈 𝑑 𝜕 1
⟹ − − 𝑚𝑥 2 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2

𝑑𝑈 Newton’s eqn.
⟹ 𝑚𝑥 𝑡 + =0
𝑑𝑥

(For the derivation of Lagrange’s eqn. from the Newtonian concept, see the textbook of the course)
5
 Lagrange’s eqn. of motion: examples
(particle in 1-dimensional space)
1
1. Free particle: 𝐿 = 2 𝑚𝑥 2 − 0

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕 1 𝑑
= 0; = 𝑚𝑥 2 = 𝑚𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑚𝑥 𝑡 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕 𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2 𝑑𝑡

1
2. Particle in uniform gravity (towards the –ve x direction): 𝐿 = 2 𝑚𝑥 2 − 𝑚𝑔𝑥

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿
= −𝑚𝑔; = 𝑚𝑥 ⟹ 𝑚𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑔 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥

1 1
3. Simple harmonic oscillator: 𝐿 = 2 𝑚𝑥 2 − 2 𝑘𝑥 2

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿
= −𝑘𝑥; = 𝑚𝑥 ⟹ 𝑚𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥(𝑡) = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥

6
 The Lagrangian and the Action
(particle in 3-dimensional space)
𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡)
In 3D space, the path of a particle (in Cartesian coordinates) is expressed as 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡)
𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑡)
Kinetic energy :

1
𝑇 = 2 𝑚[𝑥(𝑡)2 +𝑦(𝑡)2 + 𝑧(𝑡)2 ]

Potential energy:

𝑈 = 𝑈 𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑦 𝑡 , 𝑧(𝑡) (depending on the problem)

The Lagrangian is defined as: 𝐿(𝑥, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑧) = 𝑇 − 𝑈

𝑡𝑓
The Action is defined as: 𝑆= 𝐿𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑖

NOTE: The definitions of L and S are independent of coordinate system

7
 Hamilton’s principle (principle of least action)
(particle in 3-dimensional space)
Hamilton’s principle for a particle:
Of all the possible paths along which a particle may move from one point to another within a specified time interval,
the actual path followed is that which minimizes the action 𝑆.

𝑡𝑓
𝑆= 𝐿(𝑥, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑧)𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑖

To minimize S, the path has to satisfy:

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝑈
− =0 ⟹ 𝑚𝑥 𝑡 + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝑈
− =0 ⟹ 𝑚𝑦 𝑡 + =0
𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝑈
− =0 ⟹ 𝑚𝑧 𝑡 + =0
𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
Lagrange’s eqn. Newton’s eqn.

8
 Example: Projectile motion under constant gravity (in Cartesian coordinates)

𝑚𝑥 = 0 y
Newtonian:
𝑚𝑦 = −𝑚𝑔

1
Lagrangian: 𝐿 = 𝑇 − 𝑈 = 𝑚 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦
2 mg

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿
− =0
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑚𝑥 = 0
⟹ x
𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝑚𝑦 = −𝑚𝑔
− =0
𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦

Exercise:
Solve the equations of motion
9
 Action and Lagrange’s equation in different coordinate systems

We have derived the Lagrange’s equation in Cartesian coordinates. However, the principle of least action itself is
independent of coordinates system.
𝑡𝑓
i.e. no matter what coordinate system we use, our goal is to minimize 𝑆 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 .
𝑡𝑖

It is just that we need to re-express the Lagrangian 𝐿 in the coordinate system we selected.

Example:
For a particle in 2D Cartesian coordinate systems: For a particle in 2D polar coordinate systems:
1 1
L = 2 𝑚(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 ) − 𝑈(𝑥, 𝑦) L = 2 𝑚[𝑟 2 +(𝑟𝜃)2 ] − 𝑈(𝑟, 𝜃)

Minimizing S requires: Minimizing S requires:

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿
− =0 − =0
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿
− =0 The Lagrange’s eqns have the same − =0
𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 form in different coordinates 𝜕𝜃 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝜃
10
 Newton’s equation in different coordinate systems

𝑑2𝑟
Newton’s eqn. for a particle in any coordinate systems: 𝑚 2 = −𝛻𝑈
𝑑𝑡

In 2D Cartesian coordinate systems: In 2D polar coordinate systems:

𝑑2 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝑑2 𝜕𝑈 1 𝜕𝑈
𝑚 2 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑦 = −𝑥 −𝑦 𝑚 2 (𝑟𝑟) = −𝑟 −𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 1 𝜕𝑈
𝑚 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = −𝑥 −𝑦 𝑚[ 𝑟− 𝑟𝜃 2 𝑟 + [(𝑟𝜃 + 2𝑟𝜃)𝜃] = −𝑟 −𝜃
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
𝑚𝑥 = − 𝑚 𝑟 − 𝑟𝜃 2 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑈 The Newton’s eqns have different 1 𝜕𝑈
𝑚𝑦 = − forms in different coordinates 𝑚(𝑟𝜃 + 2𝑟𝜃) = −
𝜕𝑦 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

11
Exercise
Verify that:

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝑈
− =0 2
𝑚 𝑟 − 𝑟𝜃 = −
𝜕𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
⟹
𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 1 𝜕𝑈
− =0 𝑚(𝑟𝜃 + 2𝑟𝜃) = −
𝜕𝜃 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

Remark:
Both Newton’s 2nd law and Principle of least action are independent of coordinate system (because physics should be
independent of coordinate system).
However, the form of the differential equations given by Newton’s equation are different in different coordinate
systems, while the form of Lagrange’s equations are the same.

12
 A quick summary

Newtonian mechanics Lagrangian mechanics

𝑡𝑓
𝑑2𝑟
𝑚 2 = −𝛻𝑈 Find the minimum of 𝑆 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 .
𝑑𝑡 𝑡𝑖

They give the same result!

The Newton’s eqns have different forms The Lagrange’s eqns have the same form
in different coordinate systems in different coordinate systems.

(But the expression of 𝐿 looks different)

13
 Projectile motion under constant gravity (using polar coordinate system)
Note: polar coord. system is not a convenient choice for this problem.
We use it here just to illustrate the usage of Lagrange’s equation.
Newtonian: y
Radial component of the force 𝐹𝑟 = −𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃
Transverse component of the force 𝐹𝜃 = −𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃

Eqn. of motion along the radial direction: 𝑚 𝑟 − 𝑟𝜃 2 = −𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃

Eqn. of motion along the transverse direction: 𝑚(𝑟𝜃 + 2𝑟𝜃) = −𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃
mg
𝑟
Lagrangian:
1
𝐿 =𝑇−𝑈= 𝑚 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦 (Let 𝑈 = 0 at y = 0)
2 𝜃
1 x
= 𝑚[𝑟 2 + (𝑟𝜃)2 ] − 𝑚𝑔𝑟 sin 𝜃
2

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿
− =0
𝜕𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝜃 2 − 𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝑟 = 0
⟹ ⟹ (Same as Newton’s eqn. of motion)
𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 −𝑔𝑟 cos 𝜃 − 2𝑟𝑟𝜃 − 𝑟 2 𝜃 = 0
− =0
𝜕𝜃 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝜃
14
 Pendulum motion under constant gravity
y

In Cartesian coordinates:

1
𝐿 = 𝑚 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦 , where 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑙 2 x
2
Due to this constraint, 𝑥 and 𝑦 are not independent,
so 𝐿 can be expressed without 𝑦 and 𝑦. 𝑙

Optional exercise:
1 2
𝑥2 𝑚
Show that 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑥 1 + 2 2
+ 𝑚𝑔 𝑙 2 − 𝑥 2
2 𝑙 −𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦)

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿
− =0 ⟹ A messy equation…
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥

15
 Pendulum motion under constant gravity

Using the angle between the string and the vertical line as the “coordinate”:

1
𝐿 = 𝑚(𝑙𝜃)2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑙 cos 𝜃
2 𝜃
𝑙

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝑔
− =0 ⟹ 𝜃+ sin 𝜃 = 0
𝜕𝜃 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝜃 𝑙

16
 Particle sliding down on a fixed wedge

In Cartesian coordinates:

1
𝐿 = 𝑚 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦 , where 𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃 (Let 𝑈 = 0 at y = 0)
2 𝑚
Due to this constraint, 𝑥 and 𝑦 are not independent, y
so 𝐿 can be expressed without 𝑥 and 𝑥.

𝜃
1 1
⟹ 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑦 2 1 + 1/ tan2 𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑦 2 / sin2 𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦 x
2 2

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿
− =0 ⟹ 𝑦 + 𝑔sin2 𝜃 = 0
𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦

17
 Particle sliding down on a fixed wedge

Using the distance from the top of the wedge as the coordinate:

1
𝐿 = 𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑠 sin 𝜃 (Let 𝑈 = 0 at s = 0) s
2 𝑚

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜃
− =0 ⟹ 𝑠 − 𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 0
𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑠
which is the same as 𝑦 + 𝑔sin2 𝜃 = 0

18
 Describing the state of a particle: from coordinates to generalized coordinates

When describing the “state” of a particle (i.e. its position, velocity or acceleration),
we usually use a coordinate system. We need 3 numbers to describe the “state”.
(Remark: If we consider problems in 2D space then only 2 numbers are needed.)
𝜃
𝑙
In general, to describe the “state” of 𝑁 particles, we need 3 × 𝑁 numbers.

However, if there exists constraints that relate some of the coordinates to others,
then not all the 3𝑁 numbers are independent.

Suppose there are 𝑚 eqns. of constraints. Then only u = 3N − 𝑚 numbers (“coordinates”) (𝑥, 𝑦)
are required to describe the system.

In fact, these 𝑢 “coordinates” do not necessarily need to be expressed in terms of (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).
They can be any set of parameters which are “convenient”. And the choice is not unique.

19
 Lagrange’s equation in generalized coordinates

Given any set of generalized coordinates (𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , … , 𝑞𝑁 ) for a system,

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿
− =0
𝜕𝑞1 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞1
𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿
The form of the Lagrange’s equations is always given by: − =0
𝜕𝑞2 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞2
⋮
𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿
− =0
𝜕𝑞𝑁 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞𝑁

20
 Example 1: Simple pendulum

Consider the previous example of pendulum. There is one particle and one constraint:

-Describing a particle requires 3 coordinates. 𝜃

But since we assumed that it is a 2D problem, so only 2 are required. 𝑙

-There is 1 eqn. of constraint: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑙 2 .

Therefore, 2-1 = 1 “generalized coordinate” is needed.

That “generalized coordinate” we used is 𝜃. (𝑥, 𝑦)

Remark:
In fact, we can also just view 𝜃 as the angular coordinate in a polar coordinate system.
So this is not really a very good example to illustrate how “generalized” coordinate is different
from ordinary coordinate.
We will see more examples.
21
 Example 2: Particle sliding on a fixed wedge

In the previous example of particle sliding on a fixed wedge, there is one particle and one constraint:

Describing a particle requires 3 coordinates. s

𝑚
But since we assumed that it is a 2D problem, so only 2 are required.

There is 1 eqn. of constraint: 𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃 𝑦

𝜃
Therefore, 2-1 = 1 “generalized coordinate” is needed.
That “generalized coordinate” we used is 𝑠.
s: distance between the particle and the top of the wedge

Alternatively, we can use “𝑦” as the generalized coordinate.

22
Example 3 (Optional): Particle sliding on a cycloid

−𝜋𝑎 (0,0) 𝜋𝑎
x
mg
𝑠
−2𝑎

𝑥 = −𝑎 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
Eqn. of the cycloid curve:
𝑦 = −𝑎 1 − cos 𝜃

𝑠: the arc length of the cycloid measured from the

bottom to the particle position.

23
 Example 3 (Optional): Particle sliding on a cycloid

Using Cartesian coordinates: y

1 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 − 𝜋𝑎 𝜋𝑎
𝐿 = 𝑚 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦 , where −𝜋𝑎 (0,0)
2 𝑦 = −𝑎 1 − cos 𝜃
x
In principle, we could express 𝑥 2 in terms of 𝑦 and 𝑦, but mg
that would lead to a messy expression of 𝐿.
𝑠
−2𝑎
Using ‘s’ as the generalized coordinate:
𝑥 = 𝑎 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 − 𝜋𝑎
1 Eqn. of the cycloid curve:
𝑦 = −𝑎 1 − cos 𝜃
𝐿 = 𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑦 (we need to express 𝑦 in terms of 𝑠)
2

𝑠: the arc length of the cycloid measured from the

bottom to the particle position.

24
 Example 3 (Optional): Particle sliding on a cycloid

𝑠= (𝑑𝑥)2 +(𝑑𝑦)2 see next page

y
𝑦 2 2
2𝜋−cos−1 1+
𝑎 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= + 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 −𝜋𝑎 (0,0) 𝜋𝑎
𝑦 x
2𝜋−cos−1 1+
𝑎
= 𝑎2 [ 1 − cos 𝜃 2 + sin2 𝜃] 𝑑𝜃 𝜃 mg
𝜋 𝜃
𝑦
2𝜋−cos−1 1+𝑎
𝑠
𝜃 1 −1
𝑦 −2𝑎
= 2𝑎 sin 𝑑𝜃 = 4𝑎 cos cos 1+
𝜋 2 2 𝑎
𝑥 = 𝑎 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 − 𝜋𝑎
Eqn. of the cycloid curve:
2 𝑦 = −𝑎 1 − cos 𝜃
𝑠 2
1 −1
𝑦
⟹ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 cos 1+
4𝑎 2 𝑎
𝑠: the arc length of the cycloid measured from the
1 𝑦 𝜃 bottom to the particle position.
= cos cos−1 1 + +1 By cos 𝜃 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 −1
2
2 𝑎
1 𝑦
= (2 + )
2 𝑎 25
 Note: the upper limit of the integral

Case I: π < 𝜃 < 3π/2

−𝑦 −𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 sin 𝛽 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 sin[ 2𝜋 − 𝜃 − 𝜋/2]

𝜃 𝛽
⟹ −𝑦 = 𝑎 − 𝑎 cos 2𝜋 − 𝜃
𝑦
⟹ 𝜃 = 2𝜋 − cos−1 1+
𝑎

Note: 𝑦 is a negative number, so −𝑦 is positive

26
Case II: 3π/2 < 𝜃 < 2π

−𝑦

𝛽′ −𝑦 = 𝑎 − 𝑎 sin 𝛽′ = 𝑎 − 𝑎 sin[𝜋/2 − 2𝜋 − 𝜃 ]
𝜃
⟹ −𝑦 = 𝑎 − 𝑎 cos 2𝜋 − 𝜃
𝑦
⟹ 𝜃 = 2𝜋 − cos−1 1 +
𝑎

Note: 𝑦 is a negative number, so −𝑦 is positive

27
 Example 3 (Optional): Particle sliding on a cycloid
𝑠 2
⟹ 𝑦 = 2𝑎 −1
4𝑎
2
y
1 𝑠
⟹ 𝐿= 𝑚𝑠 2 − 2𝑎𝑚𝑔 −1
2 4𝑎
−𝜋𝑎 (0,0) 𝜋𝑎
1 1 𝑚𝑔 2
= 𝑚𝑠 2 − 𝑠 + 2𝑚𝑔𝑎 x
2 2 4𝑎
Same as the Lagrangian of a 𝜃 mg
simple harmonic oscillator! 𝜃
𝑠
Lagrange’s eqn.: −2𝑎

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 − 𝜋𝑎
− =0 ⟹ 𝑠+ 𝑠=0 Eqn. of the cycloid curve:
𝑦 = −𝑎 1 − cos 𝜃
𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 4𝑎

𝑠: the arc length of the cycloid measured from the

bottom to the particle position.

Remark:
Unlike a regular pendulum, this is exactly a harmonic oscillator without requiring any approximation.
This is also known as the Tautochrone Problem. 28
 Example 4: Particle sliding on a movable wedge

Fixed wedge Movable wedge

29
 Example 4: Particle sliding on a movable wedge

Method I (Lagrangian)

s
Using (x,s) as the coordinates: 𝑚

-Velocity of the wedge = 𝑥

𝑀
x 𝜃
-Horizontal component of the particle velocity = 𝑥 − 𝑠 cos 𝜃
-Vertical component of the particle velocity = 𝑠 sin 𝜃
x: distance between the wedge and its initial position
1 1 1 s: distance between the particle and the top of the wedge
⟹ 𝐿 = 𝑀𝑥 2 + 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑠 cos 𝜃)2 + 𝑚𝑠 2 sin2 𝜃 + 𝑚𝑔𝑠 sin 𝜃
2 2 2
1 1
= 𝑀 𝑥 + 𝑚(𝑥 2 + 𝑠 2 − 2𝑥 𝑠 cos 𝜃) + 𝑚𝑔𝑠 sin 𝜃
2
2 2

30
 Example 4: Particle sliding on a movable wedge

Method I (Lagrangian)

s
Using (x,s) as the coordinates: 𝑚

1 1
𝐿 = 𝑀𝑥 2 + 𝑚(𝑥 2 + 𝑠 2 − 2𝑥 𝑠 cos 𝜃) + 𝑚𝑔𝑠 sin 𝜃 𝑀
2 2
x 𝜃
𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝑑
− =0 ⟹ [𝑚 𝑥 − 𝑠 cos 𝜃 + 𝑀𝑥] = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡
x: distance between the wedge and its initial position
𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝑑 s: distance between the particle and the top of the wedge
− =0 ⟹ 𝑠 − 𝑥 cos 𝜃 = 𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡

Exercise:
Show that
𝑔 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝑥=
(𝑚 + 𝑀)/𝑚 − cos2 𝜃
𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝑠=
1 − 𝑚 cos2 𝜃/(𝑚 + 𝑀)
31
 Example 4: Particle sliding on a movable wedge

Method II (Lagrangian) 𝑥2
𝑚
Using (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) as the coordinates:

-Velocity of the wedge = 𝑥1 𝑀

𝜃
-Horizontal component of the particle velocity = 𝑥2 𝑥1
-Vertical component of the particle velocity = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) tan 𝜃
𝑥1 : Horizontal coordinate of the wedge (with +ve 𝑥1 to the left)
⟹ 𝑥2 : Horizontal coordinate of the particle (with +ve 𝑥2 to the right)
1 1 (Both 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are measured from a fixed origin.)
𝐿 = 𝑀𝑥1 + 𝑚[𝑥2 2 + (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 )2 tan2 𝜃] + 𝑚𝑔(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) tan 𝜃
2
2 2

Exercise:
Find the equations of motion

32
 Example 4: Particle sliding on a movable wedge

Method III (Newtonian)

Exercise: s
𝑚
Find the equations of motion

𝑀
x 𝜃

x: distance between the wedge and its initial position

s: distance between the particle and the top of the wedge

33
 Lagrangian, momentum, and force

Consider a particle in 3D space (using Cartesian coordinates):

Newton: Lagrange:
𝑑𝑷 1
−𝑭=0 𝐿 = 𝑚 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 − 𝑈(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝑑𝑡 2
where 𝑷 = 𝑃𝑥 𝒙 + 𝑃𝑦 𝒚 + 𝑃𝑧 𝒛 (momentum of the particle)
𝑭 = 𝐹𝑥 𝒙 + 𝐹𝑦 𝒚 + 𝐹𝑧 𝒛 (force acted on the particle)

𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝑈
𝑑 − =0 where = 𝑚𝑥 ; =−
𝑃𝑥 − 𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝑈
⟹ 𝑃𝑦 − 𝐹𝑦 = 0 vs − =0 where = 𝑚𝑦 ;
𝜕𝑦
=−
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝑑 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝑈
𝑃 − 𝐹𝑧 = 0 where = 𝑚𝑧 ; =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑧 − =0 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

34
 Lagrangian, momentum, and force

Evidently,
𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿
= 𝑃𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿
= 𝑃𝑦 = 𝐹𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿
= 𝑃𝑧 = 𝐹𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
(Relations between 𝐿 and momentum) (Relations between 𝐿 and force)

35
 Generalized momenta and generalized forces

Now, consider a system described by 𝑁 independent generalized coordinates 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , … , 𝑞𝑁 :

(As a simple first example, you could still think of a particle. In that case, at most 3 coordinates are needed)

Lagrange’s eqns:

𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿
− =0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞1 𝜕𝑞1 𝜕𝐿
is defined as the generalized momentum 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑁
𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝑞𝑖
− =0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞2 𝜕𝑞2
𝜕𝐿
⋮ is defined as the generalized force 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑁
𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝑞𝑖
− =0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞𝑁 𝜕𝑞𝑁

Generalized momentum is also called

canonical momentum or conjugate momentum.

36
 Generalized momenta and generalized forces

If the generalized coordinate 𝑞𝑘 has the unit of length,

𝜕𝐿
then the generalized momentum has the unit of linear momentum;
𝜕𝑞𝑘
𝜕𝐿
and the generalized force has the unit of force.
𝜕𝑞𝑘

Example: particle sliding down on a fixed wedge (again!)

s
1 𝑚
𝐿 = 𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑠 sin 𝜃
2

𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝑠 (linear momentum) 𝜃
𝜕𝑠
𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 (force)
𝜕𝑠 37
 Generalized momenta and generalized forces

If the generalized coordinate 𝑞𝑘 is an angle,

𝜕𝐿
then the generalized momentum has the unit of angular momentum;
𝜕𝑞𝑘
𝜕𝐿
and the generalized force has the unit of torque.
𝜕𝑞𝑘

Example: Simple pendulum in constant gravity (again!)

1
𝐿= 𝑚(𝑙𝜃)2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑙 cos 𝜃 𝜃
2
𝑙
𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃 (angular momentum)
𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝐿
= −𝑚𝑔𝑙 sin 𝜃 (torque)
𝜕𝜃
38
END

39
Appendix: Vectors in Cartesian coordinates and polar coordinates
Cartesian Coordinates Polar Coordinates
y y

𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝜃 𝑟
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑥
𝑟

𝜃
x x

Unit vectors: Unit vectors:

- 𝑥 - 𝑟 = cos 𝜃 𝑥 + sin 𝜃 𝑦
- 𝑦 - 𝜃 = − sin 𝜃 𝑥 + cos 𝜃 𝑦
𝑥∙𝑦 =0 𝑟∙𝜃 =0
Any vector can be expressed as: Any vector can be expressed as:
𝑟 = 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟
 Cartesian Coordinates Polar Coordinates
y y

𝑦
𝜃 𝑟

𝑥
𝑦 𝜃
𝑟
𝑥

x x
Unit vectors: Unit vectors:
- 𝑥 - 𝑟 = cos 𝜃 𝑥 + sin 𝜃 𝑦
- 𝑦 - 𝜃 = − sin 𝜃 𝑥 + cos 𝜃 𝑦

The directions of the basis vectors are independent of The directions of the basis vectors depend on the
the coordinates of the point. 𝜃 coordinate of the point.
𝑟 always points radially outward
𝜃 is always orthogonal to 𝑟
 Cartesian Coordinates Polar Coordinates
y y

𝑦
𝜃 𝑟
𝑑𝑟 𝑑 𝑑𝜃
= cos 𝜃 𝑥 + sin 𝜃 𝑦 = 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑦 𝑥 𝑑𝜃 𝑑 𝑑𝜃
𝑟(𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡) 𝑟(𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡) 𝜃 = −sin 𝜃 𝑥 + cos 𝜃 𝑦 = − 𝑟
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑟
𝑥
𝑟(𝑡)
𝑟(𝑡)
x x
𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑥 + 𝑦(𝑡)𝑦 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑟(𝑡)𝑟

𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑟
1st derivative = 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑡 𝑟 = 𝑟 𝑡 𝑟 + 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑟 𝜃 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 2𝑟 𝑑2𝑟 𝑑
2nd derivative = 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑟 + 𝑟 𝜃 𝜃 = 𝑟 − 𝑟 𝜃 2 𝑟 + (𝑟𝜃 + 2𝑟𝜃)𝜃
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡