ENAMEL
~Presentation by
Roll No.21-30
Chemical Composition
Histology
Inorganic (96%)
Organic (4%)
Light Microscopy
Ultrastructure
Structure
Physical Properties
Brittle,Hardest tissue
Enamel
Development
Life Cycle of Ameloblast
Amelogenesis
Clinical Considerations
INTRODUCTION
•NATURE’S TOUGHEST ARMOUR hardest biological
tissue in human body
•Outermost layer of the tooth
•Acellular and non regenerative
•Exposed to mechanical forces
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Enamel is hard and brittle related to the presence of sound
dentin underneath that distributes forces
•Avascular and non nervous tissue of the oral cavity
•Maxillary molars have enamel thick at their lingual side and
Mandibular molars at buccal side.
•Thickness varies w.r.t adaptation and functional demands.
•High content of mineral salts and crystalline arrangement.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES VALUE
Maximum thickness at cusp 2-2.5mm
Specific Gravity 2.8
Temperature Resistance 5-13 Hz
Electric Resistance 10^15 - 10^5 ohms
Permeability Semipermeable
Colour Yellowish White to Greyish White
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
•Inorganic material: 96% [ calcium hydroxyapatite ]
•Organic material and water: 4%
INORGANIC
MATERIALS
Calcium Hydroxyapatite Crystals
Ca10[PO4]6[OH4]2
These crystals are hexagonal in cross
section with the hydroxyl ion at the
central core or C axis and calcium and
phosphorus ions arranged in form of
triangles
ORGANIC
MATERIAL
AMELOGENINS NON AMELOGENINS
1. Low molecular weight 1. High molecular weight
2. Hydrophobic (thixotropic gel) 2. Tuftelin, ameloblastin, enamelin
3. Rich in proline, histidine, glutamine,
3. Rich in aspartic acid, glycine, serine
leucine.
4. 10%
4. 90%
Comparison between mineralisation of hard tissues
STRUCTURE
ENAMEL = ENAMEL PRISMS + ROD SHEATH
Interprismatic substances in some parts
Rods Surface structures
Ultrastructure Enamel cuticle
Striations Enamel lamellae
Direction of rods Enamel tufts
Hunter Schreger bands Enamel spindles
Incremental Lines of Retzius DEJ
Neonatal line Odontoblast processes
RODS
Structural unit of enamel
Number : Ranges
In mandibular lateral incisors—5 millions
In maxillary first molars —— 12 millions
In light microscope, diameter observed is 4µm
but varies as surface increases in the ratio 1:2
T.S of enamel rods
Appearance : Clear crystalline
In cross section : hexagonal / round / oval
Human enamel cross section shows fish scale
appearance.
RECENT STUDIES SHOW THAT RODS ARE
ARCADE SHAPED AT DEJ AND KEYHOLE
SHAPED AT SURFACE.
Fish scale appearance
ULTRASTRUCTURE
In electron microscope, more common pattern —
Keyhole / paddle shaped prisms
5 µm breadth, 9 µm length
Bodies of rods — near occlusal / incisal surfaces
Tails — pointed cervically
Abrupt changes in orientation of crystals from one rod
to other make them visible under electron micrographs.
STRIATIONS
Dark lines segmentation gives striated appearance
More pronounced in insufficiently calcified enamel
Rods are segmented due to enamel matrix formation in rhythmic manner
In humans, length = 4µm
#GNARLED ENAMEL:-- The irregular interwining of rod bundles near dentin region of cusps or
incisal edges in an obliquely cut section is called “ GNARLED ENAMEL”
Due to large number of rods in small area
Thought to help in withstanding masticatory forces
Schematic of Gnarled
enamel
Ground section of tooth
showing gnarled enamel
DIRECTION OF RODS
Perpendicular to dentin
Follow wavy course from dentin to enamel surface
IN DECIDUOUS TOOTH IN PERMANENT TOOTH
Cervical/central part— almost horizontal Cervical part- from horizontal to apical
Incisal edge - oblique to vertical Occlusal 2/3rd- oblique to vertical
HUNTER SCHREGER
BAND
Hunter-Schreger Bands are alternating light and dark bands seen in
longitudinal ground sections of enamel under reflected light, due to the
changing direction of enamel rods
HSBs are optical phenomena caused by enamel rod orientation
Extend from DEJ to surface, more prominent in inner 2/3 of enamel
Alternate light/dark bands represent changing enamel prism directions
Enhance enamel strength by resisting crack propagation
Prominent in canines and premolars (high masticatory load zones)
Seen best under reflected light or polarized microscopy
HISTOLOGICAL
FEATURES
Histological Features
Composed of groups of enamel rods
Rods change direction in adjacent layers
Dark bands (Diazones): rods oriented longitudinally
Light bands (parazones): rods oriented transversely
Optical phenomenon
INCREMENTAL LINES OF
RETZIUS
Incremental lines of Retzius are concentric dark lines seen in enamel,
representing rhythmic growth patterns during enamel formation
Concentric incremental lines in enamel, marking growth rhythm
Extend from DEJ to enamel surface, running obliquely
Seen in ground sections, especially under polarized or light
microscopy
Visible more prominently in longitudinal sections than
transverse
NEONATAL
LINE
Special Type – Neonatal Line:
Accentuated Retzius line marking birth event
Seen in all deciduous teeth and some first permanent
molars
Divides enamel formed before and after birth
Used in forensic age estimation and child development
studies
Clinical considerations
Aid in forensic age estimation (based on
number of lines).
Used to analyze physiological stress periods
during enamel development.
Help identify neonatal events and
developmental disturbances.
st
Mostly absent in permanent 1 molars of
boys inducating boys are less dentally mature
at birth.
Surface Structures of Enamel
- Prismless enamel
- Perikymata
- Rod ends
- Enamel cracks
- Enamel cuticle
Surface Structures of Enamel
Perikymata: Fine horizontal wave-like grooves on enamel surface; external
manifestation of Striae of Retzius
More visible on facial surfaces of anterior teeth, especially young teeth
Worn away with age or mastication
Seen under low magnification or good lighting
Surface is not smooth – has micropits, ridges, and depressions enhancing
enamel function
Enamel Cuticle (Nasmyth’s Membrane)
A thin organic membrane covering newly erupted enamel surface, formed
by reduced enamel epithelium
Composed of enamel epithelium and basal lamina
Clinical note
Protects enamel before eruption May retain stains or react with plaque
Affects initial plaque formation before
eruption completes
Removed by mastication or polishing
Sometimes calcifies, forming enamel pellicle or subsurface plaque
finally erupted tooth is covered by Pellicle which is remnant of
salivary precipitate
ENAMEL
LAMELLAE
Thin, leaf-like structures
from enamel surface toDE
junction; may reach dentin
It is a hypomineralized
structure, consist of organic
material, with little mineral
content
Lamellae may develop in
planes of tension
Types of Enamel lamellae
[Link] A – Poorly calcified rod segments Clincal considerations
[Link] B – Degenerated cells May be structural weak points
[Link] C – Arising in erupted teeth, where the
Can act as bacterial pathways
cracks are filled with organic matter, presumably
originating from saliva Possible role in initiation of dental
caries
Type C may be more common
Type A are restricted to the enamel
Types B & C can extend into dentin
May form hornified cuticle
Lamellae consist entirely or partly of cementum
ENAMEL TUFTS
Enamel tufts are narrow,ribbon-like
structures that arise from the
dentinoenamel (DE) junction and extend
into enamel for about one-fifth to one-
third of its thickness.
They were so termed because they
resemble tufts of grass when viewed in
ground sections.
Consist of hypocalcified enamel rods and
interprismatic substance.
Their presence & their development are a
consequence of, or an adaptation to, the
spatial conditions in the enamel
DENTINOENAMEL
JUNCTION
It is a junction between dentin & enamel
The surface of the dentin at the DE junctions is
pitted
Rounded projections of the enamel fit into the
shallow depressions of the dentin
This relation assures the firm hold of the enamel
cap on the dentin
Therefore, the DE junction appears not as a
straight but as a scalloped line
CLINICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
DEJ is the primary site of mechanical
stress resistance during mastication.
Its scalloped structure ensures strong
enamel-dentin bonding.
Weak or faulty DEJ may lead to enamel
fracture under functional load.
Deep pits and fissures at the DEJ may
allow early caries penetration.
ODONTOBLASTIC PROCESSES
&
ENAMEL SPINDLES
Odontoblastic processes are the cytoplasmic
extensions of the odontoblast which extend
into the dentinal tubules .
Occasionally, odontoblast processes pass
across the DE junction into enamel
Many of these processes are thickened at
their end in that case they are known as
enamel spindles
The highest number of enamel spindles is
found in the region of cusps
CLINICAL CONSIDERATIONS
May contribute to localized
hypersensitivity, especially after enamel
loss or abrasion
They are not always visible clinically, but
histologically present near DEJ
Can act as microscopic pathways for
bacteria or irritants to reach dentin
DEVELOPMENT
EPITHELIAL ENAMEL ORGAN
At the stage,before formation of hard structures (dentin & enamel) the enamel organ
originating from the Stratified Epithelium of the primitive oral cavity,
Consists of 4 layers:
[Link] Enamel epithelium [Link] Reticulum. [Link] Intermedium [Link] Enamel epithelium
The borderline between the inner enamel
epithelium and connective tissue of the
dental papilla is DEJ.
The outline determines the pattern of the
occlusal or incisal part of crown.
Cervical Loop : Part of enamel organ
where the outer enamel epithelium & inner
enamel epithelium meet.
Layers of Enamel Organ
1] OUTTER ENAMEL EPITHELIUM:
Present at the convexity of the enamel organ
These are cuboidal cells towards the dental follicular cell
2] STELLATE RETICULUM:
Middle part of enamel organ.
Star shaped with its long processes reaching in all directions
3] STRATUM INTERMEDIUM:
Flat to cuboidal cells arranged in 1-3 layers
Connected with the stellate reticulum above and IEE below via demosomes
4] INNER ENAMEL EPITHEIUM:
Low columnar cells that are present at Concavity are attached via
hemidesmosomes
These cells are future Ameloblasts
LIFE CYCLE OF AMELOBLASTS
According to their function, the life span of the cells of the inner enamel epithelium can be
divided into six stages:
(1) Morphogenic stage PRE-SECRETORY STAGE
(2) Organizing stage
(3) Formative stage SECRETORY STAGE
(4) Maturative stage
(5) Protective stage POST-SECRETORY STAGE
(6) Desmolytic stage
Differentiation of ameloblasts is most advanced in the region of the incisal edge or tips of the
cusps and least advanced in the region of the cervical loop.
Amelogenesis which is the formation of enamel occurs during formative and maturative stages
of the ameloblasts.
MORPHOGENIC STAGE
Determines the shape of the dentino-enamel (DE) junction and crown
Cells are short and columnar
Large oval nucleus
Golgi apparatus and centrioles are located at the proximal end
Mitochondria are evenly distributed throughout the cytoplasm
Terminal bars appear as ameloblasts begin to differentiate
IEE is separated from the dental papilla by a delicate basal lamina
ORGANIZING STAGE
Tall columnar cells
Golgi apparatus and centrioles migrate from
proximal to distal ends — this is called reversal
of functional polarity
Dentin formation begins during the terminal
phase of this stage.
Before dentin forms, IEE receives nutrients from
dental papilla blood vessels After dentin forms,
this nutrient source is cut off
Now, IEE gets nutrients from capillaries near or
within the outer enamel epithelium — this is
called reversal of nutrition source
FORMATIVE STAGE
Formative stage starts after the first layer of dentin is formed
While forming enamel matrix, ameloblasts keep
same length and arrangement
Development of tome’s process
Rods and interrods formation
MATURATIVE STAGE
Enamel maturation begins after most of the enamel matrix is formed in the occlusal or incisal area
In the cervical part of the crown, enamel matrix formation is still ongoing at this stage
Absorption of protein and deposition of minerals
Tome’s process disappears
Ameloblasts develop microvilli at their ends
Modulation cycle
PROTECTIVE STAGE
When enamel is fully developed and calcified, ameloblasts lose their organized layer
Ameloblasts can no longer be distinguished from the cells of the stratum intermedium and outer
enamel epithelium
These cells combine to form a stratified layer called the reduced enamel epithelium
The reduced enamel epithelium protects the mature enamel
If connective tissue touches enamel, problems may occur — the enamel may either be resorbed or
covered by cementum
DESMOLYTIC STAGE
The reduced enamel epithelium starts to grow
It causes shrinkage of the connective tissue that lies between it and the oral epithelium
This allows the fusion of reduced enamel epithelium with oral epithelium
The epithelial cells may release enzymes that break down connective tissue fibers — this process is
called desmolysis
If the reduced enamel epithelium breaks down too early, it can stop the tooth from erupting
AMELOGENESIS
• Amelogenesis is the process of enamel formation and enamel is formed
by specialised cells called the ameloblast.
• Stages:
1. Enamel matrix formation (formative stage)
[Link] mineralisation (maturation stage)
ENAMEL MATRIX
FORMATION
• Enamel matrix formation occurs in the formative stage of the life cycle of ameloblast
•Matrix does not have collagen instead it has enamel proteins
~ENAMEL PROTEINS
1) Amelogenins (90%)
2) Non amelogenins (10%)- ameloblastin, enamelin,tuftelin
•In formative stage, there are tall columnar ameloblast which develops small pyramidal
Enamel matrix formation
DEVELOPMENT OF TOME’S
PROCESS
Small, pyramidal, cytoplasmic extensions found at the distal end of ameloblasts
There are two site:
proximal portion - contributes to interrod enamel
distal portion - contributes to rod enamel
During initial stages only the proximal part exists hence the first formed enamel is
rod less.
As enamel formation progresses the distal tome’s process forms, aiding rod
formation.
Towards the final stages, the distal portion shortens and disappears, resulting in a
final rod less enamel layer.
Each enamel rod is formed by 4 ameloblasts and each ameloblasts contributes to 4
different enamel rods.
Dev of Tome’s process
ENAMEL
MINERALIZATION
Mineralization occurs in the maturative stage of the life cycle
of ameloblast
Initially, enamel matrix is organic ( proteins + water)
Mineralization begins quickly after deposition
Two stages : 1) Immediate partial mineralization
2) Maturation ( final mineralization)
Stage 1- Immediate partial mineralization
- occurs right after matrix deposition
- calcium is deposited as apatite crystals
Stage 2- Maturation
bulk removal of proteins and water
increases mineral content to >95%
controlled by ameloblasts during their maturative stage
involves modulation between:
ruffle ended ameloblasts :- allow ca2 + entry , pump minerals
enamel
smooth ended ameloblasts:- remove degraded protein and water
Age Changes
Most common age change is attrition i.e physiological wear off of
enamel due to masticatory forces.
Loss of perikymata after eruption .
Fluoride ion uptake increases making enamel more hard.
Permeability decreases.
As age increases the teeth are less prone to caries.
APPLIED
AMELOGENESIS IMPERFECTA
- Hereditary defects of enamel
Defect in coding gene for amelogenin
There are different types of it :
1)hypoplastic 2)hypocalcified
3)hypomaturative
MOTTLED ENAMEL
Dental fluorosis
Due to excessive fluoride intake
during tooth development
Whitish or brownish spots on teeth
Overexposure to Fluoride ions during
formative stages lead to dental fluorosis
ENAMEL HYPOPLASIA/ RENAL
RICKETS
Due to defect in matrix formation stage
Environmental factors like nutritional deficiencies
( Vit D deficiency), infections may interfere with
ameloblast activity forming hypoplasia
Quality and quantity is affected
CONGENITAL SYPHILIS
Hutchinson's incisors-characteristic screw driver
shaped incisors
Mullberry molars are also seen
Bacteria- Treponema pallidum
interferes with ameloblast activity
Due to defect in Apposition stage of tooth
development
ANODONTIA
Absence of teeth
Can involve a single tooth or multiple tooth (Oligodontia)or
the entire dentition.
Defect in Initiation stage
Supernumerary teeth: Teeth which are present in addition to
the normal number of teeth This occurs due to hyperactivity of
the dentinal lamina,leading to the initiation of additional tooth
buds.
Due to abnormal Initiation
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