FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, MINNA

SCHOOL OF INFRASTRUCTURE, PROCESS ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
COURSE: AUTOMOTIVE MAINTENANCE AND
TESTING

COURSE CODE: MEE 583 CREDIT UNIT: 2

INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

Automobile engineering is the one of the streams of mechanical engineering. It deals with the
various types of automobiles, their mechanism of transmission systems and its applications.
Automobiles are the different types of vehicles used for transportation of passengers, goods, etc.
Basically, all the types of vehicles work on the principle of internal combustion processes or
sometimes the engines are called as internal combustion engines. Different types of fuels are
burnt inside the cylinder at higher temperature to get the transmission motion in the vehicles.
Most of the automobiles are internal combustion engines vehicles only. Therefore, every
mechanical and automobile engineer should have the knowledge of automobile engineering its
mechanism and its various applications.
Automobile engineering is a branch of engineering which deals with manufacturing and
technology of automotive vehicles. Automobile is a vehicle driven by an internal combustion
engine or electric motor and used for transportation of passengers and goods on land.
Automobile can also be defined as a vehicle which can move by itself (self-propelled).

CLASSIFICATION OF VEHICLES
Automobiles or vehicles can be classified on different bases as given below:
On the Basis of Load/Capacity:
a. Heavy Motor Vehicles (HMV)
b. Medium Motor Vehicles (MMV)
c. Light motor vehicles (LMC)
On the Basis of Wheels:
(a) Two-wheeler vehicle.
(b) Three-wheeler vehicle,
(c) Four-wheeler vehicle,
(d) Six-wheeler vehicle,
On the Basis of Fuel Used
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(a) Petrol engine vehicles
(b) Diesel engine vehicles
(c) Electric powered vehicles
(d) Steam engine vehicles
(e) Hydrogen engines vehicle
(f) Solar powered vehicles
(g) Hybrid vehicles
On the Basis of Body
(a) Sedan with two doors
(b) Sedan with four doors
(c) Station wagon
(d) Convertible.
(e) Van, trucks and buses
(f) Special purpose vehicle e.g. ambulance, milk van, etc.
(g) SUVs
On the Basis of Transmission
(a) Conventional vehicles with manual transmission, e.g. car with 5 gears.
(b) Semi-automatic transmissions
(c) Automatic transmission
On the Basis of Position of Engine
Engine in Front:
Most of the vehicles have engine in the front.
Example: most of the cars, buses, trucks in India.
Engine in the Rear Side:
Very few vehicles have engine located in the rear.
Based on Purpose
1. Passenger vehicle
2. Goods vehicle
Based on Driving side
a. Left side drive
b. Right side drive
Based on Drive availability
a. Four-wheel drive (4WD)
b. All wheel drive

LAYOUT OF AN AUTOMOBILE CHASIS

Layout of an engine chassis is shown below:

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It contains the source of power, i.e. engine, the frame which supports the engine, wheels, body,
transmission, the braking system and the steering. It also gives support to suspension system and
springs.

COMPONENTS OF THE AUTOMOBILE

The automobile can be considered to consist of five basic components:
(a) The Engine: It is source of power for motion
(b) The Frame and Chassis: It is the support for the engine, wheels, body, braking system,
steering, etc.
(c) The transmission which transmits power from the engine to the car wheels. It consists of
clutch, transmission, shaft, axles and differential.
(d) The body fitted on chassis.
(e) Accessories including light, air conditioner/hearer, stereo, wiper, etc.

FUNCTIONS OF MAJOR COMPONENTS OF AN AUTOMOBILE

1. Chassis and Frame
The chassis is formed by the frame with the frame side members and cross members. The frame
is usually made of box, tubular and channel members that are welded or riveted together. In
addition to this, it comprises of the springs with the axles and wheels, the steering system and the
brakes, the fuel tank, the exhaust system, the radiator, the battery and other accessories. Along
with this the frame supports the body.
2. Engine
The engine is the power plant of the vehicle. In general, internal combustion engine with petrol
or diesel fuel is used to run a vehicle. An engine may be either a two-stroke engine or a four-
stroke engine. An engine consists of a cylinder, piston, valves, valve operating mechanism,

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carburettor (or MPFI in modern cars), fan, fuel feed pump and oil pump, etc. Besides this,
an engine requires ignition system for burning fuel in the engine cylinder.
Transmission System (Clutch and Gear Box):
The power developed by the engine is transferred to the wheels by transmission system.
Transmission system must do three jobs:
(a) It must provide varying gear ratios. Number of gear ratio are equal to number of gears in a
vehicle.
(b) It must provide a reverse gear for moving vehicle in reverse direction.
(c) It must provide a neutral or disconnecting arrangement so that the engine can be uncoupled
from the wheels of the vehicle. In a conventional transmission system, there is a clutch, a
manually operated transmission (gear box), a propeller shaft and a differential or final drive.
3. Braking System
Brakes are used to slow down or stop the vehicle. Hydraulic brakes are generally used in
automobiles, where brakes are applied by pressure on a fluid. Mechanical brakes are also used in
some vehicles. These brakes are operated by means of leavers, linkages, pedals, cams, etc. Hand
brake or parking brake is known usually mechanical brake. These are used for parking the
vehicles on sloppy surfaces and also in case of emergency.
The brake system of an automobile is a crucial safety feature that allows the driver to slow down or stop
the vehicle safely and effectively. Composed of various components, the brake system works by
converting kinetic energy into heat energy to slow down or halt the vehicle's movement.

Components of the Brake System

a. Brake Pedal: The brake pedal is the driver-operated control that initiates the braking process.
When pressed, it activates the brake system, causing the vehicle to slow down or stop.
b. Brake Calipers: Brake calipers are hydraulic components that house the brake pads and apply
pressure to the brake rotors to slow down or stop the vehicle. They contain pistons that exert force
on the brake pads when hydraulic pressure is applied.
c. Brake Rotors (Disc Brakes) or Drums (Drum Brakes): Brake rotors are flat, disc-shaped
components that are clamped by the brake calipers to create friction and slow down the vehicle.
In drum brakes, brake shoes press against the inner surface of the brake drums to achieve the
same effect.
d. Brake Pads or Shoes: Brake pads (for disc brakes) or brake shoes (for drum brakes) are friction
materials that come into contact with the brake rotors or drums when the brakes are applied. They
create friction, which slows down the vehicle.
e. Brake Lines and Hoses: Brake lines and hoses transport hydraulic fluid (brake fluid) from the
master cylinder to the brake calipers or wheel cylinders. They are typically made of steel or
flexible rubber and must be free of leaks to maintain brake system integrity.
f. Master Cylinder: The master cylinder is a hydraulic component that converts the pressure applied
to the brake pedal into hydraulic pressure. It distributes brake fluid to the brake calipers or wheel
cylinders, initiating the braking process.

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Types of Brake Systems
1. Disc Brakes: Disc brakes use brake pads and brake rotors to create friction and slow down the
vehicle. They are known for their excellent performance, durability, and resistance to brake fade.
2. Drum Brakes: Drum brakes use brake shoes and brake drums to achieve braking. While less
common in modern vehicles, they are still used in some applications due to their simplicity and
cost-effectiveness.
Functions of the Brake System:
Slowing Down and Stopping: The primary function of the brake system is to slow down or stop
the vehicle safely and effectively when necessary.
Heat Dissipation: The brake system dissipates heat generated during braking to prevent
overheating and brake fade, which can reduce braking effectiveness.
Maintaining Control: The brake system helps the driver maintain control of the vehicle during
braking maneuvers, such as emergency stops or sudden deceleration.
Maintenance and Care
1. Regular Inspections: Routine inspections of the brake system, including brake pads, rotors, calipers,
and brake fluid, are essential to ensure proper function and identify any issues early.
2. Brake Fluid Flush: Periodic flushing and replacement of brake fluid help maintain brake system
performance and prevent moisture buildup, which can lead to brake fade and corrosion.
3. Brake Pad and Rotor Replacement: Timely replacement of worn brake pads and rotors is crucial to
maintain braking effectiveness and prevent damage to other brake components.
4. Brake System Bleeding: Proper bleeding of the brake system removes air bubbles from the brake lines
and ensures optimal brake pedal feel and responsiveness.

4. Gear System
Gear box contain gearing arrangement to get different speeds. Gears are used to get more than
one speed ratios. When both mating gears have same number of teeth, both will rotate at same
number speed. But when one gear has less teeth than other, the gear with less number of teeth
will rotate faster than larger gear.
In a typical car, there may be six gears including one reverse gear. First gear gives low speed but
high torque. Higher gears give progressively increasing speeds.
Gears are engaged and disengaged by a shift lever.
5. Steering System
In front wheels can be turned to left and right by steering system so that the vehicle can be
steered. The steering wheel is placed in front of driver. It is mechanically linked to the wheels to
provide the steering control. The primary function of the steering system is to provide angular
motion to front wheels so that vehicle can negotiate a turn. It also provides directional stability to
vehicle when the vehicle moves ahead in straight line.
The steering system of an automobile is responsible for allowing the driver to control the direction of the
vehicle's movement. It enables precise steering input, facilitating smooth maneuvering and navigation on
the road.
Components of the Steering System

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1. Steering Wheel: The steering wheel is the primary interface between the driver and the steering system.
It allows the driver to apply steering input and control the direction of the vehicle.
2. Steering Column: The steering column is a shaft that connects the steering wheel to the steering
mechanism. It transmits the driver's steering inputs to the rest of the steering system.
3. Steering Gearbox: The steering gearbox, also known as the steering rack, is a mechanical component
that converts the rotational motion of the steering wheel into lateral motion to turn the wheels. It may be
of different types, including rack and pinion, recirculating ball, or worm and sector.
4. Tie Rods: Tie rods are connecting links between the steering gearbox and the steering knuckles or
wheel hubs. They transmit steering input from the gearbox to the wheels, causing them to turn in the
desired direction.
5. Steering Knuckles: Steering knuckles are components located at the ends of the front axle or
suspension system. They provide attachment points for the tie rods and allow the wheels to pivot for
steering.
6. Power Steering System: Some vehicles are equipped with power steering, which assists the driver in
applying steering force, making steering easier, especially at low speeds or when parking. Power steering
systems can be hydraulic or electrically assisted.

Types of Steering Systems

1. Manual Steering: In manual steering systems, the driver directly applies force to turn the wheels
using the steering wheel. These systems are simple and reliable but require more effort from the
driver, especially at low speeds.
2. Power Steering: Power steering systems use hydraulic or electric assistance to reduce the amount
of force required from the driver to turn the wheels. This enhances comfort and ease of steering,
particularly in heavy or large vehicles.
Functions of the Steering System
Control and Direction: The primary function of the steering system is to enable the driver to
control the direction of the vehicle's movement, allowing for precise maneuvering and navigation
on the road.
Turning Radius: The steering system determines the vehicle's turning radius, affecting its ability
to navigate tight corners and spaces.
Driver Comfort: A well-functioning steering system enhances driver comfort by providing
smooth and responsive steering input, reducing fatigue during long drives.
Maintenance and Care
1. Regular Inspections: Routine inspections of the steering system, including the steering
components, fluid levels (if applicable), and steering alignment, are essential to ensure proper
function and identify any issues early.
2. Steering Fluid Checks: For vehicles equipped with power steering, checking and maintaining the
proper level of steering fluid is crucial for optimal system performance.
3. Wheel Alignment: Proper wheel alignment ensures that the wheels are correctly positioned
relative to each other and the vehicle's frame, promoting even tire wear and optimal steering
response.
4. Tie Rod and Steering Gearbox Inspection: Periodic inspection of tie rods and the steering gearbox
helps identify any wear or damage that may affect steering performance and safety.
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A part of the weight of vehicle is transmitted to the wheels through the front axle. The front axle
performs several functions - It carries the weight of the front of the vehicle and also takes
horizontal and vertical loads when vehicle moves on bumpy roads. When brakes are provided on
front wheels, it endures bending stresses and torsional stresses. It is generally made from steel
drop forging. It is robust in construction.
9. Suspension System
Suspension system of an automobile separates the wheel and axle assembly of the automobile
from its body. Main function of the suspension system is to isolate the body of the vehicle from
shocks and vibrations generated due to irregularities on the surface of roads. Shock absorbers are
provided in the vehicles for this purpose. It is in the form of spring and damper. The suspension
system is provided both on front end and rear end of the vehicle.
A suspension system also maintains the stability of the vehicle in pitching or rolling when
vehicle is in motion.
Components of Suspension Systems:
Springs: Springs are fundamental components of any suspension system. They absorb
shocks and bumps from the road, preventing them from being transmitted directly to the
vehicle's body. There are several types of springs used in suspension systems, including
coil springs, leaf springs, and torsion bars.
Shock Absorbers: Also known as dampers, work in conjunction with springs to control
the oscillations of the suspension system. They dampen the movement of the springs,
ensuring that the vehicle's ride remains smooth and stable. Shock absorbers come in
various types, such as hydraulic, gas-charged, and electronically controlled.
Control Arms: Also referred to as A-arms or wishbones, are crucial for maintaining the
alignment of the wheels and supporting the weight of the vehicle. They connect the
suspension system to the chassis and allow for vertical movement of the wheels while
controlling their horizontal movement.
Bushings: small, rubber-like components that are installed at various points within the
suspension system to reduce friction and absorb vibrations. They help improve ride
comfort and prolong the lifespan of other suspension components.
Stabilizer bars: also known as sway bars, are designed to reduce body roll during
cornering. They connect the suspension components on each side of the vehicle,
transferring forces from one side to the other to minimize body sway and improve
stability.
Functions of Suspension Systems:
a) Smooth Ride: One of the primary functions of a suspension system is to provide a
comfortable and smooth ride for the vehicle occupants. By absorbing shocks and
vibrations from the road surface, the suspension system minimizes the impact felt inside
the cabin.

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 b) Vehicle Stability: A well-designed suspension system helps maintain vehicle stability,
especially during maneuvers such as cornering, braking, and acceleration. It ensures that
the tires remain firmly in contact with the road, maximizing traction and preventing loss
of control.
c) Handling and Steering Response: Suspension systems play a crucial role in determining
the handling characteristics of a vehicle. By controlling body roll, weight transfer, and
wheel movement, they influence how the vehicle responds to driver inputs, such as
steering and braking.
d) Tire Wear and Performance: Proper suspension alignment and functionality are essential
for ensuring even tire wear and optimal tire performance. A poorly maintained
suspension system can lead to uneven tire wear, reduced traction, and compromised
handling.
The Electrical/Control System
The electrical and control system of an automobile encompasses a wide array of components and systems
that provide power, control, and communication within the vehicle. From starting the engine to operating
safety features and entertainment systems, this system plays a critical role in the modern automotive
experience.

Components of the Electrical and Control System

1. Battery: The battery is the primary power source for the electrical system in an automobile. It provides
electrical energy to start the engine and power various electrical components when the vehicle is not
running.
2. Alternator: The alternator is responsible for charging the battery and providing electrical power to the
vehicle's electrical system while the engine is running. It converts mechanical energy from the engine into
electrical energy.
3. Starter Motor: The starter motor is an electric motor that rotates the engine's crankshaft to start the
combustion process. It engages with the engine's flywheel or flexplate to initiate engine operation.
4. Wiring Harness: The wiring harness is a network of electrical wires that connects various components
of the electrical system, allowing for the transmission of power and signals throughout the vehicle.
5. Fuse Box: The fuse box contains fuses and relays that protect electrical circuits from overload and
prevent damage to electrical components in the event of a short circuit or electrical fault.
6. Control Modules: Control modules, also known as electronic control units (ECUs), are microprocessor-
based devices that monitor and control various vehicle functions. Examples include the engine control
module (ECM), transmission control module (TCM), anti-lock braking system (ABS) module, and airbag
control module.
7. Sensors: Sensors are devices that detect changes in the vehicle's environment or operating conditions
and provide input to the control modules. Common sensors include temperature sensors, oxygen sensors,
wheel speed sensors, and position sensors.
Functions of the Electrical and Control System
1. Engine Management: The electrical and control system controls engine operation, including fuel
injection, ignition timing, and emissions control, to optimize performance, fuel efficiency, and emissions.

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2. Transmission Control: The system manages the operation of the transmission, including gear selection,
shifting, and torque converter lockup, to ensure smooth and efficient power delivery to the wheels.
3. Safety Systems: The system controls and monitors various safety features, including airbags, anti-lock
braking systems (ABS), traction control systems (TCS), electronic stability control (ESC), and tire
pressure monitoring systems (TPMS), to enhance vehicle safety and stability.
4. Entertainment and Convenience: The system powers and controls entertainment features such as audio
systems, navigation systems, climate control systems, and power accessories (e.g., windows, mirrors,
seats), enhancing driver comfort and convenience.

Maintenance and Care

Battery Maintenance: Regular inspection and maintenance of the battery, including checking the
electrolyte level, terminals, and connections, are essential to ensure proper function and prevent
starting issues.
Electrical System Diagnostics: Diagnosis and repair of electrical issues require specialized tools
and expertise. Professional inspection and diagnosis may be necessary to identify and resolve
electrical problems effectively.
Software Updates: Some control modules may require periodic software updates to address
performance issues, improve functionality, or address safety concerns. These updates can be
performed by authorized service centers.
Fuse and Relay Checks: Regular inspection of fuses and relays, as well as replacement as needed,
helps ensure proper protection of electrical circuits and prevents damage to electrical components.

The Exhaust System

The exhaust system of an automobile is responsible for safely and efficiently removing exhaust gases
from the engine and expelling them outside the vehicle. It plays a critical role in reducing harmful
emissions, improving engine performance, and minimizing noise levels.

Components of the Exhaust System

1. Exhaust Manifold: The exhaust manifold collects exhaust gases from the engine's cylinders and
channels them into a single pipe. It is typically made of cast iron or stainless steel and is bolted
directly to the engine's cylinder head(s).
2. Catalytic Converter: The catalytic converter is an emissions control device that reduces harmful
pollutants in the exhaust gases. It contains catalysts that promote chemical reactions, converting
harmful compounds such as carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), and nitrogen oxides
(NOx) into less harmful substances like carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor, and nitrogen.
3. Exhaust Pipe: The exhaust pipe carries the exhaust gases from the exhaust manifold or catalytic
converter to the rear of the vehicle. It is typically made of steel or stainless steel and may include
bends and resonators to reduce noise and improve exhaust flow.
4. Muffler: The muffler, also known as a silencer, is a chambered device that reduces exhaust noise
by absorbing and dissipating sound waves. It contains baffles and acoustic materials that help
muffle the exhaust noise without restricting exhaust flow significantly.

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 5. Exhaust Resonator: Some vehicles may include an exhaust resonator, which is a secondary
muffler-like device designed to further reduce exhaust noise and minimize drone at specific
engine speeds.
6. Exhaust Tailpipe: The tailpipe is the final section of the exhaust system that extends beyond the
rear of the vehicle. It expels the treated exhaust gases into the atmosphere and may include a
decorative tip for aesthetic purposes.

Functions of the Exhaust System

Exhaust Gas Disposal: The primary function of the exhaust system is to safely remove exhaust
gases from the engine and expel them outside the vehicle, preventing the buildup of harmful
fumes in the passenger cabin.
Emissions Control: The exhaust system includes emissions control devices such as catalytic
converters, which reduce harmful pollutants in the exhaust gases to comply with environmental
regulations and reduce air pollution.
Noise Reduction: The exhaust system includes mufflers and resonators that reduce exhaust noise,
providing a quieter and more comfortable driving experience for passengers and bystanders.
Exhaust Backpressure Regulation: The exhaust system helps regulate exhaust backpressure,
which can affect engine performance and efficiency. Proper exhaust flow is essential for optimal
engine operation and fuel economy.
Maintenance and Care
Inspections: Regular inspections of the exhaust system, including visual checks for signs of
damage, rust, or leaks, help identify issues early and prevent exhaust leaks, which can be
hazardous.
Catalytic Converter Maintenance: Proper maintenance of the catalytic converter, such as using
fuel with low sulfur content and avoiding engine misfires, helps prolong its lifespan and ensure
effective emissions control.
Muffler and Resonator Checks: Periodic inspections of the muffler and resonator for signs of
damage, corrosion, or excessive rust help maintain proper exhaust noise reduction and prevent
exhaust leaks.
Exhaust System Repairs: Prompt repair or replacement of damaged or malfunctioning exhaust
components is essential to maintain proper exhaust function, emissions control, and vehicle safety.

APPLICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Internal combustion engines (ICEs) are the primary power source for most automobiles,
converting the chemical energy of fuel into mechanical energy through controlled combustion
within enclosed cylinders. They operate on the principle of the four-stroke cycle: intake,
compression, power, and exhaust.
Components of an I. C. Engine
Cylinder Block: Houses the cylinders where combustion occurs. Typically made of cast
iron or aluminum alloy.
Pistons: Move up and down within the cylinders, driven by the force of combustion.
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 Pressure-volume diagram of ideal engine cycle

• Top Dead Center (TDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the furthest point away
from the crankshaft.

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 – Top because this position is at the top of the engines (not always), and dead
because the piston stops as this point. Because in some engines TDC is not at the
top of the engines (e.g: horizontally opposed engines, radial engines,etc,.) Some
sources call this position Head End Dead Center (HEDC).
– Some source call this point TOP Center (TC).
– When the piston is at TDC, the volume in the cylinder is a minimum called the
clearance volume.
– Bottom Dead Center (BDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the point closest to
the crankshaft.
– Some sources call this Crank End Dead Center (CEDC) because it is not
always at the bottom of the engine.Some source call this point Bottom Center
(BC).
– Stroke: Distance traveled by the piston from one extreme position to the other: TDC to
BDC or BDC to TDC.
– Bore: It is defined as cylinder diameter or piston face diameter; piston face diameter is
same as cylinder diameter (minus small clearance).
– Swept volume/Displacement volume: Volume displaced by the piston as it travels
through one stroke.
– Swept volume is defined as stroke times bore.
– Displacement can be given for one cylinder or entire engine (one cylinder times
number of cylinders).
– Clearance volume: It is the minimum volume of the cylinder available for the charge
(air or air fuel mixture) when the piston reaches at its outermost point (top dead center or
outer dead center) during compression stroke of the cycle.
– Minimum volume of combustion chamber with piston at TDC.

– Compression ratio: The ratio of total volume to clearance volume of the cylinder is the
compression ratio of the engine.
– Typically, compression ratio for SI engines varies from 8 to 12 and for CI
engines it varies from 12 to 24
Working Cycles of I. C. Engines
I.C. Engines (Four & Two stroke) works on any one of the following cycles –
a. Constant Volume (Otto Cycle)
b. Constant Pressure (Diesel Cycle)
c. Dual Combustion Cycle.
Constant Volume (Otto Cycle): Heat is supplied at constant volume. Petrol & air is mixed in
carburettor outside the Cylinder. Fuel in required proportion is drawn in cylinder during
Suction Stroke.
Constant Pressure (Diesel Cycle): The air sucked during suction stroke is compressed during
compression stroke and pressure and temp. rises by considerable amount then the measured
amount of fuel is finely sprayed in cylinder by fuel injector. Due to very heavy pressure &
temperature the fuel ignites and produce hot gases. These gases throw the piston downwards and
work is obtained.
Operating Principles of I. C. Engines:

1. Intake Stroke: Piston moves down, drawing in air-fuel mixture through the open intake
valve.
2. Compression Stroke: Piston moves up, compressing the mixture to increase its
temperature and pressure.
3. Power Stroke: Spark plug ignites the compressed mixture, generating a controlled
explosion that drives the piston down with force.
4. Exhaust Stroke: Piston moves up again, pushing out the spent gases through the open
exhaust valve.

Types of Internal Combustion Engines:

Gasoline Engines: Use spark ignition to combust a mixture of gasoline and air.
Diesel Engines: Employ compression ignition, igniting diesel fuel by compressing air in
the cylinder.
Hybrid Engines: Combine internal combustion engines with electric motors for improved
efficiency and reduced emissions.
Electric Vehicles (EVs): Use electric motors powered by batteries or fuel cells,
eliminating the need for internal combustion engines altogether.
Advantages and Challenges of I.C. Engines

Advantages: High power-to-weight ratio, wide availability of fuel, established infrastructure,

versatility in various applications.
Challenges: Emissions of greenhouse gases and pollutants, reliance on finite fossil fuels,
competition from alternative power sources.

FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM IN SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

The fuel supply system of an automobile is a vital component that ensures the efficient delivery
of fuel from the tank to the engine, where it is combusted to generate power. This intricate
system comprises various components working together seamlessly to provide the engine with
the right amount of fuel at the right time.
The fuel supply system of spark ignition engine consists of
a. Fuel Tank: The fuel tank stores the gasoline or diesel fuel until it is needed by the engine.
It is typically located at the rear of the vehicle, beneath the trunk or cargo area.
 b. Fuel Pump: The fuel pump is responsible for pumping fuel from the tank to the engine. In
modern vehicles, it is often an electric pump located inside the fuel tank, while older
vehicles may use mechanical fuel pumps mounted on the engine.
c. Fuel Filter: The fuel filter is a crucial component that removes contaminants and
impurities from the fuel before it reaches the engine. It helps prevent damage to the fuel
injectors and other engine components.
d. Fuel Lines: Fuel lines are the conduits through which fuel flows from the tank to the
engine. They are typically made of metal or high-pressure rubber hoses to withstand the
rigors of the fuel system.
e. Fuel Injectors: In fuel-injected engines, fuel injectors deliver precise amounts of fuel
directly into the combustion chambers or intake manifold. They are controlled by the
engine's electronic control unit (ECU) to ensure optimal fuel delivery and combustion
efficiency.

f. Fuel Pressure Regulator: The fuel pressure regulator maintains a consistent fuel pressure
within the fuel system. It adjusts the pressure based on engine load and speed to ensure
proper fuel delivery under all operating conditions.

In some spark ignition engines, the fuel tank is placed above the level of the carburettor. The
fuel flows from fuel tank to the carburettor under the action of gravity. There are one or two
filters between fuel tank and carburettor. A transparent sediment bowl is also provided to hold
the dust and dirt of the fuel. If the tank is below the level of carburettor, a lift pump is provided
in between the tank and the carburettor for forcing fuel from tank to the carburettor of the
engine. The fuel comes from fuel tank to sediment bowl and then to the lift pump. From there
the fuel goes to the carburettor through suitable pipes. From carburettors the fuel goes to the
engine cylinder through inlet manifold of the engine.

Functions of the Fuel Supply System:

1. Fuel Delivery: The primary function of the fuel supply system is to deliver the right
amount of fuel to the engine according to its demand. This ensures smooth and efficient
engine operation across a range of driving conditions.
2. Fuel Filtration: The fuel filter removes impurities such as dirt, rust, and debris from the
fuel, preventing them from entering the engine and causing damage. Regular replacement
of the fuel filter is essential to maintain optimal engine performance.
3. Fuel Pressure Regulation: The fuel pressure regulator maintains consistent fuel pressure
within the system, ensuring that the injectors receive fuel at the correct pressure for
proper atomization and combustion.
4. Fuel Injection: In fuel-injected engines, fuel injectors spray a fine mist of fuel directly
into the combustion chambers or intake manifold. This precise fuel delivery allows for
better fuel economy, lower emissions, and improved engine performance compared to
carburetted systems.
Air Venting of Fuel System
Air venting in the fuel system of an automobile is a crucial process that ensures proper fuel flow
and prevents the formation of air pockets or vapor lock, which can disrupt engine operation.
When air has entered the fuel lines or suction chamber of the injection pump, venting should be
done properly. Air is removed by the priming pump through the bleeding holes of the injection
pump. Air venting is a critical aspect of the fuel system in automobiles, ensuring proper fuel
flow, preventing vapor lock, and reducing emissions. By allowing air to enter and exit the fuel
tank as needed, venting systems help maintain engine performance and protect the integrity of
the fuel system. Regular inspection and maintenance of venting components are essential to
ensure optimal operation and compliance with emissions regulations.

Fuel Injector
Fuel injectors play a crucial role in the operation of modern automobile engines, especially those
equipped with fuel injection systems. Instead of carburettors, which were commonly used in older
engines, fuel injectors deliver precisely metered amounts of fuel directly into the engine's
combustion chambers or intake manifold. Also known as atomizer or fuel valve, a fuel injector is used
to inject the fuel in the cylinder in atomized form and in proper quantity. The nozzle is its main part,
which is attached to the nozzle holder. The entry of fuel in the injector is from the fuel injection pump.
To obtain the required degree of pulverization, the fuel is passed at high velocity through a small
orifice in the nozzle. An abrupt beginning and end of injection are-attained by means of a special
spring-loaded valve. Injection begins when the pressure of fuel supplied by the pump increases
so much as to lift the valve.
Main parts of injectors are nozzle body, and needle valve. The needle valve is pressed against a
conical seat in the nozzle body by a spring. The injection pressure is adjusted by adjusting a
screw. In operation, fuel from injection pump enters the nozzle body through high pressure pipe.
When fuel pressure becomes so high that it exceeds the set spring pressure, the needle valve lifts
off its seat. The fuel is forced out of the nozzle spray holes into the combustion
Main types of modern fuel injection systems:
1. Common-rail injection system.
2. Individual pump injection system.
3. Distributor system.
Nozzles provided-with such valve are known as closed-type nozzles. Each nozzle of the fuel
injector has a spring-loaded check Valve that is closed except when high pressure is applied to
the fuel. When this happens, the check valve opens, allowing fuel to pass through. The fuel exits
from the nozzle tip through small holes. The holes are located so as to send the fuel into the
center of the compressed air. The fuel ignites the instant it hits this hot air. When the fuel
pressure drops, the check valve closes, so the flow of fuel through the nozzle stops.
Open-type nozzles are designed without valves that shut-off the access of fuel to the pulverizer,
and their cavities are in free communication with the combustion chamber. Such nozzles can be
employed only when the fuel pump builds-up pressure abruptly, has a small duration of delivery
and a sharp cut-off. The pump and nozzle unit used in many types of diesel engines where the
high-pressure pump and the nozzle are incorporated in one mechanism may illustrate the case in
hand. The advantage of pump and nozzle units is that they have no high-pressure fuel lines, the
elasticity of which makes it difficult to obtain the required fuel pressure, and increase it sharply.
For this reason, pump and nozzle units are used predominantly in diesel engines where the
injection pressure is very high (up to or above 300 kgf/cm2). Pump and nozzle units have the
drawback that they are difficult to control.
The main components of a fuel injection system are:
(i) Fuel tank.
(ii) Fuel feed pump to supply the fuel from the main fuel tank to the injection pump.
(iii) Fuel filters to prevent dust and abrasive particles from entering the pump and injectors.
(iv) Injection pumps to meter and pressurize the fuel for injection.
(v) Governor to ensure that the amount of fuel is in accordance with variation in load.
(vi) Fuel piping and injectors to take the fuel from the pump and distribute it in the combination
chamber by atomizing it in fine droplets.
(vii) Fuel atomizer or injector to inject the fuel

The Carburettor
The earliest form of fuel supply mechanism for modern automobile is carburettor. The
primary function of carburettor is to provide the air-fuel mixture to the engine in the required
proportion. The goal of a carburettor is to mix just the right amount of gasoline with air so
that the engine runs properly. If there is not enough fuel mixed with the air, the engine "runs
lean" and either will not run or potentially damages the engine. If there is too much fuel mixed
with the air, the engine runs rich and either will not run (it floods), runs very smoky, runs
poorly (bogs down, stalls easily), or at the very least wastes fuel. The car is in charge of getting
the mixture just right. A carburettor basically consists of an open pipe, a "barrel" through which
the air passes into the inlet manifold of the engine. The pipe is in the form of a venturi: it
narrows in section and then widens again, causing the airflow to increase in speed in the
narrowest part. Below the venturi is a butterfly valve called the throttle valve; a rotating disc
that can be turned end-on to the airflow, so as to hardly restrict the flow at all, or can be
rotated so that it (almost) completely blocks the flow of air. This valve controls the flow of air
through the carburettor throat and thus the quantity of air/fuel mixture the system will deliver,
thereby regulating engine power and speed. The throttle is connected, usually through a cable
or a mechanical linkage of rods and joints or rarely by pneumatic link, to the accelerator pedal
on a car or the equivalent control on other vehicles or equipment.
Fuel is introduced into the air stream through small holes at the narrowest part of the venturi and
at other places where pressure will be lowered when not running on full throttle. Fuel flow is
adjusted by means of precisely-calibrated orifices, referred to as jets, in the fuel path.
All carburettors work on "the Bernoulli Principle. Bernoulli principle states that as the velocity
of an ideal gas increases, the pressure drops. Within a certain range of velocity and pressure,
the change in pressure is pretty much linear with velocity-if the velocity doubles the pressure
halves. However, this linear relationship only holds within a certain range. Carburettors work
because as air is pulled into the carburettor throat, the venturi. It has to accelerate from rest, to
some speed. How fast depends upon the air flow demanded by the engine speed and the
throttle butterfly setting. According to Bernoulli, this air flowing through the throat of the
carb will be at a pressure less than atmospheric pressure, and related to the velocity (and hence
to how much air is being fed into the engine). If a small port is drilled into the carb throat in
this low pressure region, there will be a pressure difference between the throat side of the port,
and the side that is exposed to the atmosphere. If a reservoir of gasoline, the float bowl, is
between the inside of the port, and the atmosphere, the pressure difference will pull gasoline
through the port, into the air stream. At this point, the port gets the name of a jet in the concept
of a carburettor. The more air that the engine pulls through the carburettor throat, the greater
the pressure drop across the jet, and the more fuel that gets pulled in. As noted above, within a
range of airflow in the throat, and fuel flow in the jet, the ratio of fuel to air that flows will stay
constant. And if the jet is the right size, that ratio will be what the engine wants for best
performance.
A venturi/jet arrangement can only meter fuel accurately over a certain range of flow rates and
pressures. As flow rates increase, either the venturi or the jet, or both, will begin to choke, that is
they reach a point where the flow rate will not increase, no matter how hard the engine tries to
pull air through. At the other extreme, when the velocity of the air in the venturi is very low-like
at idle or during startup, the pressure drop across the jet becomes vanishingly small. It is this
extreme that concerns us with respect to starting, idle and low-speed throttle response.

COOLING SYSTEM
Fuel is burnt inside the cylinder of an internal combustion engine to produce power. The
temperature produced on the power stroke of an engine can be as high as 1600 ºC and this is
greater than melting point of engine parts. The best operating temperature of IC engines lie
between 140 F and 200 ºF and hence cooling of an IC engine is highly essential. . It is estimated
that about 40% of total heat produced is passed to atmosphere via exhaust, 30% is removed by
cooling and about 30% is used to produce power.
Purpose of Cooling
1. To maintain optimum temperature of engine for efficient operation under all conditions.
2. To dissipate surplus heat for protection of engine components like cylinder, cylinder head,
piston, piston rings, and valves 3. To maintain the lubricating property of oil inside engine.

Methods of Cooling
1. Air cooled system:
Air cooled engines are those engines in which heat is conducted from the working components
of the engine to the atmosphere directly.
Principle of air cooling- The cylinder of an air-cooled engine has fins to increase the area of
contact of air for speedy cooling. The cylinder is normally enclosed in a sheet metal casing
called cowling. The fly wheel has blades projecting from its face, so that it acts like a fan
drawing air through a hole in the cowling and directed it around the finned cylinder. For
maintenance of air-cooled system, passage of air is kept clean by removing grasses etc. by a stiff
brush of compressed air.
Advantages
1. It is simple in design and construction
2. Water jackets, radiators, water pump, thermostat, pipes, hoses are not required.

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3. It is more compact
4. Lighter in weight
Disadvantages:
1. There is uneven cooling of engine parts
2. Engine temperature is generally high during working period Air cooled engine

2. Water Cooling System

Engines using water as cooling medium are called water cooled engines. Water is circulated
round the cylinders to absorb heat from the cylinder walls. The heated water is conducted
through a radiator to remove the heat and cool the water.
Methods of Water Cooling;
Open Jacket Method
There is a hopper or jacket containing water which surrounds the engine cylinder. Solong as the
hopper contains water the engine continues to operate satisfactorily. As soon as the water starts
boiling it is replaced by cold water. The hopper is large enough to run for several hours without
refilling. A drain plug is provided in a low accessible position for draining water as and when
required.
Thermo Siphon Method
It consists of a radiator, water jacket, fan, temperature gauge and hose connections. The system
is based on the principle that heated water which surrounds the cylinder becomes lighter and it
rises upwards in liquid column. Hot water goes to the radiator where it passes through tubes
surrounded by air.
Circulation of water takes place due to the reason that water jacket and radiator are connected at
both sides i.e. at top and bottom. A fan is driven with the help of a V belt to suck air through
tubes of the radiator unit, cooling radiator water. The disadvantage of the system is that
circulation of water is greatly reduced by accumulation of scale or foreign matter in the passage
and consequently causing overheating of the engine.
Forced Circulation System
In this method, a water pump is used to force water from radiator to the water jacket of the
engine. After circulating the entire run of water jacket, water comes back to the radiator where it
loses its heat by the process of radiation. To maintain the correct engine temperature, a
thermostat valve is placed at the outer end of cylinder head. Cooling liquid is by-passed through
the water jacket of th3e engine until the engine attains the desired temperature. The thermostat
valve opens and the by-pass is closed, allowing the water to go to the radiator. The system
consists of the following components:
Water Pump: It is a centrifugal pump. It draws the cooled water from bottom of the radiator and
delivers it to the water jackets surrounding the engine.
Thermostat Valve: It is a control valve used in cooling system to control the flow of water
when activated by a temperature signal.

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Fan: The fan is mounted on the water pump shaft. It is driven by the same belt that drives the
pump and dynamo. The purpose of radiator is to provide strong draft of air through the radiator
to improve engine cooling
Water jacket: Water jackets are passages cored out around the engine cylinder as well as around
the valve opening Forced Circulation cooling system- Water cooled engine.
Others are; Radiator, Fan-belt, Temperature gauge, Hose pipe

LUBRICATION SYSTEM
IC engine is made of moving parts. Due to continuous movement of two metallic surfaces over
each other, there is wearing of moving parts, generation of heat and loss of power in engine.
Lubrication is the admittance of oil between two surfaces having relative motion. Lubrication of
moving parts is essential to prevent all these harmful effects. The lubrication system of an
automobile plays a critical role in ensuring the smooth and efficient operation of the engine. By
providing essential lubrication to the engine's moving parts, it helps minimize friction, reduce
wear and tear, dissipate heat, and extend the lifespan of the engine.
Components of the Lubrication System:
Oil Pan: The oil pan, also known as the sump, is a reservoir located at the bottom of the
engine. It stores the engine oil when the vehicle is not in operation and serves as a
collection point for oil that drains from various engine components.
Oil Pump: The oil pump is responsible for circulating oil throughout the engine. It draws
oil from the oil pan and pressurizes it before sending it through the engine's galleries and
passages. This ensures that oil reaches all critical components that require lubrication.
Oil Filter: The oil filter is designed to remove contaminants, such as dirt, debris, and
metal particles, from the engine oil. It helps maintain the cleanliness and quality of the oil,
preventing damage to engine components and ensuring optimal lubrication.
Galleries and Passages: The lubrication system includes a network of galleries and
passages that distribute oil to various engine components, including the crankshaft,
camshaft, pistons, and bearings. These components rely on a constant supply of oil to
reduce friction and heat generation during operation.
Purpose of Lubrication
1. Friction Reduction: Engine oil forms a thin film between moving parts, reducing friction
and minimizing wear on components such as pistons, rings, bearings, and valve train.
2. Heat Dissipation: Oil helps dissipate heat generated by friction and combustion within the
engine. It carries away heat from critical components, preventing overheating and
potential damage.
3. Contaminant Removal: The oil captures and suspends contaminants such as dirt, metal
particles, and combustion by-products, preventing them from causing damage to engine
components.

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 4. Sealing: Engine oil helps create a seal between moving parts, such as piston rings and
cylinder walls, preventing leakage and maintaining compression within the combustion
chamber.
Maintenance and Care
 Regular Oil Changes: Routine oil changes are essential to maintain the effectiveness
of the lubrication system. Fresh oil helps ensure proper lubrication and prevents the
buildup of contaminants that can compromise engine performance.
 Monitoring Oil Levels: Checking oil levels regularly and topping up as needed ensures
that the engine always has an adequate supply of oil for lubrication.
 Replacing Oil Filters: It's crucial to replace the oil filter at recommended intervals to
ensure effective filtration and prevent the circulation of contaminants in the engine.
 Using Quality Oil: Using high-quality engine oil that meets the manufacturer's
specifications is essential for optimal engine performance and longevity.

Types of Lubricants
Lubricants are obtained from animal fat, vegetables and minerals. Vegetable lubricants are
obtained from seeds, fruits and plants. Cotton seed oil, olive oil, Neem seed oil, castor oil are
used as lubricants. Mineral lubricants are most popular for engines and machines. It is obtained
from crude petroleum found in nature. Petroleum lubricants are less expensive and suitable for
internal combustion engines.
The parts which require lubrication are
1. Cylinder walls and piston
2. Piston pin
3. Crankshaft and connecting rod bearings
4. Camshaft bearings
5. Valve operating mechanism
6. Cooling fan
7. Water pump and
8. Ignition mechanism
Types of Lubricating Systems
1. Splash Lubrication
Splash lubrication is a method of applying lubricant, a compound that reduces friction, to parts of
a machine. In the splash lubrication of an engine, dippers on the connecting-rod bearing caps are
submerged in oil with every rotation. When the dippers emerge from the oil trough, the oil is
splashed onto the cylinders and pistons, lubricating them. Experts agree that splash lubrication is
suitable for small engines such as those used in lawnmowers and outboard boat motors, but not
for automobile engines. This is because the amount of oil in the trough has a dramatic impact on
how well the engine parts can be lubricated. If there is not enough oil, the amount splashed onto
the machinery will be insufficient. Too much oil will cause excessive lubrication, which can also

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cause problems. Engines are often lubricated through a combination of splash lubrication and
force feeding. In some cases, an oil pump keeps the trough full so that the engine bearings can
always splash enough oil onto the other parts of the engine. As the engine speeds up, so does the
oil pump, producing a stream of lubricant powerful enough to coat the dippers directly and
ensure a sufficient splash. In other cases, the oil pump directs oil to the bearings. Holes drilled in
the bearings allow it to flow to the crankshaft and connecting rod bearings, lubricating them in
the process.
Combination Splash and Force Feed
In a combination splash and force feed, oil is delivered to some parts by means of splashing and
other parts through oil passages under pressure from the oil pump. The oil from the pump enters
the oil galleries. From the oil galleries, it flows to the main bearings and camshaft bearings. The
main bearings have oil-feed holes or grooves that feed oil into drilled passages in the crankshaft.
The oil flows through these passages to the connecting rod bearings. From there, on some
engines, it flows through holes drilled in the connecting rods to the piston-pin bearings. Cylinder
walls are lubricated by splashing oil thrown off from the connecting-rod bearings. Some engines
use small troughs under each connecting rod that are kept full by small nozzles which deliver oil
under pressure from the oil pump. These oil nozzles deliver an increasingly heavy stream as
speed increases. At very high speeds these oil streams are powerful enough to strike the dippers
directly. This causes a much heavier splash so that adequate lubrication of the pistons and the
connecting-rod bearings is provided at higher speeds. If a combination system is used on an
overhead valve engine, the upper valve train is lubricated by pressure from the pump.
2. Force-Feed
A somewhat more complete pressurization of lubrication is achieved in the forcefeed lubrication
system. Oil is forced by the oil pump from the crankcase to the main bearings and the camshaft
bearings. Unlike the combination system the connecting-rod bearings are also fed oil under
pressure from the pump. Oil passages are drilled in the crankshaft to lead oil to the connecting-
rod bearings. The passages deliver oil from the main bearing journals to the rod bearing
journals. In some engines, these opening are holes that line up once for every crankshaft
revolution. In other engines, there are annular grooves in the main bearings through which oil
can feed constantly into the hole in the crankshaft. The pressurized oil that lubricates the
connecting-rod bearings goes on to lubricate the pistons and walls by squirting out through
strategically drilled holes. This lubrication system is used in virtually all engines that are
equipped with semi floating piston pins.
Full Force Feed
In a full force-feed lubrication system, the main bearings, rod bearings, camshaft bearings, and
the complete valve mechanism are lubricated by oil under pressure. In addition, the full force-
feed lubrication system provides lubrication under pressure to the pistons and the piston pins.
This is accomplished by holes drilled the length of the connecting rod, creating an oil passage
from the connecting rod bearing to the piston pin bearing. This passage not only feeds the piston

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pin bearings but also provides lubrication for the pistons and cylinder walls. This system is used
in virtually all engines that are equipped with full-floating piston pins.

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