Class 9 History – Chapter 2: Socialism in Europe and the

Russian Revolution
Introduction
The Russian Revolution of 1917 transformed Russia from an autocratic monarchy into the world’s first socialist
state. Its causes lay in industrial and social changes in Europe, the spread of socialist ideas, and the specific
political and economic weaknesses of Imperial Russia. This chapter explains the rise of socialist thought in
Europe and the events in Russia that culminated in revolution.

1. Socialism in Europe: Background and Ideas

- Industrialisation across Europe (late 18th–19th centuries) created factories, mass production, and a new
industrial working class (the proletariat). Harsh working conditions, long hours, low wages and child labour were
common.
- Utopian Socialists: Early socialists proposed ideal communities and reforms.
• Robert Owen (Britain): improved factory conditions, set up cooperative communities (e.g., New Lanark).
• Charles Fourier and Louis Blanc (France): proposed social workshops and state-supported work.
- Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Developed scientific socialism or communism. Key ideas:
• History as class struggle between bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and proletariat (workers).
• Capitalism would produce its own grave-diggers — the proletariat — who would overthrow the bourgeoisie and
establish a classless society.
• Major work: The Communist Manifesto (1848).
- Second International (1889): An organisation of socialist parties and trade unions across countries that
coordinated workers' movements and promoted international solidarity.

2. Russia before 1917: Political and Social Conditions

- Russia was ruled by the Romanov dynasty. Tsar Nicholas II ascended the throne in 1894. He ruled as an
autocrat with vast powers. The imperial family included his wife, Empress Alexandra Feodorovna (born Alix of
Hesse), who was unpopular among many for perceived foreign influence and court intrigues.
- The economy remained largely agrarian: peasants made up about 80–85% of the population and suffered from
poverty, land shortages and heavy taxes.
- Industrial growth produced a small but growing urban working class concentrated in cities like St Petersburg and
Moscow. Working conditions were poor, and political freedoms were restricted.
- Political organisation was weak: no representative institutions with real power, political parties were often banned
or suppressed, and revolutionary groups (socialists, narodniks) were active underground.
- Marxist groups emerged; the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party split into two factions:
• Mensheviks – favoured broad-based, gradual party and democratic processes.
• Bolsheviks – led by Vladimir Lenin, favoured a small, disciplined party of professional revolutionaries and
immediate revolution.

3. The 1905 Revolution

- Causes included Russia's defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), economic hardship, and political
dissatisfaction.
- Bloody Sunday (22 January 1905): A peaceful procession of workers led by Father Gapon marched to the
Winter Palace to present a petition; troops fired on the crowd, killing and wounding many. This event sparked
nationwide protests, strikes, and peasant unrest.
- The Tsar was forced to make concessions: the October Manifesto (1905) promised civil liberties and created a
legislative assembly called the Duma. However, the Duma had limited powers and the Tsar retained real
authority.
- Although the 1905 revolution did not overthrow autocracy, it shook the regime and made clear that change was
possible.

4. World War I and the Immediate Causes of 1917

- Russia entered World War I in 1914 allied with France and Britain. The war put enormous strain on the economy
and society.
- Military defeats, high casualties, lack of equipment and poor leadership caused demoralisation among soldiers
and civilians.
- Food shortages, inflation and collapsing transport systems led to strikes and protests in cities. The war exposed
the Tsarist state's incapacity to manage crises.

5. The February Revolution (March 1917 - Gregorian calendar)

- In February 1917 (Julian calendar), mass protests erupted in Petrograd (St Petersburg) over bread shortages
and the war. Workers went on strike; soldiers began to mutiny and many joined the protesters.
- Key outcome: Tsar Nicholas II abdicated (2 March 1917), ending more than 300 years of Romanov rule.
- A Provisional Government (led initially by liberals and moderate socialists) took over, promising democratic
reforms but decided to continue the war—this made it unpopular.
- Soviets (workers’ councils) grew in influence; the Petrograd Soviet became a key power centre advocating for
workers and soldiers.

6. The October Revolution (November 1917 - Gregorian)

- The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, argued the Provisional Government could not meet people's needs and called for
"All power to the Soviets."
- Lenin returned from exile in April 1917 and pushed for a second revolution. The Bolshevik slogans were "Peace,
Land, Bread" and "All Power to the Soviets".
- On the night of 25–26 October 1917 (Julian calendar; 7 November Gregorian), Bolshevik forces seized key
points in Petrograd and overthrew the Provisional Government in a relatively quick, largely bloodless coup. The
Winter Palace was captured and the Bolsheviks declared a government led by the Council of People's
Commissars (Sovnarkom), with Lenin as its head.
- The Bolsheviks promised to end Russia’s involvement in WWI, redistribute land to peasants, and transfer
factories to workers.

7. Civil War and Consolidation (1918–1922)

- A brutal civil war followed between the Reds (Bolsheviks/Red Army) and the Whites (a loose coalition of
monarchists, liberals and foreign-backed forces).
- The Red Army, reorganised and led by Leon Trotsky, eventually defeated the Whites. Reasons for Bolshevik
victory included control of central Russia, better organisation, and a clearer political programme.
- The Bolsheviks introduced War Communism during the civil war: nationalisation of industries, forced
requisitioning of grain from peasants, and centralised distribution.
- The civil war caused famine and economic collapse; opposition and revolts occurred (e.g., Kronstadt mutiny).
- In 1921 Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP), a partial retreat that allowed small private trade and
small-scale private enterprise to revive the economy.
- In 1922 the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) was formally created, uniting Russia and several
neighbouring republics under Bolshevik control.

8. Important Personalities
- Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870–1924): Leader of the Bolsheviks, key strategist and ideologue of the October
Revolution. Advocated a disciplined party of professional revolutionaries.
- Leon Trotsky (Lev Bronstein): Organizer of the Red Army and a chief military leader during the civil war.
- Joseph Stalin: A Bolshevik leader who later became the dictator of the USSR after Lenin’s death; implemented
Five-Year Plans and collectivisation in the late 1920s and 1930s.

9. Significance of the Russian Revolution

- End of autocratic monarchy and rise of a state based on socialist/communist ideology.
- Inspired communist and labour movements globally; influenced 20th-century politics including decolonisation
and revolutionary movements.
- Set the stage for the USSR to become a major world power and for the later Cold War conflict between capitalist
and communist blocs.
- Demonstrated how industrialisation, war, economic hardship and political weakness can combine to produce
revolution.

10. Key Terms

- Proletariat: Industrial working class.
- Bourgeoisie: Capitalist class owning the means of production.
- Soviet: Workers' council; a grassroots organ of power.
- Bolsheviks: Radical faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party led by Lenin.
- Mensheviks: More moderate faction favouring broader membership and gradual change.
- War Communism: Economic and political system during the civil war involving nationalisation and requisition.
- NEP (New Economic Policy): Lenin’s policy allowing limited market mechanisms to revive the economy.

For exam preparation: remember key dates (1905 - Bloody Sunday, 1917 - February and October Revolutions,
1922 - Formation of USSR), key slogans ("Peace, Land, Bread"), and the role played by leaders like Lenin and
Trotsky. Understand the causes (social, economic, political) and the outcomes (end of monarchy, rise of
communist state, global impact).