Welding defects&

Discontinuity
Discontinuity. An interruption of the typical structure
of a material, such as a lack of homogeneity in its
mechanical, metallurgical, or physical characteristics. A
discontinuity is not necessarily a defect.

Defect. A discontinuity or discontinuities that by nature

or accumulated effect render a part or product unable to
meet minimum applicable acceptance standards or
specifications.
Stress Concentration
• Misalignment (hi-lo) • Inclusions -Laminations
• Undercut • Spatter -Laps and Seams
• Underfill • Arc Craters • Porosity
• Concavity or Convexity • Cracks
–Longitudinal – Uniformly Scattered
• Excessive – Cluster
–Transverse
reinforcement
–Crater – Linear
• Improper –Throat – Piping
reinforcement –Toe • Size or dimensions
• Overlap –Root
– Underbead and • distortion
• melt-through
• Incomplete or Heat-affected
Insufficient zone
Penetration –Hot
–Cold
• Incomplete Fusion
• Base Metal
• Overlap
Discontinuities
• Arc Strikes
– Lamellar tearing
 Classification of defects in weld

Location of Defect Weld Defect

•Surface
•Volumetric Form of Defect

Origin of Defect
•Bidimentional
•Tridimentional

• Metalurgical
• Technical
Misalignment (hi-lo)

Definition: amount of offset or

mismatch across a butt joint
between members of equal thikness.

Cause: improper fit, fixturing,

tackwelding, or a combination of
these factors.
Undercut

Definition : Undercut is a groove

melted into the base metal
adjacent to the weld toe or weld
root and left unfilled by weld
metal.

Cause : Undercut is generally

associated with either improper
welding techniques or excessive
welding currents, or both
underfill

Definition: Underfill is a
condition in which the weld face
or root surface of a groove weld
extends below the adjacent
surface of the base metal

Couse: It results from the

failure of the welder to
completely fill the weld joint
Convexity: Convexity is the
maximum distance from the face
of a convex fillet weld
perpendicular to a line joining the
weld toes

Concavity: Concavity is the

maximum distance from the face
of a concave filled weld to a line
joining the weld toes
Excessive Reinforcement

Definition : In groove welds, weld

reinforcement is weld metal in
excess of the quantity required to fill
a joint. Weld reinforcement can be
located at either the weld face or
weld root surface, and is called face
reinforcement and root
reinforcement

Cause: This condition results from

over welding
Overlap

Definition: Overlap is the protrusion

of unfused weld metal beyond the weld
toe or weld root Overlap is a surface
discontinuity that forms a mechanical
notch and is nearly always considered
rejectable

Cause: Two common causes of

overlap may be insufficient travel
speed and improper preparation of the
base metal
 melt-through

Definition : Melt-through
is visible root reinforcement
produced in a joint welded
from one side

Cause: High Amps/volts,

Large Root Gap, Slow
Travel Speed
Excessive root penetration

Definition: A discontinuity
characterized by an excess
of weld metal on the back
side of the joint. Excessive
heat, slow movement, and
poor joint alignment can
cause excessive penetration.
Excessive root penetration
Incomplete joint penetration

Definition: Incomplete joint

penetration is a joint root
condition in which weld metal
does not extend through the
joint thickness

Cause: Incomplete joint

penetration may result from
insufficient welding heat,
improper joint design (e.g.,
thickness the welding arc
cannot penetrate), or
improper lateral control of
the welding arc
Incomplete Fusion

Definition : Incomplete fusion is a

weld discontinuity in which fusion did
not occur between weld metal and
fusion faces or adjoining weld beads

Cause : It is the result of improper

welding techniques, improper
preparation of the base metal, or
improper joint design. Deficiencies
causing incomplete fusion include
insufficient welding heat or lack of
access to all fusion faces, or both.
Unless the weld joint is properly
cleaned the tightly adhering oxides
can interfere with complete fusion,
even when there is proper access for
welding and proper welding heats are
used.
 Arc strike

Definition : An arc strike is a

discontinuity consisting of any
localized remelted metal, heat-
affected metal, or change in the
surface profile of any part of a
weld or base metal resulting
from an arc

Cause : Arc strikes result when

the arc is initiated on the base-
metal surface away from the
weld joint, either intentionally
or accidentally
Slag inclusion

Definition: Slag inclusions

are nonmetallic products
resulting from the mutual
dissolution of flux and
nonmetallic impurities in
some welding and brazing
processes

Cause: slag inclusions result

from improper welding
techniques, the lack of
adequate access for welding
the joint, or improper
cleaning of the weld between
passes.
Tungsten Inclusion

Definition: A discontinuity
consisting of tungsten
entrapped in weld metal

Cause : These inclusion may

be trapped in a weld if the
tungsten electrode in dipped
into the molten weld metal,
or if the welding current is
too high and causes melting
and transfer of tungsten
droplets into the molten weld
metal
Spatter

Definition: Spatter consists of

metal particles expelled during
fusion welding that do not form a
part of the weld Only that spatter
that adheres to the base metal is of
concern to the visual inspector.

Cause : It might be indicative of

the welding process being out of
control.
Cracks
Definition: Cracks are defined as
fracture-type discontinuities
characterized by a sharp tip and high
ratio of length and width to opening
displacement.
Cause: They can occur in weld metal,
heat-affected zone, and base metal when
localized stresses exceed the ultimate
strength of the material. Cracking often
initiates at stress concentrations caused
by other discontinuities or near
mechanical notches associated with the
weldment design. Stresses that cause
cracking may be either residual or
applied. Residual stresses develop as a
result of restraint provided by the weld
joint and thermal contraction of the weld
following solidification. Welding related
cracks exhibit little plastic deformation.
Cracks
Orientation. Cracks may be described as
either longitudinal or transverse, depending
on their orientation.

longitudinal : When a crack is parallel to the

weld axis it is called a longitudinal crack
regardless of whether it is a centerline crack
in weld metal or a toe crack in the base metal
heat-affected zone

Cause: Longitudinal cracks in small welds

between heavy sections are often the result of
high cooling rates and high restraint. In
submerged arc welding they are commonly
associated with high welding speeds or may be
related to porosity problems that do not show
at the surface of the weld. Longitudinal heat
affected- zone cracks are usually caused by
dissolved hydrogen.
 Cracks

Transverse cracks : Transverse cracks are

perpendicular to the axis of the weld. These
may be limited in size and contained
completely within the weld metal or they may
propagate from the weld metal into the
adjacent heat-affected zone and further into
the base metal. In some weldments, transverse
cracks will form in the heat-affected zone and
not in the weld.

Cause: Transverse cracks are generally the

result of longitudinal shrinkage stresses acting
on weld metal of low ductility. Weld metal
hydrogen cracking can be oriented in the
transverse direction.
Crack Types

Cracks can generally be classified as either hot cracks or

cold cracks.
Hot cracks develop during solidification and are the
result of insufficient ductility at high temperature. Hot
cracks propagate between grains in the weld metal or at
the weld interface.

Cold cracks develop after solidification is complete. In

carbon and low-alloy steels, cold cracks can occur in
either the weld metal, heat-affected zone, or base metal,
and are usually the result of dissolved hydrogen. The
cracks can form hours or even days after the weld is
completed. Cold cracks propagate both between grains
and through grains.
Throat Cracks

Throat cracks are longitudinal cracks oriented

along the throat of fillet welds.
Root Cracks. Root cracks are
longitudinal cracks at the weld root
or in the root surface. They may be
hot or cold cracks.

Toe cracks : They initiate and

propagate from the weld toe where
shrinkage stresses are concentrated.
Toe cracks initiate approximately
normal to the base-metal surface
Cause: These cracks are generally the
result of thermal shrinkage stresses
acting on a weld heat affected zone.
Some toe cracks occur because the
ductility of the base metal cannot
accommodate the shrinkage stresses
that are imposed by welding
Underbead and Heat-Affected-Zone Cracks

Definition : Under bead and heat-affected-zone cracks are generally used

interchangeably. Under bead and heat affected- zone cracks are generally cold
cracks that form in the heat-affected zone of the base metal. Under bead and
heat-affected-zone cracks can be both longitudinal and transverse. They are
found in the heat affected zone and are not always detectable by visual
examination. Under bead cracks are found primarily in fillet welds, but they
can also occur in groove welds.

Cause: Under bead cracks can

occur when three elements are
present simultaneously:

(1) Hydrogen

(2) A microstructure of
relatively low ductility

(3) High residual stress

 Crater cracks

Crater cracks occur in the crater of a

weld when the welding is improperly
terminated. They are sometimes
referred to as star cracks, though they
may have other configurations.

Crater cracks are hot cracks usually

forming a pronged star like network.

Crater cracks are found most

frequently in materials with high
coefficients of thermal expansion, for
example austenitic stainless steel and
aluminum.

Longitudinal cracks may initiate from

a crater crack.
 Crater cracks
Crater Pipe: (Star cracks)
Crater pipe is a shrinkage defect and
not a gas defect, it has the
appearance of a gas pore in the weld
crater

Cause:
Crater pipe
 Too fast a cooling rate
Base Metal Discontinuities

Lamination

Definition: Lamination is a type

of base-metal discontinuity with
separation or weakness generally
aligned parallel to the worked
surface of a metal.

Cause : Laminations are formed

when gas voids, shrinkage
cavities, or nonmetallic
inclusions in the original ingot,
slab, or billet are rolled
lamellar tear
A subsurface terrace and step-like crack in the base metal with a basic
orientation parallel to the wrought surface caused by tensile stresses
in the through-thickness direction of the base metals weakened by the
presence of small dispersed, planar shaped, nonmetallic inclusions
parallel to the metal surface.
Seams and Laps

Definition: Seams and laps are base

metal discontinuities that may be
found in rolled, drawn, and forged
products. They differ from laminations
in that they appear on the surface of
the worked product

Welding over seams and laps can cause

cracking, porosity, or both.
Porosity
Definition : Porosity is a cavity-type
discontinuity formed by gas entrapment
during solidification or in a thermal-
spray deposit. The discontinuity formed
is generally spherical and may be
elongated. A common cause of porosity
is contamination during welding.

Cause : Porosity is an indication that

the welding parameters, welding
consumables, or joint fit up were not
properly controlled for the welding
process selected or that the base metal
is contaminated or of a composition
incompatible with the weld filler metal
being used.
Scattered Porosity
scattered porosity which is
uniformly distributed
throughout the weld metal.

Cluster Porosity.
Cluster porosity is a localized
array of porosity having a
random geometric distribution.

Piping Porosity
Piping porosity having a length
greater than its width that lies
approximately perpendicular
to the weld face
Cluster porosity
Aligned Porosity
Aligned Porosity is a localized
array of porosity oriented in a
line. The pores may be spherical
or elongated. Aligned porosity is
sometimes referred to as linear
porosity
Elongated Porosity

Elongated Porosity is a form of

porosity having a length greater
than its width that lies
approximately parallel to the
weld axis. It shows elongated
porosity formed between the slag
and the weld metal surface. Such
porosity could also be formed
below the surface of the weld
metal.
Weld Size. Weld size is a
measure of a critical dimension,
or a combination of critical
dimensions of a weld. The
required weld size should be
shown on the detail drawings
Surface Oxidation

Surface oxidation occurs during gas shielded arc welding when the gas
shield is lost or inadequate Excessive surface oxidation, sometimes
called sugaring.
distortion

Definition: Three fundamental

dimensional changes taking place
during welding can cause
distortion in weld-fabricated
structures or weldments:

(1) transverse shrinkage that

occurs perpendicular to the weld
line,
(2) longitudinal shrinkage that
occurs parallel to the weld line
(3) any angular change that
consists of rotation that occurs
around the weld line

Cause: Distortion in a weldment

can arise when thermally induced
stresses are unrestrained.
Uneven weld ripples:

Definition: abrupt changes

in the profiles of weld bead
ripples

Cause: too low or high

welding amperage or voltage,
inappropriate electrode
manipulation(irregular, too
fast, or too slow),
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