OSI Reference Model (Open Systems Interconnection)

OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.

➢ OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.

➢ OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.

➢ OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each
layer is assigned a particular task.

➢ Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

Advantages of OSI Model

• Provides clear structure for communication.

• Standardization of protocols across vendors.

• Easy troubleshooting and modular design.

• Acts as a reference guide for learning networks.

The 7 Layers of OSI Model:

Physical Layer:

➢ The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one
node to another node.

➢ It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.

➢ It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.

➢ It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface

specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

1. Bit Transmission – Converts data into electrical, optical, or radio signals for
transmission.

2. Transmission Medium Selection – Defines the medium (cables, fiber optics,

wireless).

3. Data Rate Control – Specifies the number of bits transmitted per second
(bandwidth).

4. Synchronization – Ensures sender and receiver clocks are synchronized for

accurate data transfer.

5. Physical Topology – Defines network layout (bus, star, ring, mesh).

6. Line Configuration – Defines connection type (point-to-point or multipoint).

7. Physical Characteristics – Specifies voltages, pin layouts, cable types, and

connectors.

Data Link Layer:

➢ This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

➢ It defines the format of the data on the network.

➢ It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.

➢ It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a
local network.

➢ It contains two sub-layers:

Logical Link Control Layer:

• The LLC layer is the upper sub-layer of the Data Link Layer.

• It provides an interface between the Network Layer and MAC sub-layer.

Media Access Control Layer:

The MAC sub-layer is the lower sub-layer.

It controls how devices access the shared physical medium to transmit data.

Functions of data link layer:

1. Framing – Divides the data from the Network Layer into manageable frames for
transmission.
2. Physical Addressing – Adds MAC addresses of sender and receiver in the frame.
3. Error Detection & Correction – Detects errors using techniques like parity bits,
CRC, and ensures reliable delivery.
4. Flow Control – Prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver.
5. Access Control – Determines which device can access the shared medium (via
MAC sub-layer).
6. Reliable Transmission – Ensures acknowledgement, retransmission of lost or
corrupted frames.
7. Synchronization – Ensures proper frame boundaries between sender and
receiver.
 Network Layer:

➢ It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the
network.

➢ The network layer is responsible for creating a connection between the source
computer and the destination computer.

➢ It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the
network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.

➢ The communication at the network layer is host-to-host. However, since there can be
several routers from the source to the destination, the routers in the path are
responsible for choosing the best route for each packet.

➢ Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide
the routing services within an internetwork.

➢ The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.

Functions of Network layer:

➢ Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It

provides a logical connection between different devices.

➢ Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header
of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.

➢ Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the
best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
➢ Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts
them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet
protocol (IP).

Transport Layer Layer

4 of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model.

➢ The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in
which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.

➢ The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.

➢ It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known
as segments.

➢ This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point

connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

Functions of Transport Layer:

1. Segmentation and Reassembly

o Breaks the message from the application layer into smaller segments.

o Reassembles segments into the original message at the destination.

2. End-to-End Communication

o Provides communication between processes (not just devices).

o Uses port numbers to identify applications (e.g., HTTP → port 80).

3. Connection Control

o Can provide connection-oriented service (TCP) or connectionless

service (UDP).

o Ensures proper session establishment and termination.

4. Flow Control

o Manages data transmission speed so that a fast sender does not

overwhelm a slow receiver.

5. Error Control

o Detects errors in data segments and ensures reliable delivery using

acknowledgments and retransmission (mainly in TCP).

6. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

 o Multiplexing: Allows multiple applications to use the network
simultaneously.

o Demultiplexing: Directs received data to the correct application using

port numbers.

7. Reliability

o Ensures complete and correct data delivery in sequence (with TCP).

Session Layer

➢ It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

➢ The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating devices.

➢ Session layer helps setting up and managing connections, enabling of sending and
receiving of data followed by termination of connections or sessions.

Functions of Session layer:

Dialog Control

• Manages who can transmit data, and when.

• Supports half-duplex (one at a time) and full-duplex (both at the same time)
communication.

Synchronization

• Inserts checkpoints (synchronization points) in long messages or data

streams.
 • If a failure occurs, transmission can resume from the last checkpoint instead of
restarting.

Presentation Layer:

➢ A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.

➢ It acts as a data translator for a network.

➢ This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.

➢ The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

1. Translation

o Converts data between the application layer and the network format.

o Example: Converts EBCDIC to ASCII.

2. Data Compression

o Reduces the size of data to save bandwidth and improve transmission

speed.

3. Encryption and Decryption

o Provides security by encrypting data before transmission and decrypting it

at the receiver end.
Application Layer

➢ An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to

access network service.

➢ It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.

➢ An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer

functions.

➢ This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

➢ File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to
access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to
manage the files in a remote computer.

➢ Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and
storage.

➢ Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is

used to provide that global information about various objects.
Advantages of OSI Model

1. Standardization – Provides a universal standard for network communication.

2. Layered Approach – Each layer has its own functions, making it easy to study
and troubleshoot.

3. Interoperability – Ensures devices and software from different vendors can work
together.

4. Flexibility – A change in one layer does not affect the other layers.

5. Modularity – Allows independent development of each layer.

Disadvantages of OSI Model

1. Complexity – Too theoretical and complicated for practical implementation.

2. Inefficiency – Some functions are duplicated across layers.

3. Slow Adoption – Rarely used in real networks; TCP/IP is more practical.

4. Overlapping Functions – Clear separation of functions is not always possible.

5. Costly Implementation – Strict implementation is not cost-effective.

Data Encapsulation:

Data Encapsulation is the process of adding control information (called headers and
sometimes trailers) to data as it moves down the layers of the OSI or TCP/IP model
before transmission.
TCP/IP model:

The TCP/IP model (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol model) is a

practical framework for computer networking that describes how data is transmitted
across the internet.

It is the foundation of the modern internet and is simpler and more practical than the
OSI model.

Layers of TCP/IP Model:

Network Access Layer

➢ A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

➢ A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in
the OSI reference model.
➢ It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.

➢ This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices
on the same network.

➢ The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.

Internet Layer

➢ An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

➢ An internet layer is also known as the network layer.

➢ The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network,
and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

➢ IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP

addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the
device and to provide internetwork routing.

➢ Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be

transmitted.

➢ Routing: When data is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it
is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant network,
then the data is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the data through
various devices such as routers.

Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data
which is being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.

Application Layer

➢ An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

➢ It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.

➢ This layer allows the user to interact with the application.

➢ When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application
layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
➢ There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be
placed inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication
system.

For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web browser
using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an application
layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

➢ HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access
the data over the World Wide Web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio,
video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a
hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.

➢ SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework

used for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.

➢ SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that
supports the e mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to
send the data to another e-mail address.

➢ DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names
instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is
known as Domain Name System.

➢ TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection

between the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal
appears to be a terminal at the remote system.

➢ FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.

Advantages of TCP/IP Model

1. Practical & Widely Used – Basis of the internet and modern networking.

2. Scalability – Can connect thousands of networks together.

3. Interoperability – Works across different hardware and software platforms.

4. Standard Protocols – Well-established, with support for many protocols (HTTP,

TCP, IP, etc.).

5. Flexibility – Supports both connection-oriented (TCP) and connectionless (UDP)

communication.
 6. Robustness – Provides error control, flow control, and reliable communication.

Disadvantages of TCP/IP Model

1. Not Modular – Unlike OSI, some layers are not clearly separated (functions
overlap).

2. Difficult to Replace Protocols – Once standardized, old protocols remain in use

(e.g., IPv4).

3. Lack of Clear Distinction – Application layer services (application,

presentation, session) are merged.

4. General Design – Does not specify details for services, interfaces, and
protocols.

5. Security Limitations – Initially not designed with strong security in mind