SERVICES-HIGH RISE BUILDINGS

Evolution of High-Rise Buildings

1. Definition & Need of High-Rise Buildings: -

• Definition: Buildings that are significantly taller than surrounding built form, requiring vertical
transport (lifts) and special structural/fire services.
• Why High-Rise?
→ Rapid urbanization and population growth.
→ Land scarcity in urban cores - vertical expansion.
→ Prestige & identity - cities showcasing power & technology.
→ Commercial hubs need large floor space in compact areas.

2. Evolution of High-Rise Buildings: -

Early Innovations (1880–1930)-
1. Home Life Insurance Building (Chicago, 1884, 42m):
• Regarded as the first skyscraper, introducing steel frame construction, which replaced load-
bearing masonry, making multi-story buildings structurally viable for the first time.

2. Singer Building (New York, 1908, 187m):

• Became the world's tallest upon completion. An advanced steel skeleton enabled a height and
slender form.

3. Equitable Building (New York, 1915, 164m):

• Demonstrated bulk and urban shading issues, leading to the NY Zoning Resolution of 1916
(step-backs, light courts).

4. Empire State Building (1931, New York, 381m):

• Remained the tallest for over 40 years. Innovations in steel framing and rapid elevator
technology.

Post-War & Modern Era (1950–2000)-

1. Sears Tower / Willis Tower (Chicago, 1973, 442m):

• Pioneered the bundled-tube structural system, enabling great height and resistance to lateral
forces (wind).

2. Petronas Twin Towers (Kuala Lumpur, 1998, 452m):

• Reinforced concrete core and tube, representing the globalization of skyscraper design.

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Contemporary Skyscrapers (2000 Onwards)-

1. Taipei 101 (Taiwan, 2004, 508m):

• Introduced the world’s largest Tuned Mass Damper (TMD) for stability against
wind/earthquake.

2. Burj Khalifa (Dubai, 2010, 828m):

• Current world’s tallest, with multi-use vertical zoning (residential, hotel, offices), advanced
composites, and a unique spire for architectural height.

Landmark Features and Technologies: -

Building Year Height (m) Usage Key Technologies

Home Life Ins. 1884 42 Office Steel frame

Singer 1908 187 Office Steel frame

Equitable 1915 164 Office Mass construction

Empire State 1931 381 Office/Obs. Steel frame, fast construction

Sears/Willis Tower 1973 442 Office Tubular, rolled steel

Petronas Towers 1998 452 Office High-strength concrete

Taipei 101 2004 508 Office TMD, high-grade materials

Burj Khalifa 2010 828 Mixed-use Composite, advanced TMD

3. Evolution of Structural Systems: -

• Load-bearing walls: Limited height, thick walls.

• Semi-Rigid Frame System (up to 15 floors): Moment frames with moderate fixity, for low- to mid-
rise.

• Rigid Frame System (15–25 floors): Full moment connection, resisting lateral loads (wind,
earthquake), allows larger spans.

• Shear Walls/Core Systems: Central core stabilizes structure, common in > 25-floor buildings.

• Tubular/Bundle Tube Systems (30+ floors): Exterior columns form a tube, resisting wind and
seismic forces, used in Willis Tower, Petronas Towers.

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4. Key Building Systems & Innovations: -

• Automatic Rescue Device (ARD): Ensures elevator safety during a power outage and returns to the
nearest floor safely.

• Fire Sprinklers: Integrated on every floor per code; smoke detectors and pressurized staircases.

• Tuned Mass Dampers (TMD): Giant counterweights or springs at the top for vibration control (Taipei
101, Burj Khalifa).

• Fire Rescue Mission: Refuge floors, fire-rated stairs, pressurized escape routes, firemen's lifts.

• HVAC: Zoned air conditioning, demand-controlled supply, low tonnage via envelope efficiency.

5. Materials in High-Rise Construction: -

• Stone & Masonry: Pre-1880s, limited to low-rise; compressive strength insufficient for tall buildings.

• Steel Frame (Post-1880s): Transferred load to skeleton, allowing more floors and fenestration
(windows).

• Reinforced Concrete (Early 20th Century): Greater flexibility, improved fire resistance, economic
for cores and shear walls.

• Glass Curtain Walls (1930s onward): Enabled daylighting, lightweight facades.

• Innovative Materials (Modern):

→ RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete): Core/shear walls.
→ Structural Steel: Frames, composite slabs.
→ High-performance Glass: Double/triple glazing, low-emissivity coatings.
→ Dry Walls, Fire-Rated Coatings: Lightweight, resistant to fire, beneficial for interiors.

6. Sustainable & Green Building Norms: -

1. Orientation & Form-
• North-South Orientation: Controls solar heat gain; stable daylight; minimizes direct east-west solar
loading.

• Square Plan (1:1 ratio) or 1:1.6: Provides balanced exposure, better seismic resistance, linear
blocks are vulnerable to wind stress, and less efficient for daylight distribution.

• Daylight Façade Depth: 7.5m ensures most spaces get daylight (beyond this, artificial lighting is
required).

• Window-Wall Ratio: Max 35% glazing recommended, balances daylighting with insulation.

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2. Facade & Glass-

• Glazing: Replace plain float glass (poor insulation) with double/triple-glazed low-e glass (better U-
value and VLT: Visual Light Transmittance).

• Recommended VLT: High (≥60%) for daylight areas, low for glare-sensitive spaces.

• Glare index = 0 with shading and glass selection.

• Facade Area Formula: Window area should be ≤ 0.35 × facade area for optimal balance.

3. Energy & Comfort-

• HVAC Sizing: A 2,000 sq. ft office typically needs ≈5 TR, but with envelope insulation, DDU, and
high-performance glass, demand can be lowered.

• Passive Cooling Techniques: Shading devices, orientation, green roofs, cross-ventilation, thermal
mass.

• Artificial Lighting: Minimized by daylight design; sensors and efficient luminaires for comfort.

• Insulation: Reduces loads, lowers the running cost of AC.

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Water Supply & Drainage System

1. Fundamentals of Water Supply: -

• Water Pressure & Height

→ Water pressure is the force that pushes water upward in pipes.
→ 1 bar pressure ≈ 10 m water head (≈ 14.5 psi).
→ To supply water at:
▪ 30 m height - 3 bar needed.
▪ 35 m height - 3.5 bar needed (sufficient for filling tanks).
• Residual Pressure (Comfort Pressure)
→ Even after traveling through pipes and fixtures, some pressure must remain at outlets.
→ For taps/showers: 6 m head (≈ 0.6 bar) is considered the minimum residual pressure.
• Conversion Basics
→ 1 ft = 0.305 m (sometimes rounded in service calculation notes).

2. Storage Arrangements in Indian Buildings: -

• Underground Tank (UGT)

→ Receives supply from municipal lines or borewell.
→ Provides buffer storage.

• Overhead Tank (OHT)

→ Located on the terrace.

→ Gravity works - water flows down into risers/pipes.
→ Ensures supply even during power failure.

• Pumping Systems
1. Submersible Pump – placed inside UGT, pumps water up to OHT.
2. Booster Pump – increases water pressure directly in pipelines.
3. Hydropneumatics System (Pressure Pump System)
→ Works without OHT.
→ Uses compressed air chamber to maintain constant pressure.
→ Preferred in luxury high-rise apartments/offices.

• Automatic Level Controllers

→ Used in UGT and OHT.
→ Automatically switch pumps ON/OFF to prevent overflow or dry running.

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3. Zoning & Service Floors: -

• Problem in High-Rise: If one tank supplies the entire building, lower floors experience excessive
pressure.
• Solution is Zoning:
→ Divide the building into vertical zones, each served by its own pumping arrangement.
→ Example:
▪ 8-storey building → 2 zones (Ground–4 & 5–8).
▪ 16-storey building → 2 zones (8 floors each).
• Service Floor
→ A technical floor is provided every 10–12 floors, height ~4.5 m.
→ Houses: Break pressure tanks, fire pumps, HVAC equipment, and electrical panels.
→ Reduces head and makes maintenance easier.

4. Booster Pumping Arrangements: -

A Booster System is used in high-rise buildings to maintain constant water pressure across all floors. It
consists of several interconnected components that work together to lift, store, regulate, and distribute water
efficiently.
Why Standby Pumps?
→ To avoid service disruption if one pump fails.
→ Residential Buildings: 1 duty + 1 standby.
→ Commercial / Large Public Buildings: 2 duty + 1 standbys.
Elements of a Booster System-
1. Pumps (Duty + Standby)
• Definition: Machines that move water from underground storage tanks (UGT) to overhead tanks
(OHT) or directly into distribution pipelines.
• Duty Pump: The primary pump that operates under normal conditions.
• Standby Pump: A backup pump that switches on automatically if the duty pump fails.
• Importance: Ensures uninterrupted water supply, especially in high-rise buildings where failure can
disrupt multiple households.

2. Pressure Tank (Air-Filled, for Hydropneumatics Systems)

• Definition: A closed tank partially filled with air and partially with water.
• Working Principle:
→ Pump fills the tank with water.
→ Compressed air in the tank maintains constant pressure in the system.
• Importance: Eliminates the need for an OHT (in hydro-pneumatic systems), reduces pump cycling,
and provides stable water pressure at all outlets.
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3. Pressure Gauges & Control Valves

• Pressure Gauges: Instruments that measure water pressure inside the pipes.
→ Help in monitoring system efficiency.
→ Prevents over-pressurization that can damage pipes/fixtures.
• Control Valves:
→ Regulate water flow and pressure.
→ Types: gate valve (on/off), check valve (prevents backflow), and ball valve (quick shut-off).
• Importance: Ensure safe operation and easy maintenance.

4. Riser Pipes & Distribution Branches

• Riser Pipes: Vertical pipelines that carry water from the pump to different floors. Act as the backbone
of the distribution network.
• Distribution Branches: Smaller horizontal pipelines branching out from risers to supply individual
flats, offices, or fixtures.
• Importance: Distribute water evenly to all zones and floors of the building.

5. PRVs (Pressure Reducing Valves)

• Definition: Valves installed in risers or branch lines to reduce water pressure for lower floors.
• Why Needed?
→ In high-rise buildings, lower floors often receive very high pressure, which can burst pipes or
damage fittings.
• Working: PRV automatically lowers incoming water pressure to a safe, usable level.
• Importance: Protects plumbing fixtures, increases system life, and ensures user comfort.

6. Storage Tanks (UGT, OHT, Break Tanks)

• Underground Tank (UGT): Collects water from municipal supply or borewell. Serves as the main
storage.
• Overhead Tank (OHT): Placed on the terrace, supplies water by gravity.
• Break Pressure Tank: An Intermediate tank provided at service floors to divide zones in very tall
buildings.
• Importance: Provide reliable storage, balance pressure in zones, and act as buffers during high
demand.
5. Types of Water Distribution Systems: -

1. Down-take System with PRVs

→ From OHT, water flows down.
→ Pressure-reducing valves installed on lower floors.
→ Simple, gravity-based, cost-effective.
→ Disadvantage: uneven pressure at times.
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2. Loop System
→ Pipes form a loop → continuous circulation.
→ Prevents stagnation, useful in hot water pipelines.

3. Multiple Storage / Break Pressure System

→ Intermediate tanks at service floors.
→ Each tank supplies a limited number of floors (zoning).
→ Reduces excessive pumping head.

4. Hydropneumatics System
→ Eliminates OHT.
→ Constant pressure maintained by air-compressed water tanks.
→ Efficient, modern, but high installation and maintenance costs.
→ Used in hotels, hospitals, and luxury apartments.

6. Gravity vs Pressure Systems: -

• Gravity (UGT + OHT)

- Advantages: simple, reliable, and it works during power cuts.
- Disadvantages: requires large terrace tanks, uneven pressure in high-rise.

• Hydro pneumatic (Pressure Pump)

- Advantages: constant pressure, no need for OHT, modern & space-saving.
- Disadvantages: expensive, needs regular maintenance, and fails without a power backup.

7. Alternative System Arrangements: -

• Single Booster System:

→ One pump system for the entire building.
→ Cheaper but inefficient for tall towers.

• Zone Divided Booster System:

→ Each pressure zone has dedicated boosters.
→ Efficient, reduces pipe stress, avoids over-pressure.

• Overhead Tank with Terrace Booster:

→ Combines gravity + pressure pumps.
→ Saves energy, ensures reliability.

• Series Connected System:

→ Intermediate Break Tanks are best for very tall buildings.
→ Without Break Tanks are suitable only for mid-rise structures.

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8. Drainage & Wastewater Disposal: -

• Types of Wastewaters:
→ Blackwater: toilets/urinals.
→ Greywater: kitchen sinks, basins, showers.
→ Solid waste: food particles, etc.
Disposal: All wastewater collected and sent to STP (Sewage Treatment Plant) before discharge/reuse.
• Drainage Pipe Systems:
1. Single-Pipe Fully Ventilated System
→ Waste + soil carried in one pipe stack.
→ Separate vent pipes provided.
→ Cheaper, commonly used.

2. Two-Pipe System
→ Soil (toilet) and wastewater (kitchen, basins) are carried in separate stacks.
→ More expensive but reduces load on pipes.

3. Partially Ventilated System

→ A mix of the above two, depending on building type.

System Of Plumbing in a Building

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9. Hydraulic & Pipe Considerations: -

• Hydraulic Calculation
→ 1 bar ≈ 43.5 psi ≈ 10 m head.
→ 12–13 m head needed for adequate flow in most cases.
• Suction & Discharge Pipes
→ Suction Pipe (from UGT): smaller size (2–2.5 inches).
→ Discharge Pipe (to distribution): larger to maintain flow.

10. Water Conservation & Green Building Fixtures: -

• Aerators: mix air with water, reducing water flow without reducing comfort.
• Low-Flow Fixtures: sensor taps, dual-flush WCs, waterless urinals.
• Jaguar Green Fixtures: examples of commercial green-certified fittings.
• NBC Norms: provide fixture unit values for calculating water demand (e.g., litres/day per person,
fixture discharge rates).
• Benefit: Reduces energy use (lower pumping + lower STP load).

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