Course title: Personality Development

Course code: UEXT 104

Lecture no: 04
Lecture topic: Learning
Prepared by: Bhagirath Das, Scientist (Agricultural Extension)

4.1 Introduction

Learning is the process by which an individual, through one's own efforts and abilities, changes
their behaviour. Generally, learning is defined as a process of behaviour modification through
experiences, exercise and efforts. According to Smith (1962),‘learning is the acquisition of new
behaviour or the strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience’. It
means, instead of change in existing behaviour or acquisition of new behaviour, learning may also
result in discontinuance or abandonment of existing behaviour. This ‘unlearning’ is also learning
in itself. According to Fagin (1958), learning is a sequence of mental events or conditions leading
to changes in learner.

4.2 Modes of Learning

Imitation

Imitation is one of the earliest forms of learning. We often observe that young children imitate
their parents; for example, girls may imitate their mothers, while boys may imitate their fathers.
Even adults engage in imitation. Individuals who feel less confident or assertive often look up to
confident and assertive role models. With practice and time, they gradually acquire similar
behaviors, becoming more confident and assertive themselves.

Observation

Observation is a valuable method of learning, especially for understanding behavior. For example,
if someone wants to learn about the social behavior of leaders, bosses, or teachers, they may
observe them in their natural environments — such as their office or home. Close observation
allows individuals to gather details and insights that contribute to their learning.

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Experience

Learning often stems from personal experience. After encountering specific situations, individuals
reflect on their experiences and ask questions to deepen their understanding. For example, students
can be taken to a village fair to experience and learn about social diversity firsthand. Reflection on
such experiences enhances learning significantly.

Teaching

Teaching involves structured learning under the guidance of an instructor. The teacher selects a
topic, analyzes its content, and presents it to students, often through lectures or discussions.
Students, by listening and engaging, acquire new knowledge and understanding.

Instruction

Instruction typically focuses on developing practical or physical skills rather than purely cognitive
abilities. It often includes demonstrations supported by explanations. Through this process,
learners acquire both knowledge and hands-on skills. For example, learning how to operate
machinery involves instructional learning

Trial and Error

In this method, an individual attempts different solutions to solve a problem when the correct
answer is not immediately known. If one attempt fails, they try another, continuing the process
until the correct solution is found. Through these repeated efforts, valuable learning occurs. This
approach is commonly seen in areas like mathematics, problem-solving, and technical tasks.

Reflection

Reflective learners carefully consider and analyze different solutions before making decisions.
Unlike impulsive individuals, who respond quickly without much thought, reflective learners use
cognitive processes such as reasoning, evaluation, and analysis to understand situations and solve
problems more effectively.

Experimentation

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When individuals are uncertain, relying solely on intuition or guessing may not lead to accurate
outcomes. Experimentation allows one to test hypotheses and discover reality through controlled
trials. This approach provides concrete evidence and leads to deeper learning, as experimentation
often reveals insights that theoretical thinking alone may not offer.

Questioning

Questioning is an effective tool for learning and stimulating thinking.

• Convergent (closed-ended) questions have one correct answer.

• Divergent (open-ended) questions allow for multiple or infinite answers.

Questions can serve various purposes, such as:

• Factual: seeking specific information)

• Explanatory: clarifying reasons or processes

• Analytical: examining relationships and patterns

• Hypothetical: exploring "what if" scenarios

• Decisional: helping in choosing among alternatives

Self-Learning (Conative Learning)

Self-learning, also known as conative learning, involves individuals taking responsibility for their
own learning process. This method emphasizes self-motivation, internal drive, and personal
initiative in acquiring knowledge and skills.

4.3 An Effective Learning Situation

Effective learning situation is one in which all the essential elements for promoting learning i.e.
learners, teachers, subject matter, teaching materials and physical facilities, relevant to a particular
situation, are present in a dynamic relationship with one another. The conditions under which
effective learning can take place are presented, following Leagans (1961).

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4.3.1 Learners: Persons who want and need to learn are the learners. In an effective learning
situation, learners occupy the most important central position, and all efforts are directed towards
them. Learners should:

(a) be capable of learning

(b) have interest in the subject

(c) have need for the information offered

(d) be able to use the information once it is gained

In the present context, the farmers, farm women and rural youth comprise the learners. To explain
the learning situation, we take an example in which dairy farmers who need to increase milk
production are the learners.

4.3.2 Teachers: They are the extension agents who impart training and motivate the learners. They
not only know what to teach, but also know how to teach. The teachers should:

(a) have clear-cut and purposeful teaching objectives

(b) know the subject matter and have it well organized

(c) be enthusiastic and interested about the learner and the subject matter

(d) be able to communicate and skillful in using teaching aids

(e) be able to encourage participation of the people

4.3.3 Subject Matter: It is the content or topic of teaching that is useful to the learners. The subject
matter should be:

(a) pertinent to learner' needs

(b) applicable to their real-life situations

(c) well organized and presented logically and clearly

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(d) consistent with the overall objectives

Here, the subject matter is increasing milk production.

4.3.4 Teaching Materials: These are appropriate instructional materials, equipment and aids. The
teaching materials should be:

(a) suitable to the subject matter and physical situation

(b) adequate in quantity and available in time

(c) skillfully used

In the present example, the teaching materials may be improved breeds of fish and improved feed
suitable for good growth, appropriate medicines, audio-visual aids relevant to the topic etc.

Fig. 4.2: The Elements of a Learning Situation

4.3.5 Physical Facilities: It means an appropriate physical environment in which teaching learning
can take place. The physical facilities should be

(a) compatible with the objective

(b) representative of the area and situation and

(c) adequate and easily accessible

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In the present example, physical facilities may include facilities for artificial insemination and
administering medicines; suitable land, irrigation etc. for growing fodder, and a place easily
accessible, free from outside distractions, adequate seating arrangements, electricity for projection
etc. for conducting training programme.

4.4 Criteria for Effective Learning

Leaming involves acquisition of knowledge, skill, attitude etc.; retention to stop reversion; and
transfer, to use it in real life situations. Learning to be effective, should have the following
characteristics:

i. Learning should be purposeful. The learning must make sense and be useful to the learners.
Objectives must be clear and meaningful to the learners.

ii. Learning should involve appropriate activity by the learners that engages a maximum number
of senses. Messages reach the human mind through five senses, namely, seeing, hearing, feeling,
tasting and smelling. Learning should be experience centered i.e. farmers should primarily learn
by doing, in addition to seeing and hearing.

iii. Learning must be challenging and satisfying. Abilities acquired through learning should help
the farmer to solve the problems, to overcome the difficulties and gradually lead to a more
satisfying life.

iv. Learning must result in functional understanding. Mere acquisition of knowledge is not
enough; it must be understood and applied in real life situations.

4.5 Principles of Learning as Applicable to Extension

There are some principles of learning which are very well applicable in extension. The principles
may provide good guidance for making learning in extension effective. These are:

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4.5.1 Principle of self-activity: Learning is an active process on the part of the learners. The kind
of learning which takes place is the result of the kind of experience one acquires. The experiences
must be compelling and direct on the part of the learners.

Conducting demonstrations by the farmers in their own fields provides opportunity of self-
activity, i.e. learning by doing. This makes learning effective and permanent.

4.5.2 Principle of association: New learning may be associated with previous successful and
satisfying responses. If the farmers have obtained profitable return by the application of
nitrogenous fertilizer, they may be motivated to use balanced fertilizer containing phosphate and
potash, for still higher return.

4.5.3 Principle of transfer: Application of perceived relationship to another situation in which it

is applicable. Unless knowledge or learning can be applied in a new situation, it remains very much
restricted.

If the farmers have learnt the technique of water management in a particular crop, they should be
able to use this knowledge in other crops as well. This shall spread the effect of learning.

4.5.4 Principle of disassociation: For effective learning, undesirable responses are to be

eliminated. This may be done by setting up desirable substitutes which are more satisfying.

When planting a crop in lines gives better yield, the farmers may be advised not to practice
broadcasting.

4.5.5 Principle of readiness: Learning takes place more effectively when one is ready to learn.

When farmers are ready to cooperate, with good guidance, they may be able to form a cooperative
society.

4.5.6 Principle of set or attitude: An unfavourable attitude retards learning and a favourable
attitude accelerates it. Unless attitude becomes favourable, adoption will not take place.

When farmers develop a favourable attitude towards scientific treatment of cattle, they shall learn
the importance of this type of treatment for animals.

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4.5.7 Principle of practice: Perfection is seldom achieved without practice. The practice must be
correct, otherwise there will be wrong learning. The attainment of perfection demands that
undesirable and useless movements are replaced by desirable and useful ones.

Learning to use a sprayer correctly requires practice several times over.

4.5.8. Principle of motivation: Motivation or drive means stimulation towards action. Without
motivation an organism does not behave and hence does not learn. The practice recommended
must be motivating for learning to take place.

Favourable experience of planting trees motivates tribal farmers to collect saplings from the forest
nursery.

4.5.9 Principle of timing: Other things being equal, learning takes place more readily when there
is introduction of a topic or skill at a time when it can be used in some serviceable manner.

When insects have appeared or are likely to appear in crops, farmers shall readily learn about plant
protection.

4.5.10 Principle of clarity of objectives: The objective of learning should be clear. The ease of
learning seems to vary directly with the meaningfulness of the material presented. Meaningful
learning is interesting and easier than senseless learning.

When farmers use crop loan only for growing crops, they are clear about the objective of getting
the loan. This clear understanding enables the farmers to learn about proper utilization and
repayment of loans and take further loans, if necessary, for economic development.

4.5.11 Principle of satisfyingness: A satisfying after-effect reinforces learning.

Crops grown during the rabi-summer season give higher economic return and higher level of
satisfaction to the farmers. Farmers learn to invest more and take more care for crops during the
season.

In addition to understanding the principles underlying how adults learn, training must also
plan experiences and activities that maximize the learning of trainees. Edgar Dale's 'Cone of

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Experience', as modified by Sheal (1989), provides a linkage between learning. activity, and
participant involvement. Fig. 3 illustrates this cone of experience.

Between the two extremes of 'reading' and 'doing the real thing', are a number of other ways
through which people learn. As one moves downward from the pinnacle of the cone, increased
involvement, and increased learning occur.

Fig. 4.3 Cone of experience depicting activity, involvement and learning

4.7 learning styles

The term ‘learning styles’ corresponds to the understanding that every individual learns differently.
Learning styles define the way how people learn and how they approach information. An
individual’s learning style refers to the preferential way in which the learner absorbs processes,
comprehends and retains information. Different learners learn in a variety of ways, by seeing and
hearing, working alone and in groups, reasoning logically and intuitively and sometimes by

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memorizing or visualizing. Fleming’s VARK model of learning is a very commonly accepted
model. VARK is an acronym that refers to the four types of learning styles: Visual, Auditory,
Reading/Writing Preference, and Kinesthetic.

i. Visual: Learners in this category prefer using visual aids like charts, graphs, diagrams, and
other symbolic devices to understand information.
ii. Auditory: These learners learn best through listening, such as lectures, group discussions,
or podcasts.
iii. Read: Individuals who prefer the read/write style learn best through written materials like
textbooks, notes, and lists.
iv. Kinesthetic: This style involves hands-on experiences, practical activities, and real-life
examples to grasp concepts.

4.8 Theories of Learning

Theory is a way to explain some observed phenomenon. Expressed as abstract thoughts or general
subject principles, theories help make sense of the world and research findings.

4.8.1 Behaviorist Theories of Learning

Behavioral learning theories were among the first to be developed and emphasizes that learning is
a change in observable behavior caused by external stimuli from the environment. The concept of
learning, according to this theory, is a product of a sequence of associations between stimuli and
responses. The main proponents are Ivan Pavlov (Classical Conditioning), B.F. Skinner (Operant
Conditioning) and John Watson etc.

A. Classical conditioning

Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a type of unconscious

or automatic learning. The core idea is that learning happens when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly
paired with a meaningful (unconditioned) stimulus. Over time, the neutral stimulus alone can
produce the same response as the original meaningful stimulus

Table 4.1: Pavlov’s Famous Experiment

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 • Food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) →
Step 1 (Before Conditioning) Salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR).

• Bell (Neutral Stimulus, NS) → No

response.
• Bell (NS) + Food (US) → Salivation (UR).
Step 2 (During Conditioning)
• This pairing is repeated several times.

Step 3 (After Conditioning) Bell (now a Conditioned Stimulus, CS) →

Salivation (now a Conditioned Response, CR).

Result The dog learns to salivate just by hearing the

bell, even if no food is presented.

Term Meaning
Unconditioned Stimulus Naturally triggers a response (e.g., food)
(US)
Unconditioned Response Natural response to US (e.g., salivation to food)
(UR)
Neutral Stimulus (NS) Does not naturally trigger response (e.g., bell before
conditioning)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) NS becomes CS after association (e.g., bell after conditioning)
Conditioned Response (CR) Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation to bell)

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 Fig 4.4 Panel Image of Whistle and Dog.

B. Operant Conditioning

We all engage in behaviors that we know will lead to good outcomes. We also tend to avoid
behaviors that we know will have negative consequences. So, it makes sense that being rewarded
for something makes you want to do it more often (and being punished makes you want to do it
less). This type of learning is what the behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner dubbed it 'operant
conditioning,' and it can have a powerful effect on your everyday behavior. Thus, the core idea
behind this theory is learning based on the consequences of behavior.

B.F. Skinner, one of the most influential psychologists in behaviorism, developed a device called
the Skinner Box (Operant Conditioning Chamber) to study how behavior is influenced by
consequences. The box contains: a lever (or button) the animal can press, a food dispenser to

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deliver food pellets, a light or buzzer as a signal and a mild electric grid on the floor to deliver
shocks.

Positive Reinforcement: When the rat accidentally presses the lever, a food pellet is released. The
rat learns that pressing the lever results in receiving food. Over time, the rat increases the frequency
of pressing the lever because it is rewarded. This is positive reinforcement. Here, a pleasant
stimulus (food) is added to encourage the behavior (lever pressing).

Negative Reinforcement: The floor may deliver a mild electric shock, which stops only when the
rat presses the lever. The rat learns that pressing the lever removes the unpleasant stimulus (shock).
The rat begins to press the lever more often to avoid discomfort. This is negative reinforcement.
Here an unpleasant stimulus (shock) is removed to encourage the behavior.

Punishment: In another condition, when the rat presses the lever, it receives a mild electric shock.
The rat quickly learns to stop pressing the lever to avoid the unpleasant consequence. This is
punishment. Here an unpleasant stimulus (shock) is added to discourage the behavior.

Type Definition Example

Positive Adding a pleasant stimulus to Giving praise or rewards for good

Reinforcement increase behavior performance

Negative Removing an unpleasant Cancelling a quiz if homework is

Reinforcement stimulus to increase behavior submitted

Positive Adding an unpleasant stimulus Giving extra assignments for

Punishment to reduce behavior misbehavior

Negative Removing a pleasant stimulus Taking away privileges (e.g., no

Punishment to reduce behavior playtime for incomplete homework)

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4.8.2 Cognitive Theories of Learning

Cognitive theorists claim that observable behaviors are not sufficient to describe learning because
the internal thought processes are also part of learning. Unlike behaviorism, which emphasizes
observable behaviors, cognitive theories delve into the "black box" of the mind, examining how
individuals think, perceive, remember, and solve problems. Learning is seen as an active mental
process involving attention, perception, memory, thinking, problem-solving and reasoning.

Key features of cognitive learning theories are:

ü Learners are active participants

ü Learning involves understanding, organizing, and applying knowledge
ü Prior knowledge plays an important role
ü Meaningful learning is emphasized over rote memorization
ü Learning involves mental restructuring of information

A. Cognitive development theory

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different
stages of learning. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge,
but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's stages are:

i. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)

ü Learning through sensory experiences and motor actions.

ü Knowledge gained by sucking, grasping, looking, listening.
ü Develops object permanence (understanding that objects exist even when out of sight).
ü Realizes they are separate beings from others.
ü Learns that actions cause reactions in the environment.
ü Rapid development in motor skills (crawling, walking) and language learning (via
interaction)
ü Early representational thought begins by the end of this stage.
ü Key milestone: Understanding object constancy enables naming and recognizing objects.

ii. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years)

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 ü Emergence of symbolic thinking; uses words and pictures to represent objects.
ü Egocentric thinking: Difficulty seeing others' perspectives.
ü Improved language development but thinking remains concrete.
ü Learns through pretend play.
ü Struggles with logic and constancy
ü E.g., choosing flattened clay rather than a clay ball, because it appears larger despite equal
volume.
ü Thinking is still intuitive and perception-based, not logical.

iii. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years)

ü Begins to think logically about concrete events.

ü Understands conservation (e.g., same volume despite different shapes).
ü Thinking becomes more organized and logical but limited to tangible situations.
ü Develops inductive logic (reasoning from specific to general).
ü Egocentrism declines: Can consider others' viewpoints.
ü Recognizes that thoughts are personal and unique.

iv. Formal Operational Stage (12 Years and Up)

ü Capable of abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning.

ü Can think about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues.
ü Develops deductive logic (reasoning from general principles to specific cases).
ü Can systematically plan for the future.
ü Able to analyze multiple potential solutions to problems.
ü Start developing ability to reason beyond the "here and now."

4.8.3 Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory was proposed by Albert Bandura. It explains how people learn not only
through direct experience but also by observing others. The theory emphasizes the importance of
modeling, imitation, and vicarious learning. Key idea here is people can learn new behaviors by
watching others and observing the consequences of their actions, without having to experience
reinforcement or punishment directly.

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Key concepts are:

i. Observational Learning (Modeling)

ü Learning occurs by observing the behavior of others, called models.

ü Models can be parents, teachers, peers, celebrities, or anyone a person observes.
ü The observer watches how the model behaves and the outcomes of that behavior.

Example: A student watches how a classmate studies for exams and tries to follow the same
study methods.

ii. Vicarious Reinforcement and Punishment

ü Learners are influenced by seeing others being rewarded or punished.

ü If the model is rewarded, the observer is more likely to imitate the behavior.
ü If the model is punished, the observer is less likely to imitate the behavior.

Example: A student who sees another student being praised for answering questions may feel
motivated to participate.

iii. Self-Efficacy

ü Self-efficacy refers to a person’s belief in their own ability to succeed in specific

situations.
ü High self-efficacy leads to greater effort and persistence in learning.
ü Bandura emphasized that observing successful models can increase the observer’s self-
efficacy.

Example: A student watching a peer solve difficult problems may feel more confident to try
similar problems.

iv. Reciprocal Determinism

ü Learning is not just a one-way process.

ü According to Bandura, behavior, personal factors (like beliefs), and environmental
factors all influence each other.

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Example: A student’s confidence (personal factor), supportive teacher feedback (environment),
and improved performance (behavior) all interact to influence learning.

Fig 4.5 Determinants of learning

4.8.4 Constructivist Theories of Learning

The constructivist learning theory refers to the method of learning that allows learners to
“construct” their knowledge and skills through meaningful interactions and empowers them
through their own self-directed learning. Proponents of these theories are Piaget, Vygotsky and
Ernst von Glasersfeld. This educational theory leans into the idea that each individual learner
develops their own understanding through experience and reflection. Rather than memorizing facts
from a teacher or external source, learners actively construct meaning for themselves. At the core
of constructivism is discovery—a crucial aspect of the learning process. Learners take new
information and internalize it, integrating it with their prior knowledge and experiences. The
constructivist theory of learning emphasizes the importance of social interaction in the learning
process, as learners absorb information in two ways:

i. Assimilation: Learners take in information from their environment and integrate it into
what they already know.
ii. Accommodation: Learners adjust their existing understanding to incorporate new
knowledge or experiences.
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There are three main types of constructivism that have been identified, each having a significant
(and slightly altered) impact on the way learners interact with their environment.

i. Cognitive constructivism: This type of constructivism focuses on the individual learner’s

ability to form meaning from their experiences. It views learning as an active process where
knowledge is constructed by each individual through reflection, exploration,
experimentation, problem-solving, and critical thinking.
ii. Social constructivism: This type of constructivism emphasizes the importance of social
interaction in learning. It suggests that learners understand and internalize new concepts
and ideas through collaboration, dialogue, and discourse with other people.
iii. Radical constructivism: This type of constructivism stresses the idea that knowledge is
subjective and personal. Knowledge cannot be shared or transferred between individuals
because their unique perspective will cause them to interpret information differently.

4.8.5 Humanistic Theories of Learning

Humanistic approaches to learning are based on the principles of humanism and are founded most
notably on the work of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. The Humanistic Theory of Learning
focuses on the whole person and not just behavior or cognition but also emotions, values, needs,
and personal growth. Unlike behaviorist or cognitive theories, which focus on how learning
happens, humanistic theories emphasize why people learn and the personal meaning behind
learning. Humanistic learning is learner-centered and promotes self-directed, meaningful learning
experiences that support personal growth.

A. Hierarchy of Needs by Abraham Maslow

Maslow proposed that people are motivated by a hierarchy of needs. Only when lower-level needs
are satisfied can higher-level learning and personal growth take place.

Table: Various levels of need according to Maslow

Level of need Examples

1. Physiological Needs Food, water, shelter, sleep
2. Safety Needs Physical safety, job security, health
3. Love and Belonging Friendship, social connection, acceptance

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 4. Esteem Needs Respect, recognition, confidence, achievement
5. Self-Actualization Realizing personal potential, creativity, personal
growth

B. Student centered learning

Carl Rogers's "Student-Centered Learning" (also known as "Person-Centered Learning") is a

humanistic approach emphasizing the student's active role and innate drive to learn. Humans have
an inherent desire to learn and grow (Self−Actualization), and learning is most effective when it
comes from within. Teacher's role is not a lecturer, but a facilitator.

ü The teacher creates a supportive environment, provides resources, and trusts the student's
ability to learn.
ü Students are assumed to be active, self-directed, and responsible for their own learning.
ü Motivation of students is primarily intrinsic (internal desire to learn), not external
rewards/punishments.
ü Recognizes the importance of emotional safety in the classroom.
ü Promotes critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving.

4.8.6 Experiential Learning Theory

Proposed by David A. Kolb, Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) explains learning as a process
where knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Unlike traditional learning
that focuses on passive absorption of facts, experiential learning emphasizes active involvement
and reflection. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle emphasizes the process of learning through
experience. According to Kolb (1981), it consists of four stages that are interlinked in a cyclical
process:

i. Concrete Experience (Learning by feeling): This is where learning begins through direct,
hands-on experience. It involves actively engaging or direct involvement in an activity or
situation.
Example: Participating in a group discussion on agricultural practices.

ii. Reflective Observation (Learning by watching and listening): After the experience,
learners reflect on what happened, considering their feelings, observations, and reactions.

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 Learners here try to understand different points of view and their tendency is to rely on
personal thoughts and opinions.

Example: Thinking about how the group discussion revealed different farming perspectives.

iii. Abstract Conceptualization (Learning by thinking): Learners logically analyse the

experience and derive insights, theories, or conclusions from it. They connect it with prior
knowledge or create new concepts.

Example: Concluding that collaboration improves agricultural decision-making.

iv. Active Experimentation (Learning by doing): This stage involves applying the newly
learnt ideas in real-life situations to test their effectiveness.

Example: Implementing collaborative farming techniques discussed in the group.

Fig 4.1: Kolb’s learning cycle

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