CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

1. High Carbon Steel :

Carbon content in this steel is 0.9% to 1.2% which makes the cutting edge of the tool very sharp.
It loses its hardness at about 200°C temperature, which means its red hardness value is less.

Applications of high Carbon Steel :

1. It can be used as material for hand tools and tools working at low motion.
2. This type of carbon steel can be forged after heat treatment. Therefore it is used for lathe tools,
hand-operated screwing dies and tape, reamers, and broaches. Now desired properties of high-
carbon steel can be obtained by alloying.

2. High Speed Steel :

High-speed steel was invented by Tailer, who was an engineer. The H.S.S. 18 : 4 : 1 used
nowadays is his invention. This steel contains 18% tungsten, 4% chromium, and 1% vanadium.
The hardness of the cutting edge of the tool made from H.S.S. is preserved up to 500°C. The
specific classification of H.S.S. is as under :

1. Tungsten steel – contains 14% tungsten.

2. Tungsten molybdenum steel.
3. Tungsten cobalt steel.
Based on experience 1% molybdenum satisfies the need for 2% tungsten and tungsten-cobalt
steel is called super high-speed steel, which contains 3 to 5% cobalt, due to its red hardness and
wear resistance capacity increase. If vanadium is kept 3%, then a very good finish cut will be
obtained and the tool will remain stable against shock and impact.

Applications of High Speed Steel :

1. It can be used as tool material for machines rotating at high speed.

2. For roughing tool for rough machining of forging and casting.
3. Different category of H.S.S. is used in drills to take torsional shear stress.

3. Stellite:
Stellite is a non-ferrous alloy containing 12 to 19% tungsten, 38 to 40% cobalt, 30 to 35%
chromium, therefore having a red hardness value of 800°C. The alloy becomes soft at this
temperature but again becomes red and hard after cooling. Its workability and efficiency are best.
Its elements remain in their original form as this alloy does not get oxidized at high temperatures.
Therefore it can provide a better polished surface and can prevent the formation of a built-up
edge on the tool face.

Stellite is used at high speed and temperature due to this property.

Applications of Stellite:
1. As a cutting tool where complete ability is required.

2. Generally is used for machining ductile material at high speed.

Stellite is available in different sections and lengths. It is stuck on the tool holder as it is
available in the form of a variety of tips. These tips are fixed on the shank with silver solder.

4. Cemented Carbide :
The cemented carbide is a cutting tool having specific cutting characteristics. It is made by
sintering of the tungsten carbide grains embedded in tougher metal. Cemented tools are classified
as carbide, nitride, borite, and silicite, but out of them, carbide plays a greater role as a tool due
to its properties. All the physical properties are of higher values than steel. According to its
properties, it can be said metallic thermal and electrical conductivities are equal to that of metals.
The carbide tips are used more as cutting tools due to their basic properties of more hardness and
high temperature. At certain temperatures, it has higher values of red hardness in comparison to
steel. It contains 55 to 90% carbide particles in the structure of cemented carbide alloy and when
the cemented carbide is for metal cutting it contains 80% carbide by volume.

It can be classified broadly into three types :

a. P-grouping: Carbide tool used to cut metal into the form of long chips.

b. K-grouping: Carbide tool used to cut metal into the form of short chips.

c. M-grouping: Carbide tool used to cut metals into the form of chips of medium length.

5. Ceramics :
Aluminum oxide cutting tool material is used in newer experiments. It is called ceramics or
cemented oxide. Generally, manufacturers of tools are not producing their commercial
composition but those that are already popular are as under :

a. Aluminium oxide: 99 to 99.5% Al203, remaining silica and chromium oxide.

b. Silicon carbide: 99% AI2O3, remaining silica and chromium oxide.
c. Boron carbide: 60% Al203i remaining refractories containing titanium oxide.
d. Titanium carbide: 60% Al203, remaining molybdenum carbide, titanium carbide, and
tantalum carbide.
e. Titanium boride: 60% Al203/ remaining titanium boride and molybdenum silisite.
In the borite, the titanium is contained, therefore it is called titanium borite, and
molybdenum used in place of titanium makes the easy brazing of the tip. The borite tool
performs equally well as compared to the popular carbide tool. The popular ceramics
contain 90% Al203 and remaining 19% Cr203, MgO, and Fe304.
b. The ceramic tools are produced by sintering containing different percentage contents of
ceramics in its composition with metals as sintering becomes easy for obtaining metal
into a liquid state and the heat conduction coefficient of metal goes up in the presence of
 carbide. Therefore this tool can be used for grinding at high temperatures and its cutting
edge remains in its original form without getting any alteration.

5. Diamond Tools :
The use of diamonds is limited. It is used in powder form for grinding and polishing. It is used in
a diamond dresser for grinding wheels and in insert form for drawing dies. It is used for
machining of costly plastic materials to obtain the best surface finish and close tolerance of
dimensions.

The diamond is precious and costly. Therefore, its use is not viable economically except for
certain specific types of machining work. It is popularly used for trueing and dressing of grinding
wheels. Diamond bits are used for the machining of bearing metals and other hard steel
materials.

Applications of Diamond Tools :

1. Used in special equipment and fixtures.

2. Used in boring turning tool.
3. For truing and dressing of grinding wheels.
4. In lapping paste for valve and valve seat grinding.

Desired Properties of Tool Materials

1. Strength.
2. Hardness.
3. Cutting tool geometry.
4. Toughness and impact resistance.
5. High coefficient of thermal expansion.
6. Anti-corrosive.
7. Wear resistance.
8. Chemically inactive to cutting fluids.

CUTTING TOOL PROPERTIES

 Cutting tool properties include hardness (for resisting deformation), toughness (for resisting
fracture), wear resistance (for maintaining a sharp edge), hot hardness (for performance at high
temperatures), and chemical stability (to prevent reactions with the workpiece). No single
material possesses all these properties, so the ideal choice involves balancing hardness and
toughness, considering the specific work material, cutting conditions, and other factors to
optimize tool life and performance.
Here are the key properties of cutting tools:

 Hardness:
The ability of the tool material to resist penetration and deformation, ensuring it can cut harder
workpiece materials and maintain a sharp cutting edge.
 Toughness:
The ability to resist bulk breakage and fracture from sudden impact loads and force
fluctuations during the cutting process.
 Wear Resistance:
The ability to withstand wear and maintain its cutting edge throughout the machining
operation, extending the tool's lifespan.
 Hot Hardness (or Red Hardness):
The ability of a tool material to retain its hardness at high temperatures generated during
cutting.
 Chemical Stability:
The ability of the tool material to resist chemical reactions (like oxidation) and diffusion with
the workpiece material at high temperatures.
 Shock Resistance:
The ability to withstand sudden, unexpected loads or forces without breaking or failing.
 Low Coefficient of Friction:
A lower friction between the tool and the workpiece reduces heat and wear.
 Thermal Conductivity:
A high thermal conductivity allows the tool to dissipate heat effectively.
Choosing a cutting tool requires considering these properties in relation to the work material, the
type of machining operation, and desired surface finish and cost, as different materials excel in
different properties. For example, high-speed steel (HSS) offers good toughness but less hot
hardness, while carbides are harder but less tough.

HEAT GENERATION ZONES IN METAL CUTTING

 During metal cutting, most of the mechanical energy used in the process is converted into heat,
which can negatively impact tool life and workpiece quality. This heat is not generated in a
single location but is instead concentrated within three distinct zones around the cutting tool and
workpiece.

Primary Shear Zone (PSZ)

The primary shear zone is the most significant source of heat generation, accounting for
approximately 60–65% of the total heat produced.

 Location: This is the internal deformation zone where the workpiece material begins to be
separated from the parent metal. It is located just ahead of the cutting tool's edge, between the
uncut workpiece and the newly forming chip.

 Cause of heat: The high stress and strain rates cause intense plastic deformation and shearing of
the material. This process breaks the atomic bonds of the material, converting most of the
mechanical work directly into heat.

 Heat distribution: The vast majority of the heat generated in this zone is carried away by the
rapidly moving chip.

Secondary Shear Zone (SSZ)

 The secondary shear zone is another major source of heat, primarily caused by friction.

 Location: This zone is the interface between the top surface of the chip and the rake face of the
cutting tool.

 Cause of heat: As the chip slides along the tool's rake face under very high pressure, significant
friction occurs. This friction and subsequent plastic deformation of the chip material at this
interface generates a large amount of heat, typically around 30–35% of the total heat.

 Heat distribution: The heat produced here is primarily dissipated into the chip and, to a lesser
extent, into the tool. This is often the zone with the highest temperature, as heat is concentrated
in a very small area.

Tertiary Shear Zone (TSZ)

The tertiary shear zone, also known as the flank zone, generates the least amount of heat but can
still have important effects.

 Location: This zone is the contact area between the tool's flank (the side of the tool that passes
over the finished surface) and the newly machined surface of the workpiece.

 Cause of heat: Heat is generated by friction and rubbing between the tool flank and the
workpiece. This becomes more prominent as the tool wears and develops a wider flank wear
land.

 Heat distribution: The heat generated here is primarily conducted into the workpiece and the
tool. The rise in temperature in this zone directly influences the final surface finish and
dimensional accuracy.
 FACTORS AFFECTING TOOL LIFE
Factors affecting tool life include cutting conditions (cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut),
tool material and geometry (its hardness, toughness, and shape), workpiece material (its
hardness, toughness, and thermal conductivity), machine tool rigidity, and cutting fluids. Cutting
speed has the greatest influence, with higher speeds increasing temperatures and accelerating
tool wear.
Here's a breakdown of the key factors:
Cutting Conditions
 Cutting Speed:
The most significant factor; increasing speed generates more heat, causing tools to wear faster.
 Feed Rate:
The rate at which the tool moves into the workpiece; higher feed rates increase cutting force
and can lead to increased wear.
 Depth of Cut:
A deeper cut places more stress on the tool and generates more heat, which can accelerate
wear.
Tool Factors
 Tool Material:
The tool's inherent hardness, toughness, and thermal properties affect its durability and
performance.
 Tool Geometry:
The shape and angles of the tool, such as its rake angle, influence chip formation, cutting
forces, and heat generation, all of which impact tool life.
 Tool Coatings:
Special coatings can improve wear resistance and heat dissipation, extending the tool's life.
Workpiece Factors
 Workpiece Material Properties: The hardness, toughness, and thermal conductivity of the
material being machined significantly affect wear.
 Chip Control: Effective chip removal prevents re-cutting and damage to the tool.
Machine and Environment
 Machine Tool Rigidity:
A less rigid machine can lead to deflection, increasing stress on the tool and reducing its life.
 Cutting Fluids:
Coolants and lubricants reduce friction and heat at the cutting interface, prolonging tool life.
 FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE FINISH
Factors affecting surface finish in machining include cutting parameters (speed, feed, depth of
cut), cutting tool characteristics (material, geometry, wear), workpiece material properties
(hardness, toughness), machine tool condition (rigidity, vibration), use of coolant and lubrication,
and process-specific elements like grinding wheel specifications and spark-out
passes. Optimizing these factors can significantly improve the smoothness and quality of the
machined surface.

Here's a breakdown of the key factors:

1. Machining Parameters
 Cutting Speed:
Higher cutting speeds can often result in a smoother surface finish by reducing chip formation
and heat at the cutting edge, though excessive speed can cause thermal damage.
 Feed Rate:
A lower feed rate generally leads to a better surface finish, as it results in smaller chip removal
and reduced ridges on the machined surface.
 Depth of Cut:
Smaller depths of cut, especially in finishing passes, are crucial for achieving finer surface
finishes.

2. Tool Condition
 Tool Material & Geometry:
The choice of tool material and its design, including rake angle, relief angle, and nose radius,
greatly impacts surface quality. Sharp tools with appropriate geometry (e.g., large rake angle,
small nose radius) produce smoother finishes.
 Tool Wear:
As a tool wears, its cutting efficiency decreases, leading to increased friction, heat, and a
rougher surface finish.
 Built-Up Edge (BUE):
The accumulation of workpiece material on the cutting edge of the tool can disrupt the cutting
action and create an uneven, rough surface.
 3. Workpiece Material
 Hardness & Ductility:
The inherent properties of the workpiece material, such as its hardness, toughness, and
susceptibility to work hardening, directly influence how it machines.
 Microstructure:
The internal structure of the material, including grain size and inclusions, also affects
machining characteristics and the final finish.

4. Machine Tool Conditions

 Vibration & Rigidity:
Machine tool instability, caused by factors like poor rigidity or imbalanced components, can
lead to chatter and vibration, which results in surface imperfections.
 Work Holding:
Proper work holding is essential to maintain rigidity and prevent movement during machining.

5. Cooling and Lubrication

 Cutting Fluids: Coolants provide lubrication to reduce friction and heat, preventing tool wear
and improving the surface.

6. Grinding Specific Parameters (for grinding operations)

 Wheel Specification & Speed:
The type, grade, and rotational speed of the grinding wheel directly affect surface smoothness.
 Dressing Conditions:
Slowing down the dressing traverse speed and reducing the dressing depth of cut creates a
finer, smoother wheel face, resulting in a better surface finish.
 Spark Out Passes:
Performing "spark out" passes at the end of the grinding operation helps to refine the surface
and improve the finish by allowing the abrasive grains to settle.
 DESIRED CUTTING FLUID PROPERTIES
Desired cutting fluid properties include cooling, lubrication, chip removal, and corrosion
resistance, all while being non-toxic, non-flammable, stable, and having low viscosity for ease of
application and to prevent foaming. Effective cutting fluids should also have good wetting ability
for efficient heat transfer and should be chemically stable to avoid decomposition.

Key Properties of an Ideal Cutting Fluid

 Cooling Capacity:
A high heat-absorbing capacity and thermal conductivity are crucial for dissipating the intense
heat generated during machining, preventing damage to the tool and workpiece.
 Lubrication:
Excellent lubricating properties reduce friction between the tool and workpiece, decreasing
cutting forces and power consumption.
 Chip Evacuation:
The fluid should have low viscosity and good wetting ability to help wash away chips,
preventing them from accumulating and causing surface finish issues.
 Corrosion Resistance:
Cutting fluids must be non-corrosive to both the machine tool and the workpiece to ensure
their longevity.
 Chemical Stability:
The fluid should be resistant to oxidation and decomposition when exposed to air and high
temperatures, maintaining its properties over time.
 Safety & Health:
Desirable properties include being non-toxic and non-flammable, having a high flash point to
prevent fires, and being odorless to avoid unpleasant side effects for the operator.
 Non-foaming:
The fluid should not produce excessive foam, which can hinder lubrication and cooling,
especially in high-pressure operations.
 Wetting Ability:
A low surface tension helps the fluid wet the tool and workpiece surfaces, leading to better
heat dissipation and lubrication.
Factors for Selection
 When selecting a cutting fluid, consider the following factors:
 Material being machined: Different metals have different machinability.
 Type of operation: The specific cutting process (e.g., grinding, drilling) influences the required
fluid properties.
 Tool material: Tool composition affects the fluid's chemical interactions.
 Machining conditions: Factors like speed and pressure of the operation dictate the cooling and
lubrication needs.

TYPES OF CUTTING FLUID USED IN MACHINING

The four main types of cutting fluids in machining are straight oils, soluble oils, synthetic fluids,
and semi-synthetic fluids. Straight oils are petroleum or vegetable-based lubricants, while
soluble oils are water-miscible emulsions that provide cooling and lubrication. Synthetic fluids
are water-based with chemical agents, and semi-synthetic fluids combine features of both soluble
oils and synthetics by emulsifying oil with water.

Here is a breakdown of each type:

Straight Oils
 Description: These are non-water-based lubricants containing petroleum or vegetable oils.
 Subtypes: Includes straight mineral oils (for light machining), compounded oils (with fatty
acids for tougher materials), and extreme pressure (EP) oils (for severe operations).
 Applications: Used for heavy-duty lubrication and protection against wear, particularly with
tough materials.
 Considerations: Not ideal for applications that require high cooling rates, as they lack the
heat-absorbing capacity of water-based fluids.

Soluble Oils
 Description: These are oil-in-water emulsions that mix oil with water to form a stable, milky
fluid.
 Features: Contain additives for lubrication, rust prevention, and foaming control.
 Applications: Excellent for high-speed machining and grinding due to their superior cooling
properties.
 Considerations: Also known as suds in British English.
 Synthetic Fluids
 Description: Water-based fluids made from chemical agents, rather than petroleum products.
 Features: Excellent cooling capabilities, though they have lower lubricating properties
compared to oil-based fluids.
 Applications: Primarily used for cooling, though some can also provide lubrication.
 Considerations: Can be chemically reactive with some metal parts and paints.

Semi-Synthetic Fluids
 Description: A blend of mineral oil, emulsifiers, and other additives in a water base,
combining oil and water properties.
 Features: Offers a good balance of cooling and lubrication, better than synthetic fluids.
 Applications: Used for a wide range of machining operations requiring both cooling and
lubrication.
 Considerations: Can be mixed in various concentrations depending on the application's
needs.
MACHINABILITY, MACHINABILITY INDEX AND
FACTORS AFFECTING MACHINABILITY
Machinability is the relative ease with which a material can be cut into a desired shape, measured
by factors like tool wear, cutting forces, surface finish, and chip formation. The Machinability
Index (or rating) quantifies this, comparing a material's performance against a standard reference
material (like B1112 steel at 100%). Key factors affecting machinability include the
material's strength, hardness, ductility, thermal conductivity, microstructure, and chemical
composition, as well as the cutting conditions, tool geometry, and lubrication used in the
machining process.

Machinability describes how easily a material can be machined, meaning it requires less power,
allows for faster cutting speeds, and results in a good surface finish with minimal tooling
wear. Materials with good machinability are often referred to as "free-machining materials".
Machinability Index (Rating)
The machinability index (or rating) provides a standardized numerical value for a material's
machinability relative to a reference material.
The formula of the Machinability Index
MI(%) = (Vi/Vs) × 100
Where,
MI=Machinability Index.
Vi = The cutting speed of the metal for 1-minute tool life.
Vs = The cutting speed of standard free cutting steel for 1-minute tool life.
 How it's determined:
It's typically calculated based on the ratio of the cutting speed (v) at which a reference material
(with a 100% rating) yields a specific tool life to the cutting speed at which the material being
rated achieves the same tool life under identical conditions.
 Interpretation:
A rating of 100% indicates the material is as machinable as the reference material (e.g., B1112
steel). Materials rated above 100% are easier to machine, while those below 100% are more
difficult.

Factors Affecting Machinability

Machinability is influenced by a combination of material properties and machining conditions.
Material Properties
 Hardness & Strength:
Harder, stronger materials generally require more force and power to cut, leading to increased
tool wear and higher costs.
 Ductility:
High ductility can lead to difficulty in chip formation and tool wear, while very brittle
materials may cause premature tool failure.
 Thermal Conductivity:
A material's ability to dissipate heat affects the temperature at the tool tip, influencing tool life
and surface finish.
 Microstructure:
The internal structure and grain size of the material significantly affect its machinability.
 Chemical Composition & Fabrication:
A material's chemical makeup and how it was manufactured (e.g., heat treatment, cold
working) all play a role.
Machining Conditions
 Cutting Speed, Feed, and Depth of Cut:
These parameters directly impact the forces, heat, and chip formation during the process.
 Tool Geometry:
The shape and design of the cutting tool are critical for effective material removal.
 Cutting Fluids:
Proper use of lubricants can reduce friction, improve heat dissipation, and extend tool life.
 Tool Material & Rigidity:
The choice of tool material and the stability of the tool-holding device are also important
factors.
 DEFINE TOOL LIFE AND FACTORS AFFECTING
TOOL LIFE.

Tool life is the total time a cutting tool can be used effectively and efficiently
before it becomes unusable and needs to be replaced or reground. It is a
critical metric in manufacturing that influences production costs, efficiency,
and product quality.

The end of a tool's life can be determined by several criteria, such as:

 Excessive wear: The cutting edge becomes dull from abrasion, adhesion, or
diffusion.

 Dimensional error: The workpiece no longer meets the required dimensional

accuracy.

 Degraded surface finish: The workpiece develops a poor surface finish or

chatter marks.

 Catastrophic failure: The tool's cutting edge fractures or breaks completely.

Factors affecting tool life

A wide range of factors, which can be grouped into cutting conditions, tool
characteristics, workpiece properties, and the machining environment, affect
how long a tool will last.

Cutting conditions

 Cutting speed: This is the most influential factor. Higher cutting speeds
dramatically increase the temperature at the tool-workpiece interface,
accelerating tool wear and reducing tool life.

 Feed rate and depth of cut: The feed rate (how far the tool advances per
revolution) and the depth of cut influence the volume of material removed
and the heat generated. Both generally have an inverse relationship with
tool life, but less significant than cutting speed.
 Type of cutting: Continuous cutting operations, like standard turning,
generally result in longer tool life than intermittent cutting (e.g., milling),
where the tool experiences cyclical impacts and thermal shocks.

Cutting tool

 Tool material: Different tool materials have varying properties that affect
their lifespan. For instance, cemented carbide tools can withstand higher
cutting speeds and have a longer life than high-speed steel (HSS) tools.
Harder, more heat-resistant materials typically have a longer tool life.

 Tool geometry: The angles and shape of the cutting tool affect heat
dissipation and stress concentration.

o Rake angle: A larger positive rake angle can reduce cutting forces and heat
but may make the tool mechanically weaker.

o Nose radius: A larger nose radius increases tool strength, improves surface
finish, and can extend tool life.

 Tool coating: Thin, hard coatings (e.g., Titanium Nitride) on the tool's surface
can increase wear resistance and lubricity, leading to longer tool life.

Workpiece material

 Hardness and microstructure: Harder and tougher workpiece materials, such

as hardened steels or high-temperature alloys, cause greater abrasive wear
on the tool and reduce its life. Hard micro-constituents in the material, like
carbides, also accelerate tool wear.

 Inclusions and surface condition: Abrasive impurities, scale, or a hardened

surface layer on the workpiece material can significantly increase tool wear
and reduce its life.

Machining environment

 Cutting fluids: The use of coolants or lubricants is crucial for removing heat
from the cutting zone and reducing friction. This mitigates temperature-
related wear and can substantially increase tool life.

 Machine tool rigidity: A rigid machine tool and a securely held workpiece
prevent vibrations and chatter during cutting. Excessive vibration can lead to
chipping and premature tool failure.
 CAUSES OF TOOL WEAR OR MECHANISM OF
TOOL WEAR
Tool wear is the gradual deterioration of a cutting tool during machining, leading to a loss of
material, sharpness, and shape. Tool wear is caused by complex interactions of mechanical,
thermal, and chemical phenomena that occur at the high-stress, high-temperature tool-workpiece
interface.

Causes and mechanisms of tool wear

Mechanical wear

 Abrasion: This is the primary wear mechanism at lower cutting speeds. It occurs when hard
particles or inclusions in the workpiece, or fragments of a built-up edge, rub and gouge the tool's
surface, removing small pieces of the tool material.

 Adhesion (Attrition): This happens when high temperature and pressure cause microscopic welds
to form between the tool and the workpiece or chip. As the chip flows away, these welds are
periodically broken, tearing away small fragments of the tool material. This is a common cause
of flank wear and built-up edge formation.

 Fracture/Chipping: Excessive mechanical stress can cause a portion of the tool's cutting edge to
break off. This can be caused by excessive cutting forces, vibrations, shock loads from
interrupted cuts, or hard inclusions in the workpiece.

 Fatigue: Repetitive loading and unloading during cutting, especially in interrupted cutting (like
milling), can lead to cyclic stresses. This results in the formation of surface cracks that can grow
and lead to tool failure.
 Thermal wear

 Plastic Deformation: High cutting temperatures, particularly at high speeds, can soften the tool
material. The resulting loss of hardness and strength causes the cutting edge to deform or bulge
under the high cutting forces. This is a common cause of both flank wear and crater wear.

 Thermal Cracking: This occurs during interrupted cutting when the cutting edge is subjected to
rapid, cyclical heating and cooling. The resulting thermal expansion and contraction can cause a
network of microcracks to form perpendicular to the cutting edge, leading to chipping and
breakage.

Chemical and electrochemical wear

 Diffusion: At high cutting temperatures, atoms can migrate and exchange between the tool and
the chip materials. This phenomenon can weaken the tool's surface layers, as key elements
responsible for its hardness, such as carbon, diffuse into the chip. Diffusion is a primary
mechanism for crater wear.

 Oxidational Wear: When the tool-chip interface reaches high temperatures, the tool's surface can
react with oxygen to form a softer oxide layer. This layer is then easily worn away by the sliding
action of the chip, exposing fresh material to the same chemical process.

 Chemical Decomposition: In some cases, localized chemical reactions can occur between the
tool and workpiece material, leading to the dissolution of the binder that holds hard particles
together, weakening the tool.

 Electrochemical/Galvanic Wear: This can occur when electrically conductive tool and workpiece
materials interact in the presence of a cutting fluid that acts as an electrolyte. The resulting
galvanic corrosion can cause the gradual dissolution of the tool material.

Factors influencing tool wear

Several factors influence the severity and rate of tool wear:

 Cutting Conditions: Higher cutting speeds and feed rates significantly increase temperature,
friction, and pressure, accelerating wear.

 Tool Material: The choice of tool material, its hot hardness, and wear resistance are critical. For
example, cemented carbides and ceramics have higher wear resistance than high-speed steel.

 Workpiece Material: The hardness, abrasiveness, and thermal properties of the workpiece
material play a major role in determining the type and rate of wear.
 Cutting Fluid: Coolants and lubricants can reduce friction and dissipate heat, thereby
significantly decreasing tool wear.

 Tool Geometry: Rake angle, clearance angle, and nose radius can affect cutting forces, heat
generation, and the distribution of wear on the tool.

 Machine Rigidity: Vibrations and chatter caused by inadequate machine rigidity can lead to
chipping and premature tool failure.

TYPES OF TOOL WEAR

 The primary types of tool wear are flank wear, where material erodes from the side of the tool
due to contact with the finished part; crater wear, a depression on the tool's rake face caused by
chips sliding over it at high temperatures; and nose wear, which is a specific type of wear on the
tool's tip, often leading to dimensional inaccuracies and reduced tool life.

TYPES OF TOOL WEAR

Flank Wear

 Description: A uniformly worn area along the cutting edge on the tool's flank (side).
 Cause: Caused by abrasive particles from the workpiece material as it rubs against the tool's
clearance surface.
 Effect: Increases cutting forces and can lead to cutting edge failure.

Crater Wear

 Description: A concave depression that forms on the tool's rake (top) face, a short distance
from the cutting edge.
 Cause: Occurs from chemical reactions and diffusion of workpiece material at high cutting
temperatures as the chips flow across the rake face.
 Effect: Weakens the tool and can eventually cause a failure of the cutting edge.

Nose Wear

 Description: A form of flank wear that occurs at the tool's nose or corner.
 Cause: A combination of abrasion and high temperature at the point of highest cutting stress.
 Effect: Shortens the tool, reduces machining accuracy, and can impact the surface finish.