Genetics
~Chromosome, ~ DNA, ~ Mitosis &
~ Meiosis
By Mr A. Chamboko
MSc Animal Science (MUAST),
BSc Agriculture (UZ),
PGDE (ZOU)
Objectives of the section
• describe the structure of a chromosome
• describe the structure of DNA
• explain DNA replication
• describe the process of mitosis
• explain the significance of mitosis in animal
production
• describe the process of meiosis
• explain the significance of meiosis in animal
reproduction
• compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis
Key Concepts:
• DNA contains the information of heritable
traits in all cells
• Each DNA strand consists of two strands of
nucleotides twisted together
• Hereditary information is encoded in the
sequence of nucleotides
• Nitrogen bases have specific pairing
arrangements
• DNA is replicated before a cell divides
Fundamental law of molecular
biology
DNA ---------→ RNA---------→Protein.
• This unidirectional flow equation represents the
(fundamental law) of molecular biology.
• This is the mechanism whereby inherited information is
used to create actual objects, namely enzymes and
structural proteins.
• An exception to the central dogma is that certain viruses
(retroviruses) make DNA from RNA using the enzyme
reverse transcriptase.
Gene expression
• Genes are DNA sequences that encode
proteins (the gene product)
• Gene expression refers to the process
whereby the information contained in
genes begins to have effects in the cell.
• DNA encodes and transmits the genetic
information passed down from parents
to offspring.
Genetic Coding
• The alphabet of the genetic code
contains only four letters (A,T,G,C).
• A number of experiments confirmed
that the genetic code is written in 3-
letter words, each of which codes for
particular amino acid.
• A nucleic acid word (3 nucleotide
Types of Nucleic acids
There are 2 types of nucleic acids:
1. Deoxy-ribonucleic acid (DNA)
• Pentose Sugar is deoxyribose (no OH at 2’ position)
• Bases are Purines (A, G) and Pyrimidine (C, T).
2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• Pentose Sugar is Ribose.
• Bases are Purines (A, G) and Pyrimidines (C, U).
Complementary base pairing
• It is the most important structural feature of
nucleic acids
• It connects bases of one polynucleotide
chain (nucleotide polymer) with
complementary bases of other chain
• Complementary bases are bonded together
via:
– Double hydrogen bond between A and T (DNA), A
and U (RNA) (A═T or A═U)
– Triple H-bond between G and C in both DNA or
RNA (G≡C)
Base pairing
Significance of complementary
base pairing
• The importance of such complementary base
pairing is that each strand of DNA can act as
template to direct the synthesis of other
strand similar to its complementary one.
• Thus nucleic acids are uniquely capable of
directing their own self replication.
• The information carried by DNA and RNA
direct the synthesis of specific proteins
which control most cellular activities.
Describe the structure of a
chromosome
• German biologist Walter Flemming in the
early 1880s revealed that during cell
division the nuclear material organize
themselves into visible thread like
structures which were named as
chromosomes which stains deep with
basic dyes. The term chromosome was
coined by W. Waldeyer in 1888.
• Chrome is coloured and soma is body,
hence they mean “colored bodies” and can
be defined as higher order organized
arrangement of DNA and proteins. It
contains many genes or the hereditary
units, regulatory elements and other
nucleotide sequences.
• Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound
proteins, which serve in packaging the
DNA and control its functions.
Chromosomes vary both in number and
structure among organisms (Table 1) and
the number of chromosomes is
characteristic of every species.
• Table 1: Number of chromosomes in
different organisms
• Maize (diploid) 20
• Earthworm (diploid) 36
• Mouse (diploid) 40
• Human (diploid) 46
• Elephants (diploid) 56
• Donkey (diploid) 62
• Dog (diploid) 78
• A chromosome at mitotic metaphase
consists of two symmetrical structures
called chromatids. Each chromatid
contains a single DNA molecule and both
chromatids are attached to each other by
centromere and become separated at the
beginning of anaphase.
• The chromomeres are bead like accumulations
of chromatin material that are sometimes visible
along interphase chromosomes. The
chromomere bearing chromatin has an
appearance of a necklace in which several
beads occur on a string. Chromomeres are
regions of tightly folded DNA and become
especially prominent in polytene chromosomes.
• Centromere in a chromosome contain specific
DNA sequences with special proteins bound
to them, forming a disc shaped structure,
called kinetochore. In electron microscope
the kinetochore appears as a plate or cup
like disc, 0.20-0.25 nm, in diameter
situated upon the primary constriction or
centromere.
• VIDEO ON THE STRUCTURE OF
CHROMOSOMEChromosomes[via
torchbrowser.com].mp4
Describe the structure of DNA
• DNA consists of two strands of
nucleotides held together at bases by
hydrogen bonds
– A=T and C=G
• The two strands twist into a double
helix.
• The two strands run in opposite
directions (anti-parallel)
– Each strand runs in a 5’ to 3’ direction
DNA structure [continued]
• DNA is a double stranded molecule consists of 2
polynucleotide chains running in opposite directions.
• Both strands are complementary to each other.
• The bases are on the inside of the molecules and the
2 chains are joined together by double H-bond
between A and T and triple H-bond between C and G.
• The base pairing is very specific which make the 2
strands complementary to each other.
• So each strand contain all the required information for
synthesis (replication) of a new copy to its
complementary.
Why is double stranded important
The structure of DNA allows for one strand
to act as a template for the other strand
– If you have one strand you automatically
know the sequence of base pairs for the other
strand.
• ACGCGCT
• TGCGCGA
Importance of double helix
• Stability---protects bases from attack by
H2O soluble compounds and H2O itself.
• Provides easy mechanism for replication
RNA structure
• It is formed of linear polynucleotide
• It is generally single stranded
• The pentose sugar is Ribose
• Uracile (U) replace Thymine (T) in the
pyrimidine bases.
Although RNA is generally single stranded,
intra-molecular H-bond base pairing occur
between complementary bases on the same
molecule (secondary structure)
Types of RNA
• Messenger RNA (mRNA):
– Carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a
series of 3-base code, each of which specifies a particular amino
acid.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA):
– It is the key that read the code on the mRNA.
– Each amino acid has its own tRNA, which binds to it and carries
it to the growing end of a polypeptide chain.
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):
– Associated with a set of proteins to form the ribosomes.
– These complex structures, which physically move along the
mRNA molecule, catalyze the assembly of amino acids into
protein chain.
– They also bind tRNAs that have the specific amino acids
according to the code.
DNA Replication
• Replication of the DNA molecule is semi-conservative,
which means that each parent strand serves as a
template for a new strand and that the two (2) new
DNA molecules each have one old and one new
strand.
• DNA replication requires:
– A strand of DNA to serve as a template
– Substrates - deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates
(dATP, dGTP, dCTP, dTTP).
– DNA polymerase - an enzyme that brings the
substrates to the DNA strand template
– A source of chemical energy to drive this synthesis
reaction.
DNA Replication
• Nucleotides are always added to the growing strand
at the 3' end (end with free -OH group).
• The hydroxyl group reacts with the phosphate group
on the 5' C of the deoxyribose so the chain grows
• Energy is released when the bound linking 2 of the 3
phosphate groups to the deoxyribonucleoside
triphosphate breaks
• Remaining phosphate group becomes part of the
sugar-phosphate backbone
Step 1 - Unwinding and Exposing
Strands
– DNA strands are unwound and opened by
enzymes called HELICASES
– Helicases act at specific places called
ORIGINS OF REPLICATION
– Synthesis of new DNA strands proceeds in
both directions from an origin of replication
resulting in a bubble with REPLICATION
FORKS at each growing point.
Step 2 - Priming the Strand
– In order to begin making a new strand, a helper
strand called a PRIMER is needed to start the
strand.
– DNA polymerase, an enzyme, can then add
nucleotides to the 3' end of the primer.
– Primer is a short, single strand of RNA (ribonucleic
acid) and is complimentary to the DNA template
strand.
– Primers are formed by enzymes called PRIMASES.
Step 3 - Strand Elongation
– DNA Polymerase III catalyses elongation of new DNA
strands in prokaryotes
– Two molecules of DNA polymerase III clamp together at
the replication forks, each acting on 1 of the strands
– One strand exposed at its 3' end produces a daughter
strand which elongates from its 5' to 3' end and is
called the LEADING STRAND. This strand is
synthesized continuously and grows from 5' to 3'.
Step 3 - Strand Elongation
– The second daughter strand is called the LAGGING
STRAND and is antiparallel to the leading strand. It’s
template is exposed from the 5' to 3' end but it must
direct the 5' to 3' synthesis of the lagging strands, since
nucleotides are added at the 3' end of the chain.
– The lagging strand is constructed in small, backward
directed bits consisting of discontinuous sections of
100-200 nucleotides in eukaryotes and 1000-2000
nucleotides in prokaryotes, called OKAZAKI
FRAGMENTS.
Step 3 - Strand Elongation
– When an Okazaki fragment forms:
DNA polymerase I removes the RNA primer and
replaces it with DNA adjacent to the fragment.
– leaving 1 bond between adjacent fragments
missing.
– A second enzyme called a DNA LIGASE
catalyses the formation of the final bond.
Telomerase
• Telomerase is a reverse transcriptase that contain an RNA
template, adds nucleotides to the 3’end of the lagging-
strand template and thus prevents shortening of lagging
strands during replication of linear DNA molecules such
as those of eukaryotic chromosomes.
