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9TH ReFoSTS Conference Proceedings final

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
S/N TITLE LIST OF AUTHORS
NUMBER

1 EFFECTS OF STORAGE CONDITIONS AND TIME ON THE CHEMICAL, Oyelakin, M. O. Sanni, L. O. Shittu,
1
FUNCTIONAL AND PASTING PROPERTIES OF ‘OFADA’ RICE T. A. Adewuyi, S. and Awagu, E. F.

2 SURVEY OF AFLATOXIN LEVELS OF SIX AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS Olaitan, T. R, Aderele, S. A,

IN ENUGU METROPOLIS, ENUGU STATE, NIGERIA Oyelakin, M.O., Awoite, T.M.,
Ibitoye, O., Adeoti J. T., & Adeoti,
9
V.I

3 FORECASTING THE DEGRADATION OF VITAMIN C IN BLANCHED Awagu, E.F., Okoroafor, C.H.,

VEGETABLES USING COMPUTER SIMULATION ANALYSIS. Ajanwachuku, N.C., Aneke, C.C., 18
Okike, O.O., and Ugama, E.E.

4 KINETIC MODELING OF VITAMIN C DEGRADATION IN VEGETABLES Awagu, E.F., Okoroafor, C.H.,

AT VARIOUS ROOM TEMPERATURES USING TIME SERIES ANALYSIS Okike, O.O., Ugama, E.E. 24
Ajanwachuku, N.C., and Aneke, C.C

5 ISOLATION OF BACTERIA FROM PROTEIN CONDIMENTS PRODUCED Isiekwene, A.C., Omonigho, S.E.,
USING Citrullus colocynthis, Ricinus communis and Parkia biglobosa Awagu E.F., Bamishaiye, E.I., 28
SEEDS Okoroafor., C.H. Oyelakin, M.O

6 PHYTOCHEMICALS AND COLOUR PROPERTIES OF EXTRUDATES Ojo, O. A., Fakunle, R. A., Obadina, 36
FROM MALTED SORGHUM-GROUNDNUT COMPOSITE FLOUR A. O., and Oke, E. K.
7 QUALITY COMPARISON OF MOI-MOI PRODUCED FROM WHITE Salako, M.O., Ajani, A.O., Oyeyipo,
41
COWPEAS USING DIFFERENT PACKAGING MATERIALS S.O., Zubair, A. B., Ayanda, I. S.

8 BACTERIAL SUCCESSION AND TEMPERATRE OF PROTEIN Isiekwene, A.C., Inana, M.E.,

CONDIMENTS FROM Citrullus colocynthis, Ricinus communis and Awagu E.F., Okoroafor, C.H., 48
Parkia biglobosa SEEDS Oyelakin, M.O., Aneke, C.C

i
9 KINETIC MODELING OF VITAMIN C IN THE KEEPING QUALITY OF Awagu, E.F., Okoroafor, C.H.,
LETTUCE (Lactuca sativa L) UNDER ROOM AND REFRIGERATED Bamishaiye, E.I., Aneke, C.C., 55
TEMPERATURE USING COMPUTER SIMULATION ANALYSIS Ugama, E.E., Ajanwachuku, N.C.
10 ANALYSIS OF CONSUMERS’ PREFERENCE AND CONSUMPTION Nworji, A. A., Adamu, D. A.,
PATTERN OF CASSAVA PRODUCTS IN KWARA STATE, NIGERIA Orimafor, P., Adedoyin, E. A., 63
Ohaeri, C.V. and Chukwu S. E.

11 EFFECTS OF SELECTED DRYING METHODS ON THE PROXIMATE Adebayo, T. K., Daramola, A. S. and
COMPOSITION OF SOFT CANE (Thaumatococcus daniellii) SEED
71
Raji, A. O.

12 EFFECT OF FERMENTATION PERIOD ON THE CHEMICAL CONTENT Bolarin, F.M., Akande, E.A. and
77
OF “GARRI ANALOGUE” FROM DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF OFSP Oke, M.O.

13 PRODUCTION OF VALUE-ADDED FOOD FROM PLANTAIN AND Agboola, A. A., Oladeinde, M. O.,
CATFISH Akinniyi, N. J., Johnson, O. M.,
Oluseyi, J., Makinde, M. T. and
84
Asiwaju-Bello, S. K.

14 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CHILLI PEPPER POWDER, MIXED WITH Akanni, A.A., Kajihausa, O.E.,
91
GARLIC AND GINGER Opaleye, S.O. and Ajani, A.O.

15 EFFICACY OF BUSH MANGO (Irvingia gabonensis) WOOD ASH (BWA) Nwebor, E., Abdulbaki, M. K., Okike,
AGAINST Callosobruchus maculatus IN STORED BAMBARA NUT O. O., Nwokpoku, D. E., Ogodo, C. 97
O., Ugama, E. E., and Awagu, E. E.

16 PRODUCTION CAPACITY AND NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF GARRI Abdulbaki, M. K., Elemasho, M. K.,
AMONG SMALL AND MEDIUM PROCESSORS IN RIVERS STATE Daramola, D., Aneke, C. C.,
NIGERIA 1
Chugali, A. J. C., 1Nwahia O., 103
2
Nwaehujor, U. I.. and 1Awagu, E.
E.

17 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION AND GLYCEMIC INDEX OF SOME Christopher, K., Umaru H.A., Bakari
SELECTED CEREALS SOLD IN JIMETA-YOLA ULTRA-MODERN S.B., Awagu, E.F., Oyelakin, M.O., 110
MARKET, ADAMAWA Okoroafor, C.H., Okike O.O.

ii
18 EFFECT OF COWPEA FLOUR INCLUSION ON THE PASTING Alimi, J. P., Shittu, T. A., Alimi, J.O.,
PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE WHEAT-COWPEA FLOUR
117
Awagu, E. F., Yepshak N. B.,

19 EFFECT OF COWPEA FLOUR INCLUSION ON THE RHEOLOGICAL Alimi, J. P., Shittu, T. A., Alimi, J.O.,
PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE WHEAT-COWPEA FLOUR
122
Awagu, E. F., Yepshak N. B.

20 PHYSICAL, MICROSTRUCTURAL PROPERTIES AND SHELF STABILITY Alimi, J. P., Shittu, T. A., Alimi, J.
OF COMPOSITE WHEAT-COWPEA BREAD
128
O., Awagu, E. F., Ahola D. O.

21 PHYSICAL AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE WHEAT- Alimi, J. P., Shittu, T. A., Alimi, J.O.,
COWPEA BREAD
135
Awagu, E. F., Ahola D. O.

22 ANTHROPOGENIC GADOLINIUM, A POTENTIAL FOOD Asebioge O. O. and Alokun-

CONTAMINANT OF EMERGING CONCERN: A REVIEW
140
Adesanya O. A.

23 PROXIMATE AND ANTIDIABETIC PROPERTIES OF OPTIMIZED Adetunji, R. O, Ifesan, B.O.T. and

PUMPKIN (Curcubita. pepo) PULP, SEED AND STARCH RESIDUE Awolu, O. O. 147
COMPOSITE FLOUR

24 FUNCTIONAL AND PASTING PROPERTIES OF FLOUR BLENDS FROM Kajihausa, O. E., Opara, C. N.,
SWEET POTATO FLOUR AND CASSAVA STARCH Adeosun, T. A.1, Sulaimon, O. P. 154
and Odejimi, S. K.

25 EVALUATION OF THE MINERAL AND VITAMIN ANALYSIS OF LOCAL Akinyele, A. A., Akinyele, A. A.,
SNACK (AADUN) MADE FROM MAIZE AND SOYBEAN FLOUR Abata, G. D., Oyinloye, O. D., 160
Mosimabale, M. M. and Bello, H, B.

26 NIGERIA’S PLACE IN GLOBAL MARKET: A CRITICAL REVIEW ON Raphael, D. O. and Ademoyegun.

RECENT BANANA (Musa acuminata) EXPORTS O. T. 168

27 QUALITY OF NON-ALCOHOLIC ‘PITO’ (A MALTED BEVERAGE) FROM Akanbi O. R., Morenikeji O. E.,
SORGHUM AND MILLET Olatunde G. O. 175

28 VITAMIN AND TOTAL CAROTENOID CONTENT OF COMPOSITE Okolie, P. I., Olowookere, E. O.,
FLOUR FROM WHEAT, FERMENTED AFRICAN YAM BEAN AND Okolie. E. C., Ojinnaka, M. C., Kalu, 182
ORANGE FLESH SWEET POTATO FLOUR C. E., Olalekan, B. T., Kalejaye, D.

iii
 A., Oketoki, D. R. and Adeshola, F.
A.
29 PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND APPLICATION OF MUCILAGE Akinoso, R., Ibrahim, K.O., Ibrahim,
EXTRACTED FROM JUTE MALLOW (Corchorus olitorius) AND R. and Jegede, O.A. 188
WATERLEAF (Talinum triangulare) IN PANCAKE PRODUCTION

30 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND CONSUMER ACCEPTABILITY OF KUNU Zakariya, M.I., Babarinde, G. O. and
PRODUCED FROM DIFFERENT UNDERUTILIZED CEREALS Akande, E. A. 194

31 EVALUATION OF SYNERGISTIC EFFECT OF ROSELLE (Hibiscus Olatunji O.A. and Ademoyegun O.

sabdariffa) HERBAL TEA INFUSED WITH GINGER (Zingiber officinale) T. 200
AND SCENT LEAVES (Ocimum gratissimum)

32 EFFECT OF PRETREATMENT METHODS ON THE PROXIMATE Oketoki, R. D., Ayege, A. F., Okolie,
COMPOSITION AND ANTINUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES OF YOGHURT P. I., Olowookere, E. D., Olalekan, 210
FROM AFRICAN YAM BEAN (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) SEED B. T. and Kalejaye, D. A.

33 EVALUATION OF THE NUTRITIONAL AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF Adebayo, Y. O., Lasabi, O. T.,
MAIZE GRUEL FORTIFIED WITH BAOBAB FRUIT PULP AND SOY Akinsanya O.B and Adeyemo, A. E. 218
POWDER
34 THERMOPHYSICAL AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF UNRIPE Adegoke, A. F., Onifade, E. O.,
PLANTAIN AND WATER YAM COMPOSITE FLOURS Omohimi, C. I. Omidiran, A. T., 225
Kajihausa, O. E., Adekoyeni, O. O.,
John, E. P. and Adebowale, A. A.
35 PROXIMATE, PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND ORGANOLEPTIC PROPERTIES Ogungbade, A. M., Bamgbose, A. 233
OF Aframomum danielli SPICED PLANTAIN CHIPS and Odumnbaku, L. A.
36 EVALUATION OF NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF BREAD SPICED WITH Babarinde G.O., Alawode O.W.,
CALABASH NUTMEG Adesola M. O., Adejuwon S.O., 241
Owolabi A. O. And Adesina K. A.
37 TECHNO-ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF INDUSTRIAL PLANTAIN CHIPS Popoola-Akinola. O., Afolayan, F. A., 249
PRODUCTION Olaoye, I. O. and Olawoye, B.
38 QUALITY EVALUATION OF COMPOSITE FLOUR FROM BLENDS OF Olanipekun B. F., *Adesola M.O.,
TIGER NUT CHAFF AND WHEAT FLOUR Ohijeagbon O.R and Balogun A. F 257

iv
39 PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION OF YOGURT MADE FROM Adelekan, A. O, Akinsanya, O.B and
EXTRACTS OF DATE (Phoenix dactylifera) AND TIGERNUT (Cyperus Ezeoma, A.J 265
esculentus) MILK
40 NUTRITIONAL AND SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS OF ENRICHED Olatunde, S. J., Abioye, V. F.,
GLUTEN-FREE CAKE PRODUCED FROM CASSAVA FLOUR, SOYBEAN Owoola, G.O., Agboola, C.I., and 273
FLOUR AND CASSAVA STARCH BLENDS Akinwande, B. A.

41 NUTRITIONAL AND PHYTOCHEMICAL EVALUATION OF Hypericum Otenaike O.E., Salawu S.O. and 280
perforatum AND Matricaria chamomilla Oyeyipo S.O.
42 DEVELOPMENT OF NUTRITIONAL AND FUNCTIONAL JAM FROM Abioye, V.F., Alawode, O.W.,
CAYENNE PEPPER Iranloye, Y.M., Olodude, O.A. and 288
Oyewo, I.O.
43 CORRELATION OF THE TEXTURAL ATTRIBUTES AND CONSUMER Awoyale, W., Saliu, O. L. and
ACCEPTABILITY OF OJOJO AS INFLUENCED BY DIFFERENT FRYING Olatoye, K. K. 295
TEMPERATURES AND TIMES
44 PROTECTING INDIGENOUS FOODS IN NIGERIA: A LEGAL Banmeke, O. M. and Adewumi, A. 300
PERSPECTIVE
45 CAN INDIGENOUS CULINARY SPICES IN NIGERIA COMPETE Shitu, S., Olayinka, A. S. and Kolo,
SUSTAINABLY IN THE GLOBAL MARKET? AN OPINION S. I. 304

46 COMPARATIVE STUDY ON PROXIMATE AND MINERAL Afia, I. U., Martins, J. M., Awagu,
COMPOSITIONS OF COCOYAM AND THREE-LEAVED YAM E.F., Okoroafor C.H., Nwachukwu 307
E.F., Ugama, E.E.
47 FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF FLOUR BLENDS FROM GERMINATED Adedokun, S.O, Jimoh, K.O, Azeez,
CEREAL, MILLET AND SORGHUM SUPPLEMENTED WITH L.A. Adeoti, O. A, Osunrinade, A.O
GERMINATED PIGEON PEAS AND QUALITY ATTRIBUTES OF ITS 313
BLENDS OVEN–TOAST FLAKES
48 SUBSTITUTION OF BAMBARA GROUNDNUT MILK WITH CASHEW Akinosi, K. R., Kajihausa, O. E. and
NUT MILK TO PRODUCE CHEESE ANALOGUE Azeez, O.
327

49 CARCASS YIELD AND LIPID PROFILE OF BROILER CHICKENS FED Bello, K. O., Ogundipe, H. A., 335
DIETS SUPPLEMENTED WITH BITTER LEAF AND SCENT LEAF Akinbami, O. B., Irekhore, O. T.,
POWDER Bodude, M. A., Akpan, N. H. N.,
Adeola, A. A.

v
50 EFFECTS OF AGE AT HARVEST ON THE NUTRITIONAL Lawal, I. A., Imran, M. O., Azeez, G. 342
COMPOSITIONS OF OKRA LEAF (Abelmoschus Esculentus) O and Giwa, A. A.
51 PHYSIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPLEMENTARY MEAL FROM Igbaro, J. O. and Thomas, M. 350
MILLET PIGEON PEA AND CARROT FLOUR BLENDS

52 INVIVO ANTIOXIDANT, PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND PROXIMATE Adeoti, O.A., Alabi, A.O and 357
EVALUATION OF YOGHURT ENRICHED WITH DIETARY GINGER Olatidoye, O.P
FIBRE (ZINGIBEROFFICINALE) STORED AT REFRIGERATED
TEMPERATURE
53 EFFECT OF ONION PEEL WASTE ON MICROBIAL LOAD OF SMOKED Sule, S.O., Ashley-Dejo, S.S., 368
Clarias gariepinus FISH Oyetunji, O.T., Olaniyi, S.E and
Adeyemi, A.Y
54 EFFECT OF PLANTAIN AND SUGARCANE BAGASSE ADDITION ON Adenekan, M. K., Odunmbaku, L. A. 374
THE ACCEPTABILITY AND INVITRO DIGESTIBILITY OF HARDTACK and Ajewole, T.M.
BISCUIT
55 EFFECT OF COAGULANTS ON CHEESE ANALOGUE FROM BAMBARA Azeez, O., Kajihausa, O. E. and 378
AND CASHEW NUT Akinosi, K. R.
56 EVALUATION OF READY-TO EAT SNACKS FROM WHEAT (Triticum Odunmbaku L. A, Adenekan M. K, 386
spp), SOYBEAN (Glycine max) and GINGER (Zingiber officinale Awotunde G. A and Jooda E. O
roscoe) FLOUR BLENDS
57 QUALITY CHANGES IN WATER YAM (Dioscorea alata) TUBERS AS Afolabi, F.O and Lawal, A. I 394
INFLUENCED BY STORAGE
58 PROXIMATE AND MINERAL COMPOSITIONS OF COOKIES PRODUCED Durojaiye, M. O., Kajihausa, O. E. 400
FROM HIGH QUALITY CASSAVA FLOUR, ORANGE-FLESHED SWEET and Odusanya, O. D.
POTATO AND BANANA PEEL FLOUR
59 VARIETAL AND GERMINATION TIME EFFECTS ON THE PROXIMATE Omohimi, C. I., Olowu, A. R., 407
AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF BROWN RICE Onabegun, R. T., Ayeni, M. A.,
Adegoke, A. F., Morenikeji, O. E.
and Odeseye, A. A.
60 PHYSICOCHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND ANTIOXIDATIVE Awolu, O.O., Fatoye, R.T., Ayo- 416
PROPERTIES OF BIO-FILM COATED GROUNDNUT-BASED SNACK Omogie H.N., Badejo, A.A.
(KULIKULI)
61 STORAGE STABILITY POTENTIAL OF COMPOSITE FLOUR BLENDS Popoola, A. J and Oluwamukomi, M. 426
FROM UNRIPE PLANTAIN, MORINGA SEED AND PIGEON PEA. O

vi
62 PRODUCTION AND ASSESSMENT OF BREAD FORTIFIED WITH Animshaun O.H., Sobowale, S.S., 433
WOOD-EAR MUSHROOM (Auricularia auricular-judae) POWDER Olorode, O.O. and Odunmbaku, L.A.
63 PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SWEET POTATO-SOYBEAN- Ajike F. A., Arinola S. O. and 440
CARROT FLOUR BLENDS Osanyinlusi S. A.
64 FUNGAL CONTAMINATION OF MELON SEEDS FROM THREE MAJOR Echendu, M. A., Abel, O. O. 447
MARKETS IN LAGOS STATE Ogunbiyi, O. E. and Nnabugwu, U. E
65 ISOLATION AND CHARACTERISATION OF YEASTS ASSOCIATED Abel O.O., Echendu A.M., Balogun, 454
WITH BURUKUTU PRODUCTION FROM DIFFERENT SORGHUM D.A. and Awoite, T.M.
VARIETIES
66 BIOCHEMICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF THREE VARIETIES OF Bamidele, O. P. and Adebo, O. A. 461
SORGHUM GRAIN AS INFLUENCED BY DIFFERENT FERMENTATION
TYPES
67 PRE-GESTATION GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF DOES FED DIETS ON Imade, A. A., lkechukwu, S. O., 470
GRADED LEVELS OF DRIED OKRA LEAVES (ABELMOSCHUS Sarumi, B. B., Arowosola. T. A.,
ESCULENTUS) Efuribe, N. E, Akanbi, A. A. and
Oyayode, O. B.

68 EDIBLE MUSHROOMS: BETTER DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS TOWARDS OGIDI, C. O. 473

ACHIEVING NEW FORTIFIED FOODS
69 KINETIC MODELING OF VITAMIN C IN KEEPING QUALITY OF Awagu, E.F., Okoroafor, C.H., 480
CARROT UNDER ROOM AND FRIDGE TEMPERATURE USING Aneke, C.C., Ugama, E.E.,
COMPUTER SIMULATION ANALYSIS Ajanwachuku, N.C. and Nwachukwu
E.F.
70 MINERAL AND VITAMIN CONTENTS OF ICE-CREAM MADE FROM Oguntoyinbo, S.I., Bayowa, F.R. 487
COCONUT, DATE PALM FRUIT, SOYBEAN AND TIGERNUT and Oguntoyinbo, Y.G.
71 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION AND SENSORY ATTRIBUTES OF Oguntoyinbo, S.I., Arabambi, N.O. 495
COOKIES MADE FROM WHEAT, OAT AND OYSTER MUSHROOM and Oguntoyinbo, Y.G.
FLOUR BLENDS
72 EFFECTS OF STORAGE CONDITION AND TIME ON THE PROXIMATE UGWU, I. M. 502
COMPOSITION OF REFRIGERATED AND SHELF STORED YOGHURT
SAMPLES SOLD IN ENUGU METROPOLIS
73 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION AND SENSORY ACCEPTABILITY OF Adewole, R. D., Kajihausa, O. E. 510
COOKIES FROM MATURED UNRIPE BANANA, HIGH QUALITY and Bakare, A, M.
CASSAVA FLOUR AND AFRICAN BREADFRUIT SEED FLOUR BLENDS

vii
74 NUTRITIONAL AND SENSORY EVALUATION OF COMPOSITE Ayo-Omogie, H.N., Adesokan B.S., 517
SOURDOUGH BREAD FROM RICE, CARDABA BANANA AND PIGEON Adewole, O., Bamisile, O. B
PEA
75 PRODUCTION OF SEASONING FROM BLENDS OF SELECTED LOCAL Olatunde, S. J., Adesola, M.O., 525
SPICES IN NIGERIA Akande, E.A. and Adejuyitan, J.A.
76 OPTIMIZATION OF THE PROXIMATE AND CAROTENOID CONTENTS Nwaogu M. U., Oluwamukomi, M. 531
OF AFRICAN BREADFRUIT-YELLOW MAIZE-CINNAMON COMPOSITE O. and Awolu, O. O.
FLOURS USING RESPONSE SURFACE METHODLOGY
77 CONSUMER PREFERENCE OF CATFISH SMOKED USING DIFFERENT Oyetunji, O. T., Ashley-Dejo, S. S., 538
METHODS Sule, S. O., Solana, O. I.,
Anifowoshe, M. I.
78 EFFECT OF GINGER ADDITION ON SELECTED PROPERTIES OF Olanipekun, B.F., Alawode, O.W., 543
TIGER-NUT (Cyperus esculentus Lativum) MILK Adelakun, O. E. and Ojelade A. A
79 COMPARATIVE ASSAY OF MULTISOURCE PRODUCTS OF SOME Koleoso, O. K., Tijani, R. O. and 550
HYPOCHLORITE AND HYDROGENPEROXIDE SOLUTIONS MARKETED Lawal, S. O.
IN THE SOUTHWEST ZONE OF NIGERIA
80 PROXIMATE AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF WHEAT- ORANGE- Adisa, A. M., Oyedele, D. S., 558
FLESHED SWEETPOTATO - MUSHROOM FLOUR Joshua, O. D. and Oluwasola, P. O
81 PROXIMATE, MINERAL AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF Abiona S.O., Aiyegbusi O. and 566
COMPOSITE FLOUR FROM UNRIPE PLANTAIN AND SWEET POTATO Idowu-Mogaji G.O.
82 SOME QUALITY ATTRIBUTES OF MAIZE - TIGERNUT BREAKFAST Agemo, C.O., Kajihausa O. E., 572
MEAL Onabanjo, O.O., Idowu M.A., OKE
E. K.
83 MOLECULAR AND CULTURAL CHARACTERIZATION OF Jeff-Agboola E. O., Eniola K. I. T., 580
MICROORGANISMS ASSOCIATED WITH NATURALLY FERMENTED Oyedele D. S. and Jeff-Agboola Y.
GUINEA PEANUT (Pachira glabra) A.
84 VITAMIN AND ORGANOLEPTIC PROPERTIES OF SOYMILK ENRICHED Aiyegbusi, O.O, Abiona, S.O, Ojo, 588
WITH GINGER AND TURMERIC T.P
85 NUTRIENT COMPOSITION AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COWPEA Arashi, A. B., Adeola, A. A. and Oke, 594
FLOUR AS INFLUENCE BY WEED CONTROL METHODS E. K.

86 QUALITY ATTRIBUTES OF LAFUN ENRICHED WITH DEFATTED Omosuli, S.V., Amodu, S.O., 601
SESAME SEED FLOUR Makinwa, O.J. and Oloye, D. A

viii
87 FUNCTIONAL AND SENSORY EVALUATION OF TUWO MADE FROM Sunmonu, B.A, Tijan,i S. O, 608
MAIZE, BLENDED WITH ADJUNTS FROM BIOFORTIFIED CASSAVA Olaniyan, F.C and Olaoye, M. B.
88 PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF LEMON FRUITS ESSENTIAL OIL Okewole, S.A., Akande, O.O., 617
HARVESTED IN IGBOORA, OYO STATE, NIGERIA Oyekunle, L.O.,Aribisala, L.A. and
Amusat, A. I
89 PROXIMATE, FUNCTIONAL, AND MINERAL COMPOSITION OF Gbadamosi, O.A., Ibrahim, T.A., 624
SORGHUM, COCOYAM, AND GROUNDNUT FLOUR BLENDS Omotoye, A.C. and Odusanya, M.D.
90 ANTIOXIDANT AND ANTI-NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES OF RICE- Adewole, O. A., Ayo-Omogie, H. N. 630
CARDABA BANANA COMPOSITE FLOUR ENRICHED WITH PIGEON- and Badejo. A. A.
PEA
91 NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE INSECTS SPECIES IN Sarumi, B. B., Joseph C. A., Imade, 637
LAGOS METROPOLIS A.A., lkechukwu, S. O., Arowosola,
T. A.,.Oyayode, O. B., and Akanbi,
A. A.
92 NUTRITIONAL QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF COMPLEMENTARY DIET Sogo-Temi, C.M., Idowu, O.A., and 640
FROM PLANTAIN, VELVET BEAN AND CRAY FISH – USING RSM Lateef, A.M.
APPROACH
93 PASTING AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF FLOUR BLENDS FROM Omowaye-Taiwo, O.A., 646
WHEAT AND Lentinus squarrosulus (Mont.) MUSHROOM FLOUR Oluwamukomi, M.O., Bolade, M.K.
and Ijarotimi O.S
94 PHYSICOCHEMICAL, MICROBIOLOGICAL AND ANTIOXIDANT Olatidoye, O.P., Sobowale, S.S., 653
PROPERTIES OF ROSELLE DRINK AND SQUASH Alabi, A.O., Adeoti, O.A and Shittu,
A
95 EFFECT OF PROCESS VARIABLES ON THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF Oyerinde, M.O., Adeola, A.A., 672
SOFT UNRIPENED CHEESE (WARANKASHI) PRODUCED FROM MILK Adebowale, A.A., Oke, E. K. and
OF WHITE FULANI CATTLE Adewumi, O. O
96 ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY AND PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING OF Ogunlade, A.O., Azunnaya, U. M., 681
EXTRACT OF AVOCADO LEAF (PERSEA AMERICANA) AGAINST Afolabi, O.O. and Fakomiti, D.M.
SELECTED CLINICAL ISOLATES
97 NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES OF MAIZE, DEFATTED GROUNDNUT AND Sogo-Temi, C.M, Olanipekun, B.F, 686
BANANA FLOUR BLENDS Oyelade, O.J and Oke, M.O
98 NUTRITIONAL ASSESSMENT OF COOKIES MADE FROM PRO VITAMIN Azunnaya, U. M, Okunade, O. A. 693
A CASSAVA-WHEAT FLOUR BLEND SUPPLEMENTED WITH GINGER and Ogunlade, O. A.

ix
99 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND SENSORY ACCEPTABILITY OF Afolabi, M.O., Olunlade, B.A, Oseni, 699
BISCUITS PRODUCED FROM BLENDS OF WHEAT (Triticum O.O. and Ibitoye, W. O.
aestivum) AND SWEET POTATO (Ipomoea batatas) FLOURS
100 CHEMICAL, MICROBIAL AND SENSORY ANALYSIS OF LOCUST Salami K.O., Abiodun O.A. and 706
SEASONING CONDIMENT PRODUCED USING FIVE INDIGENOUS Olumide, B.A.
SPICES BOUND WITH ACHI MUCILAGE
101 EFFECT OF THERMAL PROCESSING METHODS ON THE PROXIMATE Sobowale, S. S., Olatidoye, O.P., 713
COMPOSITION, MOISTURE LOSS AND FAT ABSORPTION OF FRIED Animashaun, O.H. and Alokun-
COCOYAM CHIPS Adesanya, O.A.

102 PHYTOCHEMICALS AND VITAMINS CONTENT OF CHOCOLATE MADE Sunmonu, B. A., Anjorin, I. A, 721
FROM DECORTICATED AND UNDECORTICATED COCOA NIBS Olaniyan, F.C and Israel, T.C
103 QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF CUSTARD MADE FROM BIOFORTIFIED Sunmonu, B.A, Abdulsalam, H. K, 727
MAIZE AND WHITE MAIZE BLENDED WITH TIGERNUT Folorunsho, O. O. and Agbaje, R. T.
104 EFFECT OF DEEP FAT FRYING CONDITIONS ON THE QUALITY Omidiran A.T., Okoh U.V., Oletubo 734
CHARACTERISTICS OF BREADFRUIT (Artocarpus altilis) CHIPS A. I., Akinbule O. O., Adegoke A. F.
DIPPED IN HONEY Kajihausa O.E., Sobukola O.P
105 MOISTURE SORPTION CHARACTERISTICS OF “LAFUN” FLOUR Anyaiwe, U. C., Oluwamukomi, M. 742
SUPPLEMENTED WITH SOY CURD AND RESIDUE O. and Fagbemi, T.N.
106 NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF CHEESE PRODUCED FROM COW AND Abiona, O. O., Famuwagun, A. A., 749
SOY MILK USING DIFFERENT COAGULANTS AND THE Adeboye, O. A., Babalola, R. T.,
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE EXTRACTED OILS Ogunsade, O., Oyafajo, L. and
Oyedokun, J.
107 EFFECTS OF DRYING METHODS ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS Olabiran, T. E, and Obayemi, M. O, 760
OF SOME MEDICINAL PLANTS IN NIGERIA
108 NUTRACEUTICAL PROPERTIES OF PLANTAIN FRUIT WATER Ifesan, B. T. and Ifesan, B.O.T. 767
EXTRACT FITNESS FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION

109 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION AND HYDROCYANIC ACID POTENTIAL Jaho, E. and Oluwamukomi, M. O. 772
OF BIOFORTIFIED PUPURU ENRICHED WITH DEFATTED SESAME
SEED AND TURMERIC POWDER
110 ASSESSMENT OF PROTEIN-ENRICHED INDIGENOUS SNACKS Oyedele, D. S., Otutu, O. L., Adisa, 778
“KOKORO” PRODUCED FROM FLOUR BLENDS OF CORN, FONIO A.M., Olatunji, O. D. and
AND PRAWNS Idowu-Mogaji, G. O.

x
111 EVALUATION OF CHICKEN NUGGET BATTERED WITH PARTIAL Akande, M. A., Sobukola, O.P. and 788
SUBSTITUTION OF WHEAT FLOUR WITH CORN BRAN Omohimi, C. I.
112 CONSUMER PERCEPTIVE AND ANTI-DIABETIC PROPERTIES OF Esan Y. O., Olumurewa J. A. V., 794
BREAD PRODUCED FROM WHEAT, COCOYAM, UNRIPE PLANTAIN, Enato G. O. and 1Ewuola G. O
MORINGA SEEDS AND “MARUGBO” LEAVES COMPOSITE FLOURS

113 EVALUATION OF SOME CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES OF Odejimi, S.K. and Kajihaussa, O. E 802
ONION (Allium cepa) CUBES PRODUCED USING CASSAVA STARCH
AS A BINDER
114 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION AND CONSUMER ACCEPTABILITY OF Mbe-Godfrey, O.A., Adebowale, 808
JAM MADE FROM SWEETPOTATO VARIETIES A.A., Bakare, H.A., Oke, E.K. and
Olatunde, G.O
115 QUALITY OF BISCUITS PRODUCED FROM UNRIPE PLANTAIN AND Gbenro, T. D., Morenikeji O. E. and 814
TIGERNUT FLOUR Olatunde G. O
116 FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF FLOUR BLEND AND CONSUMER Otusanya, P. M., Babarinde, I. B., 821
ACCEPTABILITY OF COOKED PASTE FROM SWEET POTATO AND Morenikeji O. E. and *Olatunde G.
FERMENTED SORGHUM O.

117 BACTERICIDAL EFFECT OF HIBISCUS SABDARIFFA CALYX EXTRACT Osiyemi, O. A., Ajaiyeoba, E. O. and 827
AND FRACTIONS Adejoh O. P.
118 RAPID SCREENING TOOLS FOR YAM TUBER SELECTION FOR Alamu, A., Otegbayo, B. O., 833
BREEDING PREFERRED POUNDED YAM VARIETIES Tanimola, A., and Oroniran, O.
119 EFFECT OF PRETREATMENT AND DRYING METHOD ON PROXIMATE Adebayo. A. O., Sobukola O.P., 840
COMPOSITION OF SOME VARIETIES WATER YAM VARIETIES AND Dipeolu A.O., De Koeyer D.
ITS FRIED YAM BALLS Omohimi C. I. , Sanni L.O
120 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION AND COLOUR PARAMETERS OF DEEP- Kajihausa, O. E. and Opara, C. N. 851
FRIED SNACK FROM BAMBARA NUT

xi
 EFFECTS OF STORAGE CONDITIONS AND TIME ON THE CHEMICAL,
FUNCTIONAL AND PASTING PROPERTIES OF ‘OFADA’ RICE

*OYELAKIN, M. O.1, SANNI, L. O.2, SHITTU, T. A.2, ADEWUYI, S. 3 and AWAGU, E, F.4
1 Perishable Crops Research Department (PCRD), Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, P. M. B.
4065, Sapele, Delta State, Nigeria.
2Food Science and Technology Department, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta Nigeria
3Chemistry Department, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
4Perishable Crops Research Department (PCRD), Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Port
Harcourt, River State, Nigeria.
* Corresponding author: [email protected] Tel: +2348034237210

ABSTRACT
Rice is one of the major staple foods in Nigeria. This study assessed the effect of storage
conditions and time on the chemical, functional and pasting properties of Ofada rice. The sample
was parboiled for 45 – 60 min till when the paddy opened, it was then sun dried for about 8 h,
threshed, polished and dry milled into flour, and packaged prior to analysis. The paddy rice
sample collected was stored under open-air storage, hermetic storage and inert atmospheric
storage. Selected chemical, functional and pasting properties of rice flour were determined using
established methods. The percentage germinability decreased as storage time increased while
the bulk density and dispersibility increased significantly (p < .05) as storage time progressed
irrespective of the storage condition. The water binding capacity, water absorption index,
swelling power and starch solubility index decreased significantly (p < .05) as storage time
increased. All viscosities parameters of the rice flour reduced significantly (p < .05) with an
increase in the time of storage irrespective of the storage conditions. These properties of the rice
flour show good results over the storage time and this indicates a better opportunity for use in
product development and value addition.

Keywords: Ofada, functional, pasting, inert atmospheric

INTRODUCTION
Rice (Oryza sativa) is a principal leading food crop of the world and a staple food of
approximately half of the world’s population (Awolu et al., 2017). Rice is very important in
Nigeria, based on the various ways it is consumed by almost every tribe in different forms, such
as tuwo rice, jollof, white rice, fried rice, Masa‟, or “Waina”, “Tuwo”, and “Alkakki”, pudding
and boiled form eaten with stew or combined with potatoes, yam, beans and pears (Mohammed
et al., 2019; Usman et al., 2021)
The functional and pasting properties are important in the food systems for the creation of new
products. The functional properties of a food material affect how it interacts with other food
components and determines its application and end use (Ocheme et al., 2018). Therefore, food
items with good functional properties can be easily incorporated into other foods and will yield
good quality and acceptable end products. Mohammed et al. (2019) reported that the best way to
1
store rice is storing it with the husk because it provides some form of protection for the grains
from insects and it also prevents the deterioration of the grain quality. Furthermore, they also
reported that a good storage system must ensure grains are protected from wet conditions,
rodents, birds and insects. Then, there is a need to know the functional and pasting properties of
the rice during and after storage so as to know the best applications the rice can be put into.
In an attempt to promote local production, there is a need to ensure that there will be adequate
and appropriate storage technologies to reduce post-harvest loss. Therefore, this study is to
investigate the effects of storage conditions and time on the chemical, functional and pasting
properties of Ofada rice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Source of material
The paddy rice sample collected was stored under open air storage (OAS), in hermetic storage
(HEM) and in inert atmospheric storage (IAS).
Sample analyses
The germinability was determined using the method described by Christensen and Lopez,
(1965), with some modifications. The bulk density and dispersibility were determined according
to the methods of Arisa et al. (2013) and Asaam et al. (2018). The water absorption index and
water binding capacity were determined by the methods described by Ruales et al. (1993) and
Fagbemi (2012). The swelling power (SP) and starch solubility index (SSI), were determined
according to procedures described by Awolu et al. (2017).
The pasting characteristics of blends were evaluated using a Brabender viscoamylograph
(Newport Scientific Pty Ltd. Warrie-wood NSW, Australia). Flour slurry, containing 12% solids,
was heated from 30 to 95°C at a rate of 2.5°C/min, held at 95°C for 15 min, and cooled at the
same rate to 50°C (Chinma et al., 2013). The pasting performance was automatically recorded on
the graduated sheet of the amylograph. The peak viscosity, trough viscosity, breakdown
viscosity, final viscosity, setback viscosity, peak time, and pasting temperature were read off the
amylograph.
Statistical analysis
All data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the general linear
models (GLM) procedure of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20. 1999.
Means were separated using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 5% level of probability.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results of the chemical and functional properties of the Ofada rice stored in different storage
conditions are shown in Table 1. The germinability for OAS, HEM and IAS ranged from 66-
92%, 0.00-92.00% and 0.00-92.00% respectively. The least and highest germinability rate were
at HEM and IAS from month 6 and month 0, respectively. The bulk density for OAS, HEM and

2
IAS ranged from 0.56 – 0.63 g/cm3, 0.58 – 0.62 g/cm3 and 0.58 – 0.64 g/cm3, respectively. The
dispersibility for OAS, HEM and IAS ranged from 55.00 – 65.00% and 55.00 – 67.50%,
respectively. The least and highest values occurred at the initial stage and at month 12 under IAS
respectively. The WAI, WBC, SP and SSI for OAS, HEM and IAS ranged from 233.40 –
302.50%, 244.63 – 302.50% and 263.80 – 302.50%; 292.80 – 316.90%, 289.70 – 316.90% and
290.60 – 316.90%; 6.96 – 7.30%, 7.01 – 7.30% and 6.75 – 7.30%; 8.70 – 10 50%, 7.04 – 10 50%
and 8.85 – 10 50%, respectively. The results showed that there were significant differences
(p<0.05) in the chemical and functional properties of the rice stored in different storage
conditions as storage progressed.
Generally, the germinability decreased with an increase in storage time. The germinability
reduced gradually in the OAS while it dropped to zero in the HEM and IAS as storage time
increased. The germination rate of the rice sample before storage was relatively high. This could
be due to the fact that the rice sample was taken at the onset of paddy rice harvesting when the
grains were still alive and very active. The high germinability recorded here corroborated with
the report of Duong and Tran, (2006). The germinability rate during storage could be attributed
to the fact that the rice grains were denied the oxygen required to keep them alive.
Bulk density is used in determining the type of packaging material required, material handling
and application in wet processing in the food industry (Awolu et al., 2017). Low bulk density is
an advantage in the formulation of complementary foods, so rice to be used in complementary
foods should not be stored beyond six months. The results showed that there was only a slight
significant difference (p<0.05) in the bulk density. This is because the rice was stored in an
enclosed system and there was minimal interference from external factors.
Generally, the dispersibility decreased with an increase in storage time irrespective of the storage
conditions. The dispersibility reported in this work is above average, thus, the flour will be able
to reconstitute in water easily. Generally, the higher the dispersibility, the better the flour
reconstitutes in water (Kulkarni et al., 1991). Edema et al. (2005) reported that the WAI of flour
is an indication of the amount of water available for gelatinization. WAI is also a useful
implication that protein can be incorporated into aqueous food formulations (Eke-Ejiofor and
Oparaodu, 2019). The SP of flour depends on the size of particles, types of variety and types of
processing methods (Awolu et al., 2017). Eke-Ejiofor and Friday, (2019) reported that solubility
is the percentage amount of starch leached out into the supernatant in the swelling volume
determination. The solubility of a product is an indicator of quality. Both the SP and SSI
decreased as storage time progressed irrespective of the storage conditions. The values of the SP
recorded in this study were lower than the value of 19.33 – 45.50% reported by Awolu et al.
(2017), this could be due to the crop used, the processing method and the inclusion of pearl
millet. The result also shows that there is a relationship between the SSI and SP. Generally, the
higher the SSI, the lower the SP of flour materials.

3
Results of the pasting properties of the Ofada rice stored in different storage conditions are
shown in Table 2. The pasting profile of flour has been reported to be influenced by its starch
(Ragace and Abdel-Aal, 2006) and protein (Zaidul et al. 2007) contents during processing.

Table 1: Chemical and functional properties of ‘Ofada’ rice stored at different storage
conditions and time
STORAGE
PARAMETERS TIME OAS HEM IAS
(MONTHS)
0 92 a ± 4.80 92 a ± 4.80 92 a ± 4.80
Germinability (%) 6 80 a ± 6.83 0 b ± 0.00 0 b ± 0.00
a b
12 66 ± 3.87 0 ± 0.00 0 b ± 0.00
0 0.58 a ± 0.01 0.58 a ± 0.01 0.58 a ± 0.01
3 b a
Bulk density (g/cm ) 6 0.56 ± 0.03 0.60 ± 0.01 0.58 ab ± 0.00
12 0.63 a ± 0.01 0.62 a ± 0.00 0.64 a ± 0.04
a a
0 55.00 ± 0.82 55.00 ± 0.82 55.00 a ± 0.82
Dispersibility (%) 6 54.25 b ± 4.35 56.50 a ± 2.38 55.75 ab ± 1.50
a a
12 64.25 ± 0.96 65.00 ± 2.94 67.50 a ± 0.58
0 302.50 a ± 1.10 302.50 a ± 1.10 302.50 a ± 1.10
b ab
Water absorption index (%) 6 281.10 ± 1.05 288.20 ± 6.76 293.80 a ± 6.54
c b
12 233.45 ± 6.08 244.63 ± 6.01 263.80 a ± 2.87
0 316.90 a ± 1.74 316.90 a ± 1.74 316.90 a ± 1.74
b a
Water binding capacity (%) 6 284.60 ± 9.25 296.20 ± 1.26 290.60 ab ± 1.45
12 292.80 b ± 1.14 289.70 b ± 5.09 324.40 a ± 2.66
a a
0 7.2988 ± 0.39 7.2988 ± 0.39 7.2988 a ± 0.39
Swelling power (%) 6 6.9600 b ± 0.44 7.1300 a ± 0.32 7.1900 a ± 0.02
a a
12 7.0221 ± 0.47 7.0072 ± 0.50 6.7484 b ± 0.38
0 10.500 a ± 2.75 10.500 a ± 2.75 10.500 a ± 2.75
a c
Starch solubility index (%) 6 9.1600 ± 0.10 7.0400 ± 4.57 8.9000 b ± 1.02
b a
12 8.7000 ± 0.27 9.0800 ± 0.15 8.8500 b ± 0.24
Values are means ±SD. n = 3. Mean values followed by different alphabet within a column are
significantly different (p≤ 0.05)
Key: OAS= Open air storage; HEM=Hermetic storage; IAS=Inert atmospheric storage
The peak viscosity (PV) is the maximum viscosity developed during the heating portion of the
sample. The peak viscosity for OAS, HEM and IAS ranged from 225.25 – 310.00 RVU, 239.63
– 310.00 RVU and 233.50 – 310.00 RVU respectively. PV indicates the WBC of the starch in a
product which correlates with final product quality and provides an indication of the viscous load
likely to be encountered by a mixing cooker (Awolu et al., 2017). The hold period (Trough) is a
period when the samples were subjected to a period of constant temperature and mechanical
shear stress (Kiin-Kabari et al., 2015). Trough viscosity is the minimum viscosity after the peak,
normally occurring around the commencement of cooling. It is the ability of the granules to
4
remain undisrupted when the starch paste is subjected to a holding period of constant high
temperature of (95°C for 2 min, 30 s) and mechanical shear stress (Eke-Ejiofor and Friday,
2019).
The trough viscosity for OAS, HEM and IAS ranged from 192.13 – 471.05 RVU, 212.95 –
471.05. RVU and 223.38 – 471.05 RVU respectively. Breakdown viscosity (BV) measures the
ease with which the swollen granules can disintegrate. It is also a measure of cooked starch to
disintegration (Eke- Ejiofor and Friday, 2019). The breakdown viscosity for OAS, HEM and IAS
ranged from 19.23 – 44.25 RVU, 11.25 – 44.25 RVU and 10.13 – 44.25 RVU respectively. BV
is an indication of break down of the starch gel during cooking (Ragace et al., 2006). It is
regarded as a measure of paste stability (Kiin-Kabari et al., 2015). Final viscosity is the measure
of the ability of starch to form a viscous paste after cooking and cooling (Eke-Ejiofor and Friday,
2019). The final viscosity for OAS, HEM and IAS ranged from 420.50 – 625.00 RVU, 419.25 –
625.00 RVU and 425.00 – 625.00 RVU respectively. A reduced final viscosity indicated a
reduced ability of sample to form viscous paste (Awolu et al., 2017). Set back is measured as the
difference between final viscosity and the trough. It is a phase of the pasting curve after cooling
the starches at 50°C. Setback viscosity involves re-association, retrogradation of starch
molecules. The setback viscosity for OAS, HEM and IAS ranged from 192.30 – 283.50 RVU,
179.63 – 283.50 RVU and 191.50 – 283.50 RVU respectively. Setback is co-related with texture
of various products (Eke-Ejiofor and Friday, 2019). Generally, higher setback value is associated
with cohesiveness. Generally, the smaller the breakdown viscosity, the higher the paste stability.
From the present result, IAS will be more stable than the other storage methods. Pasting time is
the time at which the peak viscosity occurred in minutes (Eke-Ejiofor and Friday, 2019). Pasting
time provides an indication of the minimum time required to cook flour (Awolu et al., 2017).
The peak time for OAS, HEM and IAS ranged from 7.00 – 7.15 min, 6.41 – 7.05 min and 6.59 –
7.05 mins respectively. The of this study showed that the pasting time is indicating that the rice
stored in hermetic condition at month 12 cooked in a shorter time of 6.41min than the rice at the
onset of the work which pasting time occurred at 7.05 min. All pasting parameters deceases as
storage time progressed.
Table 2: Pasting properties of ‘Ofada’ rice stored at different storage conditions and time

STORAGE
PARAMETERS TIME OAS HEM IAS
(MONTHS)
0 310.00 ± 5.97 a 310.00 ± 5.97 a 310.00 ± 5.97 a
Peak viscosity (RVU) 6 262.60 ± 9.27 b 260.75 ± 1.46 b 270.18 ± 1.20 a
12 225.25 ± 4.86 b 239.63 ± 2.84 a 233.50 ± 4.76 a
0 471.05 ± 7.01 a 471.05 ± 7.01 a 471.05 ± 7.01 a
Trough viscosity (RVU) 6 243.38 ± 7.65 b 259.50 ± 1.67 a 250.75 ± 3.37 ab
12 192.13 ± 3.94 b 212.95 ± 4.73 ab 223.38 ± 4.17 a
5
 0 44.25 ± 5.20 a 44.25 ± 5.20 a 44.25 ± 5.20 a
a b
Breakdown viscosity (RVU) 6 19.23 ±1.36 11.25 ± 1.46 19.43 ± 1.51 a
12 33.13 ± 4.03 a 26.68 ± 6.04 b 10.13 ± 2.66 c
a a
0 625.00 ± 7.31 625.00 ± 7.31 625.00 ± 7.31 a
b b
Final viscosity (RVU) 6 454.90 ± 4.24 456.13 ± 3.90 465.63 ± 2.95 a
12 420.50 ± 1.83 a 419.25 ± 1.71 a 425.00 ± 5.51 a
0 283.50 ± 4.56 a 283.50 ± 4.56 a 283.50 ± 4.56 a
Setback viscosity (RVU) 6 192.30 ± 8.89 b 195.38 ± 10.91 a 195.45 ± 9.42 a
12 195.25 ± 5.25 a 179.63 ± 3.68 b 191.50 ± 3.00 a
0 7.05 ± 0.00 a 7.05 ± 0.00 a 7.05 ± 0.00 a
a b
Peak time (MINS) 6 7.15 ± 0.17 7.00 ± 0.00 7.00 ± 0.00 b
12 7.00 ± 0.00 a 6.41 ± 0.3 b 6.59 ± 0.27 a
Values are means ±SD. n = 3. Mean values followed by different alphabet within a column are

significantly difference (p≤ 0.05)

Key: OAS= Open air storage; HEM=Hermetic storage; IAS=Inert atmospheric storage
CONCLUSION
This study has shown that storage conditions and time or duration of storage have significant
effects on the chemical, functional and pasting properties of Ofada rice and that these can
facilitate or determine its use in so many areas where these properties are desired in the food
industry and non-food applications as well as in its storability. Peak, trough, breakdown, final,
setback viscosities and peak time of the rice flour decreased as storage time progressed. Results
of this study have shown that rice can be stored under different conditions that will suit domestic
and possibly industrial/commercial storage. This could actually mitigate against post-harvest
losses. The result of the study revealed that rice stored under IAS has the best chemical,
functional and pasting properties for better shelf-life and in product development.

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8
 SURVEY OF AFLATOXIN LEVELS OF SIX AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS IN
ENUGU METROPOLIS, ENUGU STATE, NIGERIA
*
OLAITAN, T. R, 1ADERELE, S.A, 2OYELAKIN, M.O, 2AWOITE, T.M, 3IBITOYE, O., 1ADEOTI J.
T., & 1ADEOTI, V.I
1
Research Outreach Department, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Sapele Outstation, Delta
State, Nigeria;
2
Perishable Crops Department, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Ibadan Zonal Office, Oyo
State, Nigeria;
3
Durable Crops Department, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Ibadan Zonal Office, Oyo State,
Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Aflatoxin exposure poses substantial economic and health risks, particularly in underdeveloped
nations with inadequate food storage. This investigation's main goal is to measure the amounts
of aflatoxins in six agricultural products in Enugu state, Nigeria. Five primary produce markets
(New, Gariki, Abakpa, Mayor, and Ogbete) in Enugu state were purposively chosen. Six
agricultural items were selected: smoked dried fish, yam chips, groundnut, melon, maize and
cowpea. Six samples were taken at random in each market from five different vendors, for a total
of 30 samples per market and 150 samples overall. The results revealed that the bulk of the
groundnut and maize samples were found to have aflatoxin levels over the allowable limits, and
samples from Ogbete markets revealed too many mould spores to count. Additionally, samples of
yam chips, particularly those from Ogbete markets, had moisture contents that are higher above
the advised range. In order to comply with international and domestic aflatoxins regulatory
standards, it is advised that relevant regulatory agencies regularly check the levels of aflatoxins
in food products. They should also step up their awareness-raising efforts and advocacy for good
agricultural, processing, and manufacturing practices.

Keywords: aflatoxins, moisture content, mould count, percentage germinability

INTRODUCTION
Aflatoxins are generally considered a potential hazard to public health due to their toxicity,
mutagenicity, teratogenicity and carcinogenicity (Decastelli et al., 2007). Aflatoxins have also
been known to cause sub-acute and chronic effects in humans. These effects include primary
liver cancer, chronic hepatitis, jaundice, hepatomegaly and cirrhosis, thus the presence of
aflatoxin in grains and feedstock has far reached deleterious effects on animal and human health
(Osho et al., 2007).

9
Numerous crops and the products made from them are contaminated by aflatoxins. Groundnut,
maize, sorghum, millet, rice, sesame, wheat, cowpea, spices, melon, soybean, milk, cassava, and
a variety of spices are the crops most severely impacted by aflatoxins contamination (Kayode et
al., 2013, Rubert et al., 2013). According to research, aflatoxins impact one-fourth of the world's
food supply (FAO, 2000; Pankaj et al., 2018), hence, strict regulations have been formulated by
many countries to maintain the health of citizens against aflatoxins contamination (Juan et al.,
2012).
The Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON, 2003; 2006; 2008) has set 4 µg/kg, 20 µg/kg and 4
µg/kg standards for maximum total aflatoxin concentrations for maize, raw groundnuts and
groundnut cake (kulikuli) respectively. Nigeria’s National Agency for Food and Drug
Administration and Control (NAFDAC) enforces a standard of 4 µg/kg for ready-to-eat foods
and 10 µg/kg for raw food items, but only for packaged goods and export-bound products.
Despite aflatoxin regulatory standards, unpackaged food for domestic consumption is not
regulated. This means that aflatoxin-contaminated grain can easily enter Nigeria’s consumption
stream due to low awareness about aflatoxins and their health impact among consumers and
sellers. The vast majority of foods consumed by the Nigerian population are not regulated for
aflatoxins.
The survey of aflatoxins levels in six agricultural products in Enugu state, Nigeria, is the main
goal of this study. While the specific objectives are to:
1. Examine the samples' physical quality (baseline, % insect infestation, germinability, % mould
load, etc.).
2. Analyze the moisture content.
3. Conduct an analysis of aflatoxins on products from the market, after sorting them and after
washing and drying them.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Sampling Procedure and Sample Size
Purposefully, the New Market, Gariki Market, Abakpa Market, Mayor Market, and Ogbete
Market were chosen as the five primary marketplaces in Enugu state. A total of five distinct
market vendors were randomly chosen to provide samples of the six (6) goods (Maize, Cowpea,
Melon, Groundnut, Yam Chips, and Smoked Dried Fish), yielding 30 samples per market and
150 samples overall for the survey. The samples were transferred to the laboratory for analysis in
sealed Ziplock bags.
Moisture Content Determination
Moisture content determination was carried out using the air oven method by the Association of
Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) as described by (Kumar et al., 2017).

10
Determination of Aflatoxins Total

RIDA SCREEN Aflatoxins Total (Art. No R4701) method was used. The method is a
competitive enzyme immunoassay for the quantitative determination of aflatoxins in cereals and
feed. All reagents required are contained in the test kit which is sufficient for 96 determinations
including standards. Specific software, the RIDA SOFT Win.net (Art. No. Z9996) was available
for the evaluation of the RIDASCREEN enzyme immunoassays and it was used for the
evaluation of test results of the total Aflatoxins.

Determination of Mould Load

Mould load of ground and homogenized samples was determined using Serial dilution according
to the method of Miles and Mishra (1975) and Pour Plate method.

Occurrence and abundance of insect pests associated with samples collected

Physical examinations of samples gathered from the markets under study were done. Using a
hand-held lens and a visual rating system, insect damage and infestation were observed.
Additionally, the germinability of corn, groundnuts, and cowpeas was assessed.

Germinability
The percentage germinability determination was adapted from Christensen and Lopez, (1965)
method, with some modifications.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Moisture Contents of Sampled Agricultural Products
Table 1: Moisture content of cowpea, smoked fish, groundnut, maize, melon and yam chips
from different markets in Enugu
MAR BASELINE SORTED PROCESSED
KET

C SF G M M Y C SF G M M Y C SF G M M YC
W N Z E C W N Z E C W N Z E

ABAK 3.1 5.4 6. 8.0 4.7 8. 8.5 8.3 4. 9.8 5. 0. 4.1 1.7 2.3 6. 3. 2.25
PA 0* 4 59 0 4 18 8 4 64 7 08 0 5* 5* 0* 84 04 *

GARK 12. 11. 8. 14. 7.0 7. 7.8 9.8 8. 12. 5. 0. 7.3 11. 4.2 5. 5. 4.00
I 38 29 25 31 5 54 3 3 69 68 34 0 4 14 4 49 10

MAY 2.2 9.2 5. 10. 10. 9. 11. 1.8 5. 11. 7. 0. 8.4 2.6 5.4 4. 5. 6.33
OR 5* 9 39 03 88 84 62 9* 74 68 05 0 9 2* 4 15 21

NEW 7.0 10. 5. 7.2 3.0 6. 10. 9.7 7. 7.5 4. 0. 2.8 5.4 5.9 5. 2. 8.74
MARK 3 63 94 4 9 19 72 5 73 4 54 0 1* 4 4 49 65 *

11
ET

OGBA 5.9 8.1 7. 6.3 6.0 9. 7.3 7.1 5. 4.4 1. 0. 9.9 5.0 3.0 5. 2. 13.8
ETE 2* 2 91 9 1 25 2 4 14 0 40 0 4 5 9 24 10 5*

NB: CW= Cowpea, SF=Smoked Fish, GN= Groundnut, MZ=Maize, ME=Melon and
YC=Yam Chips
According to Krzyzanowski (2007) theory, a seed crop's moisture content must be brought down
to 10% or less (the accepted range) before it can be graded or marketed, but the results in Table 1
showed that the moisture level of processed cowpea obtained from all five markets, which are
between the range of 7.03% - 12.38% agree with the acceptable range (≤ 10%), while the
moisture content (12.38%) of baseline cowpea from Gariki market slightly deviates from the
acceptable range when compared to baseline cowpea obtained from Abakpa, Mayor, New
marker and Ogbete markets.
According to Table 1, the moisture levels of baseline, sorted, and processed fish from all the
markets are within the suggested range (≤10%), with the exception of baseline and processed
smoked fish from the Gariki market, which moderately deviated from the acceptable range
(11.29 and 11.14%, respectively). The baseline, sorted and processed groundnut moisture levels
obtained from all five markets (Abakpa, Gariki, Mayor, New Market, and Ogbete Markets)
ranged from 5.39% to 8.25%, 5.14% to 8.69%, and 5.44% to 7.30% respectively which are all
within the acceptable moisture level (≤10%). While the rest of the maize samples were within the
allowed range of (≤10%), the moisture level of the baseline (14.31%) and sorted (12.68%) maize
from Gariki markets, as well as the sorted (11.68%) maize collected from Mayor market, were
moderately outside of it. Additionally, all five marketplaces’ melon samples have moisture levels
that are within the suggested moisture range. The moisture content of processed yam chips from
the Ogbete market (13.85%) was the only one that significantly strayed from the permitted range
(≤10%).

Total Aflatoxins levels in the agricultural products

Table 2: Aflatoxins content (ug/kg) of cowpea, smoked fish, groundnut, maize, melon and
yam chips from different markets in Enugu
MARK BASELINE SORTED PROCESSED
ET

C SF GN M M Y C SF GN M M Y C SF GN M M Y
W Z E C W Z E C W Z E C

ABAK 0. 1. 17. 21. 1.6 1. 2. 1. 16. 20. 0.0 0. 2. 1. 16. 21. 0. 1.

PA 00 72 26 30 2 32 08 53 34 06 0 0 39 51 31 13 00 30

GARKI 0. 4. 4.1 0.1 6.9 0. 1. 1. 0.0 0 0.0 0. 0. 0. 9.3 0 0. 0.

12
 00 68 8 8 4 22 32 68 0 0 0 12 46 5 13 00

MAYO 1. 1. 19. 21. 2.3 1. 0. 1. 19. 21. 1.3 0. 1. 1. 19. 21. 1. 0.

R 06 56 33 17 0 56 00 52 39 30 1 0 04 41 24 01 94 00

NEW 4. 1. 21. 24. 45. 1. 2. 4. 20. 24. 20. 0. 0. 3. 13. 20. 4. 0.

MARK 00 68 39 90 55 24 77 45 43 45 00 0 00 27 59 22 36 08
ET

OGBA 0. 5. 25. 3.9 9.6 4. 4. 5. 20. 2.3 6.0 0. 3. 5. 24. 2.7 6. 3.

ETE 19 39 74 4 1 91 66 48 07 4 0 0 52 97 46 6 24 95

Key: CW= Cowpea, SF=Smoked Fish, GN= Groundnut, MZ=Maize, ME=Melon and
YC=Yam Chips.

Baseline: raw produce without sorting or any processing. Processed: washing, dehulling and
drying was carried out on the products.
Maximum aflatoxins concentrations in different nuts, grains, dried figs, and milk are between 0.1
and 15 ug/kg (Juan et al., 2012). To avoid and lessen the risk of aflatoxins in foods and feeds,
some nations have put tight restrictions in place. The European Union has the strictest regulation,
which is 2 to 4 ug/kg, while the United States has an acceptable limit of 20 ug/kg (EC, 2010).
The cowpea samples from the five markets' aflatoxins content were found to be within the
acceptable range, with the lowest value (0.00) and maximum value (4.66). On cowpea samples
acquired from Mayor and New Market, sorting and processing seemed to have a lowering effect.
The smallest value of aflatoxins recorded was 0.46 ug/kg and the maximum was 5.97, falling
within the permitted range of 0.1 - 15 ug/kg for all fish samples from the five marketplaces
(Table 2). With the exception of the fish sample from the Gariki market, which saw a reduction
in aflatoxins content from 4.68ug/kg to 0.46ug/kg, further drying of the fish samples as a
processing procedure and sorting does not significantly affect the aflatoxins content. Aflatoxin
levels in groundnut samples from four of the five markets range from 16.31 to 25.74 ug/kg,
which exceeded the allowed limit of 15ug/kg, with the exception of the Gariki market sample,
which has a value of 4.18ug/kg. After sorting and roasting, the number of aflatoxins did not
significantly decrease.
In maize samples, three markets; Abakpa, Mayor, and New Market had slightly elevated
aflatoxins levels, while Gariki and Ogbete, the other two markets, have levels that are safe for
human consumption. After sorting and processing, the aflatoxins readings of all the maize
samples from the five marketplaces had decreased slightly but not significantly.
Melon samples demonstrated that while samples from the other four markets were within an
acceptable range of 15ug/kg, the melon sample from the New Market had a considerably high
value of aflatoxins (45.55ug/kg). After sorting and roasting, all of the melon samples exhibited a
decrease in aflatoxins values, however only the new market sample showed a substantial drop
from 45.55 ug/kg to 20.00 ug/kg and then further to 4.36 ug/kg after sorting and reduced further
13
to 4.36 after roasting. Aflatoxins levels in yam chips from the five markets were found to be
within the acceptable range of 0.1–15 ug/kg. No discernible decrease in aflatoxins readings was
observed following additional drying.
Mould Load of Sample Agricultural Products
Table 3: Mould load of cowpea, fish, groundnut, maize, melon and yam chips samples from
selected markets in Enugu.
Mould load (cfu/g)
Market name X 103 X 106
New market/Groundnut/Baseline 3 1
Mayor/Yam chips/Baseline TNTC 0
Ogbete/Fish/Processed TNTC 8
Ogbete/Groundnut/Baseline 50 6
Ogbete/Melon/Baseline TNTC TNTC
Ogbete/Cowpea/Baseline TNTC TNTC
Gariki/Groundnut/Processed TNTC TNTC
Mayor/Maize/Baseline 5 0
Gariki/Maize/Baseline 28 4
New market/Cowpea/Sorted 80 5
New market/Yam chips/Baseline TNTC TNTC
Abarka/Maize/Baseline 24 2
Gariki/Fish/Sorted TNTC 6
Key: TNTC: Too numerous to counts
According to Table 3, of the five markets, Ogbete had the highest level of moldiness in three of
the produce samples taken from the market, with two of the items (cowpea and melon) having a
TNTC (too numerous to count) mold count at a 106 dilution factor.

14
 Table 4: Physical observation at baseline, insect emergence and percentage germinability

MARK PHYSICAL OBSERVATIONS AT BASELINE INSECT EMERGENCE PERCENTAGE

ET GERMINABILITY (%)

CW SF GN MZ ME YC CW SF GN M M Y C S G M M Y
Z E C W F N Z E C

ABAKP Presence Dry, Fresh, Fresh, Fresh Insect 52 - No - - - 6 - 8 8 - -

A of holes, fresh, whole wholeso and holes bean inse 0 0 0
no some, me wholes s ct
insect dry ome weev see
seen ils n

GARKI Fresh Dry, Fresh Fresh, No Presen - - - - - - 8 - 7 8 - -

wholeso no wholeso insect ce of 0 0 0
me insect me seen holes,
seen kernel
s

MAYO Insect Dry, Fresh, Fresh, No Insect Dead - - - - - 7 - 7 7 - -

R seen, no no wholeso insect kernel insec 0 0 0
bean insect insect me seen s, ts
weevil, seen seen holes foun
Quadrim d
aculates

NEW Fresh, No Fresh Fresh, Whole Presen - 3 No - - - 9 - 8 9 - -

MARK wholeso insect wholeso some ce of larvae, inse 0 0 0
ET me seen me and holes, derme ct
fresh kernel stes see
s n

Key: CW= Cowpea, SF=Smoked Fish, GN= Groundnut, MZ=Maize, ME=Melon and
YC=Yam Chips.

According to Table 4, while samples from the Mayor, Ogbete, and New Markets had
contaminants, the initial evaluation of cowpea samples from all of the investigated markets
indicated that they had been correctly dried. On Abakpa, foreign concerns were noticed. All the
markets had feeding holes and samples from the Mayor Market revealed dead adult weevils
(Callosobronchus maculatus). Seed viability of samples range between 60 and 90 percent, lower
seed viability of cowpea samples from Abakpa (60%) may be associated with high insect
15
infestation which impacted negatively on the seed germination. This agrees with the report of
(Adedire et al., (2005).
Insect emergence findings shows, fish samples from the marketplaces that were inspected show
that the samples were correctly smoked, fresh and dried. From samples taken at the Abakpa,
Gariki and Mayor Markets, no insects were found. Insect larvae in samples from New and
Ogbete markets were found. Adult dermestids were also seen in New Market. Groundnut
samples from all surveyed marketplaces were correctly cleaned. On samples from the Gariki,
New, and Ogbete markets, broken nuts were seen. No insects were seen. The percentage of
groundnut seed viability varies between 70 and 80 percent.
Initial physical evaluation of maize samples across the studied marketplaces indicated clean,
wholesome, and insect-free, samples from Abakpa and Ogbete markets were improperly dried,
while samples from Abakpa and Mayor markets were adequately dried. All of the samples also
included contaminants and foreign substances. Samples of maize have between 70 and 90
percent viable seeds. Melons across surveyed markets were properly cleaned, and impurities
were observed on samples from Abakpa and Mayor. Tribolium was also observed on samples
from Gariki, Mayor and Ogbete Markets.
The yam chips from the assessed marketplaces were correctly dried, free of contaminants and
other objects and without insect feeding holes. On samples from the Gariki, Mayor, and New
Markets, Trogoderme granarium was seen.

CONCLUSION
Based on the survey, the bulk of the groundnut and maize samples were found to have aflatoxin
levels over the allowable limits, and samples from Ogbete markets revealed too many mould
spores to count. Additionally, samples of yam chips, particularly those from Ogbete markets, had
moisture contents that are higher above the advised range.
Because most Nigerians are ignorant of the health risks posed by aflatoxins and are frequently
exposed to contamination, aflatoxin contamination in the nation's food crops should be of great
concern.
REFERENCES
Adedire, C.O., Adebowale, K.O., & Dansu, O.M (2005). Chemical composition and insecticidal
properties of mandora tenuifolia seed oil (Annonaceae). Journal of Trop. for prod, 1-2:
15-25.
Christensen, C. M. & Lopez, L. C. (1965). Relation of moisture content and length of storage to
changes in the microflora and germination percentage of rough rice. Phytopathology, 55:
953 - 956.
Decastelli, L., Lai, J., Gramaglio, M, Monaco, A, Nachtmann, C., Oldano, F., Ruffier, M.,
Sezian, A., &Bandirola, C. (2007), Aflatoxins occurrence in milk and feed in Northern
Italy during 2004-2005.Food Control, 18 (10): 1263
16
Food and Agriculture organization (FAO) (2000). The state of food and Agriculture: Lessons
from the past 50 years. FAO Agriculture series, No 32, Rome, 2000.
Juan C., Ritieni A., & Manes J. (2012). Determination of trichothecenes and Zearalenones in
grain cereal, flour and bread by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Food
Chem. 134 2389-2397.10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.04.051
Kayode, O. F, M. Sulyok, S.O. Fapohunda, C.N. Ezekiel, Krska, R & Oguntona, C.R (2013).
Mycotoxins and fungal metabolites in groundnut- and maize-based snacks from Nigeria
FdAddtContamPart B: Surveillance, DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2013.823626
Kumar P., Mahato D.K., Kamle M., Mohanta T.K., & Kang S.G (2017). Aflatoxins: a global
concern for food safety, human health and their management. Front Microbiol.7:2170.
10.3389/fmicb.2016.02170
McDonald, D & Harkness, C (1963). Growth of Aspergillus flavus and production of aflatoxin in
groundnut. Trop. Sci. 5: 108-14
Osho, I.B., Awoniyi, T.A.M., & Adebayo, A.I (2007).Mycological investigation of compounded
poultry feeds in poultry farms in southwest, Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology,
6:1833-1836.
Pankaj S.K., Shi H., & Keener K.M. (2018). A review of novel physical and chemical
decontamination technologies for aflatoxins in food. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 71:73-83.
10.1016/j.tifs.2017.11.007
Rubert, J., Fapohunda, S.O., Soler, C, Ezekiel, C, Manes, J & Kayode, F. (2013). A survey of
mycotoxins in random street-vended snacks from Lagos, Nigeria using QuEChERS-
HPLC-MS/MS. Food Control, 32 673-677.
Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON). National Industrial Standard, 2003, p253.
Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON). National Industrial Standard, 2006, p491
Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON). National Industrial Standard, 2008, p594.

17
 FORECASTING THE DEGRADATION OF VITAMIN C IN BLANCHED
VEGETABLES USING COMPUTER SIMULATION ANALYSIS.

*Awagu, E.F., Okoroafor, C.H., Ajanwachuku, N.C., Aneke, C.C., Okike, O.O., and Ugama, E.E.
Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Port Harcourt, Rivers State.
*Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Green leafy vegetables are essential food crops notorious for their vital nutrients such as
minerals, vitamins, proteins, as well as phytochemicals. Processing green leafy vegetables,
which is a prerequisite for consumption and/or longer shelf-life during storage often degrades
essential nutrients contained in these vegetables. Hence, the need for an appropriate technique
that ensures that these nutrients are well preserved even after processing. This study aimed at
determining the degradation rate of two green leafy vegetables (lettuce and cabbage) blanched
at different time intervals, using vitamin C as a refractive index. The vegetables were washed
differently and then blanched in two liters of water at different temperatures (70, 80 and 90 °C)
for 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40 mins. The liquid extracts obtained before and after the
drying process were used to assess the initial and final ascorbic acid degradation respectively
during blanching using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). The rate of vitamin
C degradation in the lettuce and cabbage samples under the same defined processing and
storage methods investigated in this study followed the first order reaction kinetics. This
indicates that the rate of degradation is dependent on the concentration of vitamin C present in
the vegetables.

Keywords: Lettuce, cabbage, ascorbic acid, forecast, concentration

INTRODUCTION
Green leafy vegetables are essential components of an ideal balanced diet which serve as a
reliable source of very important nutrients such as minerals, vitamins, proteins; as well as
phytochemicals (Mepba et al., 2007). Green leafy vegetables are usually consumed in their
processed form, hence there are various methods of processing green leafy vegetables. Some of
the processing methods commonly used include blanching, salting, sun-drying, freezing, and
boiling (Odufuwa et al., 2013). Often, essential nutrients are lost/degraded during the processing
of these vegetables. In this study, two green leafy vegetables (lettuce and cabbage) were
blanched at different time intervals and vitamin c was used as a nutrient refractive index to check
the degradation rate of these vegetables. Computer simulation analysis was also used to predict
the half-life of vitamin c in the blanched vegetables.
Blanching of foods involves mild heating in water and serves as a pre-treatment during food
processing (Saleh et al., 2021). It is also used in preserving freshly harvested fruits and
vegetables to maintain the physical and physiological properties of the produce (Tiwari et al.,
2021). To prepare vegetables and some fruits for additional processing, such as freezing,
dehydrating, canning, or thermal processing, blanching is done to inactivate their enzyme
18
activity. Blanching can have a negative effect on nutrients such as vitamins and phenolic
compounds which are relatively unstable when subjected to heat treatments (Prochaska et al.,
2000).
Vitamin C degradation in lettuce is a topic of growing concern in the food industry due to its
potential impact on the nutritional value of the vegetable. Lettuce is a common ingredient in
salads and other dishes; and is commonly consumed for its high vitamin C content. However,
several factors can contribute to the degradation of vitamin C in lettuce, including storage
conditions, processing, and cooking. One of the most significant factors is exposure to oxygen.
When lettuce is exposed to oxygen, the vitamin C molecules within the vegetable can react with
oxygen to form dehydroascorbic acid, which is a less stable and less biologically active form of
vitamin C (Al-Weshahy and Rao, 2004). Other factors that can contribute to vitamin C
degradation in lettuce include temperature, light exposure, and pH levels. As temperatures
increase, the rate of vitamin C degradation accelerates, leading to a decrease in the nutritional
value of the vegetable. Additionally, exposure to light can also contribute to vitamin C
degradation in lettuce. When lettuce is exposed to light, the chlorophyll within the vegetable can
undergo photo-oxidation, which can lead to the degradation of vitamin C (López-Gálvez and
Cantwell, 2008).
Cabbage or headed cabbage (comprising several cultivars of Brassica oleracea) is a leafy green
or purple biennial plant, grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads (Awagu et
al., 2017). Cabbage is a very essential and highly rated leafy vegetable, which contains minerals,
vitamins, and alkaline salts (Awagu et al., 2023). It is medicinal because of its wonderful
cleansing properties such as the detoxification of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the body
(Morales-López et al., 2017). It contains tartronic acid which inhibits fat formation and other
elements which enhance the body’s immunity, slow down aging, and inhibits cancer formation,
and estrogenic activities (Awagu et al., 2023). Several studies have investigated the degradation
of vitamin C in cabbage. One study published in the International Journal of Food Sciences and
Nutrition examined the effect of blanching on vitamin C content in cabbage (Rawat et al., 2015).
The study found that blanching caused a significant reduction in vitamin C content, with losses
ranging from 25% to 71% depending on the blanching time and temperature used (Rawat et al.,
2015). Another study published in the Journal of Food Science and Technology investigated the
effect of storage temperature and time on vitamin C degradation in cabbage (Mukhopadhyay et
al., 2015). The study found that vitamin C content in cabbage decreased rapidly during storage,
with losses ranging from 22% to 50% depending on the storage conditions used. The authors
suggested that vitamin C degradation in cabbage was primarily due to oxidation and enzymatic
reactions (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2015). In addition to storage and processing factors, other
studies have investigated the impact of cooking methods on vitamin C content in cabbage. Choi
et al. (2016) found that boiling and microwaving resulted in significant losses of vitamin C in
cabbage, while stir-frying and steaming preserved more of the vitamin.
19
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Matured and fresh vegetables were sourced from Yankaba fruits and vegetables market in
Nasarawa local Government area of Kano state, Nigeria. The vegetables (lettuce and cabbage)
weighed 2.5 kg each. They were washed differently with potable water and the leaves (100 g)
each were blanched in two liters of water at 70 °C, 80 °C and 90 °C for 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35
and 40 mins respectively. The blanched samples were cooled immediately to stop further
blanching under running tap water for 1 min, drained using muslin cloth for 5 min and the initial
samples were blended in a Kenwood blender (Philips, HR 1702, Borehamwood, England, UK).
The liquid extracts obtained before and after the drying process were used to assess the initial
and final ascorbic acid degradation respectively during blanching using High Performance
Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Statistical analyses were done using time series, one-way
analysis of variance (ANOVA), statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) package, while
treatment means were separated using Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 95% confidence
level.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The concentration of vitamin C in the vegetables decreased steadily with increased time and
temperature (Table 1). This confirms the fact that vitamin C in blanched vegetables degrades
during processing and storage. The loss of ascorbic acid was enhanced during blanching
treatment probably by the activity of ascorbic acid oxidase, which is dependent on pH of the
vegetable (Charles et al., 2011). The goodness of fit data is presented in Table 1, the first order
kinetics exhibited R2 values; 0.9576, 0.9374, 0.9404 and P – values of 0.000126, 0.00034 and
0.0003 at 70 °C, 80 °C and 90 °C respectively. Thus, the vitamin C degradation kinetics in
blanched vegetables can be best described by a first order kinetics. Rate constants of 0.0919 min-
1
, 0.0991 min-1, 0.1055 min-1 were recorded in lettuce while rate constants of 0.0880 min-1,
0.0996 min-1, 0.1045 min-1 were recorded in cabbage at temperatures of 70 °C, 80 °C, 90 °C
respectively. The magnitude of the rate constant reflects the rate of reaction, therefore,
degradation of vitamin C occurred faster in lettuce processed and stored at increased time and
temperature than reduced time and temperature. The activation energy can be seen as the energy
barrier that molecules need to cross to be able to react, from Table 2, the blanched lettuce
vegetables at different temperatures exhibited an activation energy value of 7.1480 Kcal/mol
while cabbage, 8.9298 Kcal/mol. The proposed model of ln(C) = ln (C0) - 0.0919t and ln(C) = ln
(C0) - 0.0880t for lettuce and cabbage at the lowest temperature in the analysis confirms that the
rate of degradation at any time is dependent on the initial concentration of vitamin C in the
vegetable (Table 2). The preservation of ascorbic acid after pretreatment is a good indicator of

20
the preservation of other nutrients (Perera et al., 2014). Cabbage had the least rate of constant,
longer half-life, and higher value of activation during blanching.

Table 1: Results of kinetic model statistical analysis for Vegetables (i)

Vegetable Treatment Temp (0C) Statistics Parameters (First Order)

( R2) R2 adjusted P- value

Lettuce Blanch 70 0.9576 0.9493 0.000126

80 0.9374 0.9249 0.00034

90 0.9404 0.9286 0.0003

Cabbage 70 0.9800 0.9760 0.0000192748

80 0.9903 0.9884 0.00000031

90 0.9879 0.9854 0.000000552

n=3 (triplicate) R2= goodness-of-fit measure for linear regression models

Table 2: Comparison of first order kinetic parameters and proposed model (i)
Vegetable PT Temp (0C) k (min-1) Half-Life EA Proposed Model
kcal/mol

Lettuce Blanch 70 0.0919 7.5424 ln(C) = ln( C0) - 0.0919t

80 0.0991 6.9944 7.1480 ln(C) = ln( C0) - 0.0991t

90 0.1055 6.5701 ln(C) = ln( C0) - 0.1055t

Cabbage 70 0.0880 7.8766 ln(C) = ln( C0) - 0.0880t

80 0.0996 6.9593 8.9298 ln(C) = ln( C0) - 0.0996t

90 0.1045 6.6329 ln(C) = ln( C0) - 0.1045t

9.5 0.5656 1.2255 ln(C) = ln( C0) - 0.5656t

n=3 (triplicate) PT= Processing treatment, K= rate constant, EA= Activation Energy

CONCLUSION

The rate of vitamin C degradation in the lettuce and cabbage samples under the same defined
processing and storage methods investigated in this study followed the first order reaction
kinetics. This indicates that the rate of degradation is dependent on the concentration of vitamin
C present in the vegetables. It could be concluded that blanching enhances preservation by
21
slowing down or inhibiting chemical deterioration and microbial growth, directly inactivating
bacteria, yeasts, molds, or enzymes, and avoiding recontamination before and after processing.

REFERENCES

Al-Weshahy, A., & Rao, M. A. (2004): Effect of processing on ascorbic acid retention in spinach
and lettuce. Journal of food science. 69(3). 119-124.
Awagu, E.F., Ekanem, E.O., Kolo, A.M. & Adamu, M.M (2017): Kinetic Modeling of Vitamin
C (Ascorbic Acid) Degradation in Blanched Commonly Consumed Salad Vegetables
Using Computer Simulation Analysis. IOSR Journal of Applied Chemistry. 10(4). 59-66.
Awagu, E.F., Okoroafor, H.C., Okike, O.O. & Daramola, D.S., Arohunmolase, O.M. (2023):
Forecasting the Degradation of Vitamin C in Commonly Consumed Vegetable Cabbage
(Brassica oleracea) Dipped in Different Pre-treatment Solutions. JOTCSA. 10.1.109–16.
Charles, C. A., Diana, K. A. & Chiemela E.C. (2011): Kinetics of ascorbic acid loss during hot
water blanching of fluted pumpkin (Telfairiaoccidentalis) leaves. Journal of food Research.
48.4.454–459.
Choi S.J., Park H.J. & Lee M.H. (2016): Effect of cooking methods on the content of vitamins
and true retention in selected vegetables. J Food Sci Technol. 53.1.242-250.
doi:10.1007/s13197-015-2070-7.
López-Gálvez, F., & Cantwell, M. I. (2008): Degradation kinetics of vitamin C in fresh-cut
lettuce and spinach as affected by packaging and temperature. Journal of Food Science.
73.6. S309-S316.
Mepba, H.D., Eboh, L. & Banigo, D.E.B. (2007): Effect of processing treatments on the nutritive
composition and consumer acceptance of some Nigerian edible leafy vegetable. African
Journal of Food Agriculture, Nutrition, and Development. 71. 1-18.
Morales-López J., Centeno-Álvarez, M., Nieto-Camacho, A., López, M.G., Pérez-Hernández. E.,
Pérez-Hernández, N. & Fernández-Martinez, E. (2017): Evaluation of antioxidant and
hepatoprotective effects of white cabbage essential oil. Pharmaceutical Biology. 55.1.233–
41. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/13880209.2016.1258424.
Mukhopadhyay S, Singh RK, Bhattacharyya S, et al. (2015): Kinetics of vitamin C degradation
in cabbage during storage. J Food Sci Technol 52.6.3622-3627. doi:10.1007/s13197-014-
1433-7.
Odufuwa, K.T., Atunnise, A.K., Hudson, J., Adeniji, P.O. & Salau, B.A. (2013): Changes in
Saponins content of some selected Nigerian vegetables during blanching and juicing.
Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology. 3.3.38-42.

22
Perera, M.N.A., Tian Min, C.O Ong, B.K. & Chung, K.J. (2014): Heat pump drying under inert
atmosphere. Proceedings of the international Drying Symposium, 2004. Sao Pauazit,
August 22- 25. Vol A. pp —309 -316.
Prochaska, L. J., Nguyen, X. T., Donat, N. & Piekutowski, W. V. (2000): Effects of food
processing on the thermodynamic and nutritive value of foods: Literature and database
survey. Medical Hypotheses. 54.254 -262.
Rawat R, Bhagat C, Singh R, et al. (2015): Effect of blanching on retention of vitamin C in
cabbage. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 58.3.217-223. doi:10.1080/09637480701191722
Saleh, N.C., Goli, S.A.H., Haghighi, M. & Keramat, J. (2021): The effects of blanching and
freezing on quality properties of frozen cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata). Journal
of Plant Process and Function. 10.43. 35-42.
Tiwari, K.R., Sharma, P. & Singh, N. (2021): Blanching of Fruits and Vegetables to Neutralize
the effect of Pesticide and Insecticide. Agriculture & Food: E-Newsletter. 3. 4. 562-564.

23
 KINETIC MODELING OF VITAMIN C DEGRADATION IN VEGETABLES AT
VARIOUS ROOM TEMPERATURES USING TIME SERIES ANALYSIS

*Awagu, E.F., Okoroafor, C.H., Okike, O.O., Ugama, E.E. Ajanwachuku, N.C., and Aneke, C.C.
Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Port Harcourt, Rivers State.
*Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Vitamin C is frequently lost during thermal food processing, such as blanching, drying and
boiling. To forecast vitamin C loss and quality changes under specific processing conditions, it is
crucial to comprehend the kinetics of degradation and the various kinetic models. The goal of
this study was to use time series analysis to determine the kinetic modeling of the thermal
degradation of ascorbic acid in two regularly consumed vegetables. The vegetables (lettuce and
cabbage) weighing 2.5 kg each, were washed separately with potable water to remove debris
and other soil contaminants, drained, and conditioned at average room temperature of 17.5 °C,
19.5 °C, 21 °C for eleven days. The liquid extracts obtained before and after drying, were used to
assess the initial and final ascorbic acid degradation respectively using High Performance
Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). The rate of vitamin C degradation in the lettuce and cabbage
samples under the same defined processing and storage methods investigated in this study
followed the first order reaction kinetics. This indicates that the rate of degradation is dependent
on the concentration of the vitamin C present in the vegetables.
Keywords: vitamin C, vegetables, degradation, modeling, time series.

INTRODUCTION
Green leafy vegetables occupy an important place among the food crops as they provide
adequate amounts of many vitamins and minerals for humans (Dafam et al. 2020). They
constitute an indispensable constituent of human diet in Africa generally and West Africa in
particular. Apart from the variety which they add to the menu (Mepha et al., 2007; Sobukola et
al., 2007), they are valuable sources of nutrients especially in rural areas where they contribute
substantially to protein, minerals, vitamins, fibers, and other nutrients which are usually in short
supply in daily diets (Mohammed and Sharif, 2011).
The preservation of vegetables and fruits through thermal processing, such as blanching, drying;
and boiling, is common. Vitamin C, however, is easily broken down and extremely susceptible to
different environmental variables, including high temperatures, oxygen, and light (Philips et al.,
2016). The degradation of vitamin C in green vegetables can occur during post-harvest handling,
transportation, storage, and processing (Giannakourou and Taoukis, 2021). Drying under room
temperature is one of the most used technologies to prevent deterioration and prolong the shelf-
life of fruits and vegetables. Temperature is the most important factor during drying and many
24
researchers explored the relationship between vitamin C retention and temperatures and the
degradation kinetics (Giannakourou and Taoukis, 2021, Muhammad et al., 2019). Vitamin C
decreased as the product temperature increased and moisture content decreased (Awagu et al.
2018). The degradation might be from both vitamin C oxidation and thermal destruction. Marfil
et al. (2008) studied ascorbic acid degradation kinetics in tomatoes at different drying conditions.
It was reported that the degradation rates were dependent on samples treatment before drying, as
well as on drying temperature. Increasing drying temperature led to higher degradation rates.
Kinetic modelling of vitamin C degradation is an important area of research as vitamin C
(ascorbic acid) is a key nutrient with numerous health benefits but is also highly unstable and
prone to degradation over time. Understanding the kinetics of vitamin C degradation in green
leafy vegetables can help in developing strategies to preserve its stability and nutritional value.
The goal of this study was to use time series analysis to determine the kinetic modeling of the
thermal degradation of ascorbic acid in several regularly consumed vegetables.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The vegetables (lettuce and cabbage) weighing 2.5 kg each, were washed separately with potable
water to remove debris and other soil contaminants, drained, and conditioned at average room
temperature of 17.5 °C, 19.5 °C, 21 °C for eleven days. The initial samples were blended in a
Kenwood blender (Philips, HR 1702, Borehamwood, England, UK) and filtered with cheese-
cloth. The liquid extracts were used to assess the initial ascorbic acid degradation using High
Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). After drying, they were blended, filtered and the
liquid extract used to determine the final rate of degradation of ascorbic acid. Experiments were
carried out in triplicates analysis and the average of measurement was reported. Data analysis
were carried out using time series analysis, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), statistical
package for service solution (SPSS) package, while treatment means were separated using
Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 95% confidence level.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The degradation of vitamin C was modeled using the integrated rate law. Different models were
developed using the integral method of analysis. The concentration of vitamin C in the
vegetables decreased steadily with increased time and temperature. From Table 1, the R2 values
of lettuce were the highest and P -values were the lowest with increase in time and temperature.
Thus, the vitamin C degradation kinetics for lettuce at room temperature can be best described by
a first order kinetics. The model with maximum R2 and minimum P-value is adjudged the best
(Mitra et al., 2011). Furthermore, from Table 2, the rate constant of the vegetable samples
processed at reduced time and temperature were lower than those processed and stored at
increased time and temperature. The rate of degradation at any time is dependent on the initial
concentration of vitamin C in the vegetable. Kuljarachanan et al. (2009) reported that drying
temperature was the major factor controlling the degradation of vitamin C. This trend manifested
25
in the half-life of the samples which gives further credence to this fact. Moreover, the proposed
model of ln(C) = ln (C0) - 0.7806t and ln(C) = In (C0) - 0.1141t for lettuce and cabbage at lowest
temperature in the analysis confirms that the rate of degradation at any time is dependent on the
initial concentration of vitamin C in the vegetable (Table 2).
Table 1: Kinetic model statistical analysis for the Vegetables
Vegetable Treatment Temp Statistics Parameters (First Order)
(0C
)
( R2) R2 P- value
adjus
ted
Lettuce RT 17.5 0.9462 0.9193 0.027262
19.9 0.9986 0.9980 0.0006649
21 0.9981 0.9971 0.000948
Cabbage 17.5 0.7567 0.67561 0.055225
19.9 0.8079 0.7439 0.03802
21 0.8071 0.7429 0.03825
n=3 (triplicate)
Table 2: Comparison of first order kinetic parameters and proposed model (i)
Vegetable PT Temp k (min-1) Half-Life EA Proposed Model
0
( kc
C) al/
mo
l
Lettuce RT 17.5 0.7806 0.8879 0.4857 ln(C) = ln( C0) - 0.7806t
19.5 0.7986 0.8679 ln(C) = ln( C0) - 0.7986t
21 0.9919 0.6988 ln(C) = ln( C0) - 0.9919t
Cabbage 17.5 0.1141 6.0749 4.8353 ln(C) = ln( C0) - 0.1141t
19.5 0.1215 5.7049 ln(C) = ln( C0) - 0.1215t
21 0.1539 4.5038 ln(C) = ln( C0) - 0.1539t

CONCLUSION
The rate of vitamin C degradation in the Lettuce and cabbage samples under the same defined
processing and storage methods investigated in this study followed the first order reaction

26
kinetics. This indicates that the rate of degradation is dependent on the concentration of the
vitamin C present in the vegetables. From the time series analysis, the rate of degradation of
vitamin C in lettuce at room temperature was higher than that of cabbage.

REFERENCES
Awagu, E.F., Ekanem, E.O., Kolo, A.M. & Adamu, M.M. (2018). Kinetic Modeling of Vitamin
C Degradation in Commonly Consumed Salad Vegetables at Room Temperatures using
Time Series Analysis (Forecast). International Journal of Scientific & Engineering
Research, 9(11): 1430-1440.
Dafam, D.G., Agunu, A., Dénou, A., Kagaru, D.C., Ohemu, T.L., Ajima, U., Damos, J.N. &
Okwori, V.A. (2020). Determination of the ascorbic acid content, mineral and heavy metal
levels of some common leafy vegetables of Jos, Plateau State (North Central Nigeria).
International Journal of Biosciences, 16(3): 389-396.
Giannakourou, M.C. & Taoukis, P.S. (2021). Effect of Alternative Preservation Steps and
Storage on Vitamin C Stability in Fruit and Vegetable Products: Critical Review and
Kinetic Modelling Approaches. Foods, 10, 2630. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/foods10112630.
Kuljarachanan, T., Devahastin, S., & Chiewchan, N. (2009). Evolution of antioxidant
compounds in lime residues during drying. Food Chemistry, 113 (4): 944–949.
Marfil, P.H.M., Santos, E.M. & Telis, V.R.N. (2008). Ascorbic acid degradation kinetics in
tomatoes at different drying conditions. Food Science and Technology, 41(9): 16421647.
Mepha, H.D., Eboh, L. & Banigo, D.E.B. (2007). Effects of processing treatments on the
nutritive composition and consumer acceptance of some Nigeria edible leafy vegetables.
African Journal of food Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 7(1), 1-18.
Mitra, J., Shrivastava, S. L., & Rao, P. S. (2011). Vacuum dehydration kinetics of onion slices.
Journal of Food and Bioproducts, 19: 254 – 260.
Mohammed, M.I. & Sharif, N. (2011). Mineral composition of some leafy vegetables consumed
in Kano, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 19(2), 208-211.
Muhammad, M. S., Ya’u, D., & Masur, S. (2019). Effect of Temperature on the Retention
Ability and Content of ascorbic Acid in some Citrus Fruits. 2nd Northwest University
Kano, Faculty of Science Annual International Conference. at: Kano State, Nigeria.
Philips, K.M., Council-Trouche, M., McGinty, R.C., Rasor, A.S. & Tarrago-Trani, M.T. (2016).
Stability of vitamin C in fruit and vegetable homogenates stored at different temperatures.
Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 45: 147-162.
Sobukola, O.P., Dairo, O.U., Odunewu, A.V. & Fafiolu, B.O. (2007). Thin layer drying process
of some leafy vegetables under open sun. Journal of Food Science and Technology,
13(1):35-40.

27
 ISOLATION OF BACTERIA FROM PROTEIN CONDIMENTS PRODUCED USING
Citrullus colocynthis, Ricinus communis and Parkia biglobosa SEEDS

*Isiekwene, A.C. 1, Omonigho, S.E. 2, Awagu E.F.1, Bamishaiye, E.I. 3, Okoroafor, C.H. 1, Oyelakin,
M.O.4
1
Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Port Harcourt, Rivers State
2
Department of Microbiology, University of Benin, Benin City
3
Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Ilorin, Kwara State
4
Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Sapele, Delta State
*Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Oil seeds constitute a major dietary input essentially as a protein source in the diet of many
Nigerians. This study was aimed at determining the bacteria population associated with
fermented Citrullus colocynthis (melon), Ricinus communis (castor oil) and Parkia biglobosa
(African locust bean) and evaluate the effect of fermentation on the temperature of the protein
condiment. Seeds were obtained, processed, and fermented for seven days. Total heterotrophic
bacteria count (THBC) was carried out by standard microbiological techniques. The
temperature of the fermenting medium was also evaluated. The THBC of the condiments
increased progressively and peaked at day six for all seeds with African locust bean condiment
having the highest count while castor oil seed had the least count. Escherichia coli, Bacillus
licheniformis, B. subtilis, Micrococcus luteus, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Serratia marcescens, Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis were isolated and identified. The
most prevalent bacterial isolate was B. subtilis. Temperature increase was also observed and
associated with nutrient utilization by fermenting organisms. This study thus calls for an
upgrade in the production process of protein condiments through selection of microbial species
to achieve process control, safety and consistency of the product which is the main goal of
modern food processing.
Keyword: Protein Condiment, Fermentation, Bacteria, Temperature, Upgrade
INTRODUCTION
Protein condiments from plant sources are popular food ingredients in many parts of the world.
In Nigeria, melon (Citrullus colocynthis), castor oil bean (Ricinus communis), and African locust
bean (Parkia biglobosa) seeds are commonly used to produce protein condiments such as iru,
ogiri and dawadawa respectively (Uzodinma et al., 2021). These condiments not only serve as
flavour enhancers but also provide a significant amount of protein and essential amino acids,
which are important for human nutrition (Okorie and Olasupo, 2013). Production is typically
carried out using traditional fermentation techniques, which involve the use of complex

28
microbial communities. In a study by Olutiola et al. (2014), bacterial strains associated with the
production of protein condiment were isolated and characterized.
The production of these condiments is often characterized by a lack of quality control measures
and standardized production methods, which can lead to the production of low-quality products
that may pose health risks to consumers (Uzodinma et al., 2021). Understanding the dynamics of
this ecosystem is essential in the development of effective strategies to produce high-quality
protein. Thus, this study was aimed at isolating and identifying bacteria associated with the
production of protein condiment and to determine the effect of fermentation on the temperature
of the protein condiment.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample collection
Raw melon seeds (Citrullus colocynthis L.) was bought from Benin City Edo state; African
locust bean (Parkia biglobasa) was bought from Auchi, Edo state, while Castor oil seed (Ricinus
communis) was bought from Ogwashi-uku main market, Delta state.
Preparation of fermented protein condiments
Preparation of Ogiri-egusi: De-hauled melon seeds were properly washed and boiled for about
3 h. The cotyledon was drained, mashed and wrapped tightly in layer of blanched short banana
leaves. The wrapped cotyledon was then boiled again for 2 h and drained. The wrapped
cotyledon was left to ferment for seven (7) days.
Preparation of Ogiri-isi: Raw castor oil seed were de-hauled and boiled for 6-7 h until the seed
changed colour to brown and was drained. The seeds were further boiled for 1 h, drained, cooled,
mashed and wrapped with blanched banana leaves and packed in clean containers to ferment for
seven (7) days (Enujiugha, 2008).
Preparation of Iru: Raw locust beans were soaked overnight in water and the adhering pulpy
material was removed. The resultant material was boiled for 8 h to loosen the dark brown or
black, leathery testa. These were then separated and boiled for 30 min, drained and the
cotyledons wrapped with banana leaves in covered containers and allowed to ferment for 7 days
(Ikenebomeh et al., 1986).
Isolation and Characterization of Isolates
One gram of each sample was collected daily for 7 days from the fermenting medium and
transferred aseptically into 9 mL of sterile saline solution in McCartney bottles and shaken
vigorously to dislodge the associated bacteria. The homogenate was serially diluted with sterile
water and 1mL (10-6 dilution) was taken and plated on petri-dishes containing cooled and
solidified nutrient agar and incubated. The plates were examined for growth and bacteria load
determined. Pure cultures were obtained by streaking repeatedly and stored in slants. Isolates

29
were further characterized by cultural morphology, growth on selective media and biochemical
characteristics (Cheesbrough, 2000).
Determination of fermentation temperature
The temperature of the fermenting medium was determined using a thermometer. This was
carried out according to the method described by Nielson, (2010) after proper calibration of the
temperature probe.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 1 shows the Total heterotrophic bacterial count of fermented seeds. There was observable
increase of total heterotrophic bacteria in all three seeds, with the highest count observed on day
6 for African locust bean (15.8±4.33 x 105 cfu/g) and castor oil seed (10.90±2.42 x 105 cfu/g)
while the highest count for melon seed (12.60±2.21 x 105 cfu/g) was on day 5. The table also
revealed that African locust bean had the highest bacterial count while castor oil seed had the
least. Table 1 shows the characterization and identification of the bacteria species isolated during
the period of fermentation. The isolates were identified as Bacillus licheniformis, Escherichia
coli, Bacillus subtilis, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia marcescens,
Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis.
Figure 2 shows the percentage frequency of occurrence of the bacteria isolates. Among the three
protein condiments, the highest percentage frequency of occurrence of bacterial isolates was
observed in the castor oil seeds protein condiment, with B. subtilis (31.02%) and P. aeruginosa
(24.83%) being the most prevalent bacterial isolates. On the other hand, the lowest percentage
frequency of occurrence of bacterial isolates was observed in the melon seeds protein condiment,
with E. coli (10.55%) and S. epidermidis (10.64%) being the most prevalent bacterial isolates.
The occurrence of E. coli was similar in melon and castor oil seeds protein condiments, with a
frequency of 10.55% and 11.98%, respectively. In contrast, E. coli was not detected in the
African locust bean seeds protein condiment. It is interesting to note that S. aureus and M. luteus
were not detected in the melon seeds protein condiment, while they were present in the castor oil
seeds and African locust bean seeds protein condiments. The highest occurrence of S. aureus was
in the castor oil seeds protein condiment, while M. luteus was the most frequently isolated
bacteria in the African locust bean seeds protein condiment.

30
 20

18

16

14
THBC (x 106 cfu/g)

12

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Period of fermentation (Days)

Melon Seed Castor Oil Seed African Locust Bean

Figure 1: Total heterotrophic bacterial count of fermented seeds

31
Table 1. Characterization and Identification of Bacterial Isolates
Characteristic Tests Bacterial Isolates
A B C D E F G H I
Cultural
Colour White Cream Pink White Green White Cream Golden yellow White
Elevation Raised Raised Raised Flat Flat Raised Raised Raised Raised
Size 1mm 2 mm 0.5 mm 1 mm 1 mm 2 mm 2 mm 1 mm 1 mm
Microbiological
Gram + + - + - - - + +
Arrangement Rods Rods Cocci Cocci Rods Rods Cocci Cocci Cocci
Spore + + - - - - - - -
Motility + + - - + + - + -
Biochemical
Catalase + + + - - + - + +
Citrate + + - - + +
V.P Test + - + + + - + - -
H2S Production + + + + + - + +
Sugar fermentation
Glucose A A A A A - A A A
Fructose A A A A - A A - -
Lactose A A - A - A - A A
Mannitol A A - A A - A A A
Identity of Isolate Bacillus Bacillus Escherichia Serratia Pseudomonas Proteus Micrococcus Staphylococcus Staphylococcus
licheniformis subtilis coli marcescens aeruginosa mirabilis luteus aureus epidermidis

32
Table 2. Percentage frequency of occurrence of bacteria isolates in protein condiments.

Percentage Occurrence of Bacteria in Protein Condiments (%)

Bacteria Isolates
Melon seed Castor Oil Seed Locust bean seed
E. coli 10.55 11.98 0.00
S. epidermidis 10.64 0.00 0.00
B. licheniformis 25.8 0.00 20.04
B. subtilis 25.97 31.02 32.57
P. aeruginosa 18.97 24.83 16.32
P. mirabilis 8.07 0.00 0.00
S. aureus 0.00 9.56 8.08
M. luteus 0.00 22.61 11.38
S. marscensens 0.00 0.00 11.61
The reason for the narrowed objective was attributed to several factors such as low oxygen
concentration, demand in the pockets of the fermenting seed, high moisture content and short-
term usability. The result of the total heterotrophic bacterial count of the fermenting seeds
showed that the bacterial population increased progressively in all the three seed samples (melon,
castor oil and African locust bean) as fermentation proceeded, with African locust bean and
castor oil seeds showing major decline. The work of Ibeh et al. (2013) suggested that increase in
the total heterotrophic bacterial count at the early stages of fermentation as recorded in this
present study, might be due to high nutrient content in the fermenting seeds while decline at the
different days recorded could also be attributed to reduction in utilizable nutrient content and
accumulation of metabolites which could impair the growth and survival of the bacterial
population. Similar report was documented by Farinde et al. (2016) who reported increase in
bacterial load of fermented Lima bean at the first 24 h of fermentation.
Characterized and identified bacteria in this study were Escherichia coli, Bacillus licheniformis,
B. subtilis, Micrococcus luteus, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia
marcescens, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus epidermidis. Their origin in the different
fermenting seeds could be the leaves used in the wrapping of the seeds since the condiments
were prepared under aseptic laboratory condition although the processes involved are traditional
processes.
Similar bacterial isolates have been associated with fermenting melon, castor oil and African
locust bean (Achi, 2005, David and Aderibigbe, 2010, Okorie and Olasupo, 2013).
Several studies have reported the presence of Bacillus spp. in various food products, including
condiments, indicating that they are ubiquitous bacteria that can adapt to a wide range of
environmental conditions (Nwanekwu, and Dike, 2018). Bacillus spp. are known to produce
various enzymes that aid in the fermentation and preservation of food products, including

33
proteases and amylases (Okorie and Olasupo, 2013). B. subtilis and B. licheniformis are known
to produce antimicrobial substances that can inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria (Stein,
2005, Alvarez-Ordóňez et al. 2013). M. luteus, on the other hand, has been shown to have
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties (Vinoshna et al. 2017). The presence of pathogenic
bacteria such as E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus in food products can lead to foodborne
illness, which could have severe health implications (Adegbehingbe et al., 2018). E. coli is
associated with a range of symptoms, such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, and vomiting (Gomes et
al. 2016), while P. aeruginosa has been implicated in respiratory tract infections, urinary tract
infections, and sepsis (Newman et al. 2022). S. aureus, on the other hand, is associated with food
poisoning, skin infections, and pneumonia (Tong et al. 2015).
CONCLUSION
This study has provided evidence that fermentation of protein seeds to produce condiments is
carried out majorly by bacteria species as fungi were not isolated. As observed in the study,
condiment produced using African locust bean seed had higher bacteria load compared to other
seeds and could be associated to the low oil content of the seed. The study also showed that the
source of the fermenting bacteria was external since they were not inoculated. Bacillus subtilis
was recorded to have the highest percentage occurrence in all samples. By implication, axenic
cultures of B. subtilis could have the potential of producing protein condiment. Conclusively, the
presence of pathogenic bacteria as could have severe health implications. This study thus calls
for upgrading of protein condiments through more research on the use of axenic cultures.

REFERENCES
Adegbehingbe, K.T., Ogunbanwo, S.T., Obuotor, E.M. & Fagade, O.E. (2018). Bacterial
community dynamics during the fermentation of African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa)
for the production of iru. Food Microbiology, 69:97-104.
Alvarez-Ordóňnez, A., Begley, M., Clifford, T., Deasy, T., Considine, K., O’Connor, P., Ross,
R.P. & Hill, C. (2013). Investigation of the Antimicrobial Activity of Bacillus
licheniformis Strains Isolated from Retail Powdered Infant Milk Formulae. Probiotics &
Antimicro. Prot., (6):32–40.
Cheesbrough, M. (2000). District Laboratory Practice in tropical countries Part II, Co-published
by the press syndicate of the University of Cambridge. pp. 36 – 400.
David, O.M. & Aderibigbe, E.Y. (2010). Microbiology and proximate composition of ‘Ogiri’,
An oily paste produced from different melon seeds. New York Science Journal 3(4):18-27.
Enujiugha, V.N., Akanbi, C.T. & Adeniran, H.A. (2008). Evaluation of starters for the
fermentation of African oil bean (Pentaclethra macrophylla benth) seeds. Nutrition and
Food Science 38(5):451–457.
Farinde, E.O., Abiose, S.H. & Adeniran, H.A. (2016). Natural and controlled fermentation of
Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) for dadawa production. Malaysian Journal of
Microbiology, 13(2):85-91.

34
Gomes, T.A.T., Elias, W.P., Scaletsky, I.C.A., Guth, B.E.C., Rodrigues, J.F., Piazza, R.M.F.,
Ferreira, L.C.S. & Martinez, M.B. (2016). Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli. Brazilian
Journal of Microbiology, 47(1): 3-30.
Ibeh, C.C., Obeta, J.A. & Ukwuru, M.U. (2013). Characterization of bacteria isolated from
traditionally fermented condiments in Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences and
Environmental Management, 17(1):73-77.
Ikenebomeh, M.J., Kok, R. & Ingram, J.M. (1986). Processing and fermentation of the African
locust bean (Parkia filicoidea Welw) to produce dawadawa. Journal of Science, Food and
Agriculture, 37:273-282.
Newman, J.N., Floyd, R.V. & JL Fothergill, J.L. (2022). Invasion and diversity in Pseudomonas
aeruginosa urinary tract infections. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 71:001458.
Nielsen, S.S. (2010). Food analysis laboratory manual. Springer Science & Business Media.
Nwanekwu, K.E.N. & Dike, K.S. (2018). Molecular identification of Bacillus spp as starter
culture to produce Ugba (Pentraclethra macrophylla), a Nigerian fermented condiment.
Nigerian Food Journal, 36(2):83 – 87.
Odibo, F.J.C., Ugwu, D.A. & Ekeocha, D.C. (1992). Microorganisms associated with the
fermentation of Prosopis seeds for ogiri-okpei production. Food Science and Technology,
29:306-307.
Okorie, C.P. & Olasupo, N.A. (2013). Growth and extracellular enzyme production by
microorganisms isolated from Ugba - An indigenous Nigerian fermented condiment.
African Journal of Biotechnology, 12(26):4158-4167.
Olutiola, P.O., Famurewa, O. & Sonntag, H.G. (2014). Bacterial strains associated with the
production of iru, a traditional Nigerian fermented food condiment. Food Science and
Nutrition, 2(5):477-483.
Stein, T. (2005). Bacillus subtilis antibiotics: structures, syntheses, and specific functions. Mol.
Microbiol, 56, 845–857. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2005.04587.x
Tong, S.Y., Davis, J.S., Eichenberger, E., Holland, T.L. & Fowler, V.G. (2015). Staphylococcus
aureus infections: epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and
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Uzodinma, E.O., Okoyeuzu, C.F., Uchegbu, N.N., Okpala, C.O.R., Rasaq, W.A., Shorstkii, I.,
Sardo, G., Bono, G. & Korzeniowska, M. (2021). Cubing, fabrication/costing and machine
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from Micrococcus luteus Snist- Cm 02: A Brief Study. J Microbiol Biotech Food Sci, 6 (5)
1199-1202.

35
 PHYTOCHEMICALS AND COLOUR PROPERTIES OF EXTRUDATES FROM
MALTED SORGHUM-GROUNDNUT COMPOSITE FLOUR
*
Ojo, O. A., Fakunle, R. A., Obadina, A. O., Oke, E. K.
Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State,
Nigeria.
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Sorghum, a gluten free crop abundant in Nigeria with good nutritional composition could be
utilized to develop food for the growing population. This study was carried out to evaluate the
effect of groundnut flour inclusion on the phytochemicals and colour properties of extruded
snacks from malted sorghum and groundnut composite flour. Sorghum and groundnut grains
were sorted, washed and processed to malted sorghum and groundnut flour, respectively. The
snacks were produced in the following proportion of malted sorghum-groundnut flour blends
100:0, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40 and 0:100, respectively and wheat flour was used as the
control. The extrudates were analysed for phytochemicals and colour properties using standard
methods. Data collected were subjected to analysis of variance. Tannin, phytate, flavonoids and
total phenolic content ranged from 4.22 to 6.78 mg/100g, 0.97 to 1.28 mg/100g, 8.67 to 15.86
mg/100g and 0.66 to 0.97 mg/100g, respectively. There were significant (p < 0.05) differences
between the phytochemicals in the extrudates while yellowness showed no signifiant (p > 0.05)
difference. Lightness decreased with increase in groundnut flour while redness and yellowness
increased with increase in groundnut flour. It was concluded that a snacks can be produced from
malted sorghum and groundnut flour.
Keywords: Sorghum, Groundnut, Phytochemicals, Colour
INTRODUCTION
Sorghum grains (Sorghum bicolar (L)) are widely grown across the world (Ularamu, 2017).
According to Akajiaku et al. (2017), sorghum is the fifth major staple after wheat, rice, maize
and barley. Sorghum plays a decisive role in food security in developing countries (Apostol et
al., 2020). Sorghum grains are used in the production of flat breads, and other baking and pastry
sector (Akajiaku et al., 2017). Sorghum has a great source of starch and protein, it is also a
gluten-free cereal, which is good for those who are allergic to wheat gluten (Raghavan et al.,
2010). Sorghum has a low glycaemic index; hence starches and sugar are released on digestion
more slowly than other cereals, this makes it of advantage to diabetic patient (Slima et al., 2019).
Malting enhances the nutritional quality in cereals by decreasing certain antinutrients such as
phytic acid, polyphenols and oxalic acid (Baranwal, 2018). However, sorghum products are
deficient in essential amino acids such as lysine and threonine limiting their nutritional value.
Therefore, attempts have been made to fortify this cereal with legumes to make it nutritionally
balanced. Groundnut or peanut (Arachis hypogea) is a leguminous grain, that is grown in tropical
regions to produce oil and for human and animal consumption (Rami et al., 2013). It has a good

36
balance of essential amino acids such as arginine, making it a good supplement for cereals.
Extrusion has beneficial and desirable effects on the nutritional value of products (Harper 2019).
Hence, this work was aimed at determining the effect of groundnut flour additions on the
phytochemical and colour properties of extrudates from malted sorghum-groundnut composite
flour.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Source of Materials
Sorghum and groundnut were purchased from Eleweran market in Abeokuta, Ogun state,
Nigeria.

Malted sorghum flour preparation

The processing method of sorghum to malted sorghum flour as described by Ojha et al. (2014)
was employed. The grains were sorted to remove extraneous materials, washed in a large amount
of water, and steeped for 12 h. The grains were drained and spread for 3 days on jute bag at 25±2
°
C and sprayed with water at 6 h intervals to allow sprouting. It was then kilned using a cabinet
dryer (LEEC Limited, Serial No 3114, United Kingdom) set at 50oC for 24 h, cooled, winnowed,
milled using a hammer mill (Fritsch, D-55743 Idaroberstein-Germany), sieved (passed through a
600 µm sieve) and stored in a polyethylene bag before usage.

Groundnut flour preparation

The method described by Mgbemere et al. (2011) was used in the preparation of groundnut flour.
Sorting and cleaning of the nut was done, the cleaned groundnut seed was mildly roasted in an
oven at 48°C for 2 hr. The hull of the groundnut was removed. the kernel was oven dried at 55°C
for 5 h and milled into flour with a blender (Philip, HR 1702), it was spread on a tray at a loading
depth of 10 mm and toasted in the oven at 105 °C for 2 hr.

Preparation of extruded snacks

The method described by Azeez et al. (2015) was adopted for the production of the extruded
snacks. Laboratory single screw extruder having screw length (16.43 mm), diameter (18.5 mm),
length (304 mm) and a power of 0.25 hp of the Department of Food Science and Technology,
Federal University of Agriculture was used for this work. The barrel temperature and screw
speed were set at 105 oC and 120 rpm, respectively at 20% moisture content. The extruder
comprises of two sections which are the die and the transmission zone, with the band heater
heating the band as described by Sobukola et al. (2012). After the extrusion process, the extruded
snacks were dried to 8 % moisture content in a convective oven (Model OV-160 Gallenkamp) at
50 °C for 24 h and allowed to cool at room temperature and were packed into polyethylene bags
for further analysis.
Analyses on extruded snacks
Phytochemical analysis

37
Tannin content was determined using the method of Amabye et al. (2015) method, pytic acid
content was determined by the method of Nwosu (2010), total phenolic and flavonoid contents
were determined by the method described by Baba and Malik (2015).
Colour analysis
The colour of the extruded snacks was analysed using the procedure described Puraikalan
(2018).
Statistical analysis
All data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS version 21.0
software and significant means were separated using the Duncan Multiple range (DMR) test with
significance level set at p < 0.05.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Phytochemical content of extruded snacks made from malted-sorghum-groundnut flour
The phytochemical contents of the extruded snacks made from malted-sorghum-groundnut flour
is presented in Table 1. The total phenolic content of the samples ranged from 0.66 to 0.97
mg/100g. Sample A (100% malted sorghum) had the lowest value of 0.66 mg/100g, while
sample E (60% Malted sorghum flour and 40% groundnut flour) had the highest content of 0.97
mg/100g. The phytate content of the samples was between 0.97 and 1.28 mg/100g. It was
observed that there were fluctuations in the phytate content as groundnut flour increased. Sample
E (60% malted sorghum flour and 40% groundnut flour) had the highest phytate content of 1.28
mg/100g while sample C (80% malted sorghum flour and 20% groundnut flour) had the lowest
content of 0.97 mg/100g. Anton et al. (2009) has reported reduction in phytate content of cereals
and legume blend extruded products. The reduction in phytate could be as a result of extrusion
cooking. During extrusion cooking some molecule of inositol hexaphosphate were hydrolysed to
penta-, tetra- and triphosphates (Anton et al., 2009). The removal of seed coat (dehulling of
groundnut) may have contrubuted to the reduction of the phytate content. It is expected that
phytate lowering should enhance the bioavailability of minerals such as iron in extruded snacks
as phytic acid makes such mineral unavailable (Anuonye et al., 2009).
The Tannin content of the samples was between 4.22 and 6.78 mg/100g. It was observed that the
tannin content decreased as groundnut flour increased. Sample D (70% malted sorghum flour
and 30% groundnut flour) had the highest tannin content of 6.78% while sample F (100% wheat
flour) had the lowest content of 4.22. The tannin content of extruded snacks made from malted
sorghum-groundnut composite flour obtained in this study is lower than the tannin content (18.9-
22.9%) of the malted sorghum-soy composite flour and sorghum-soy-plantain flour (23.8-27.4%)
reported by (Bolarinwa et al. (2015) and Onoja et al. (2014), respectively. The low tannin
content could be due to degradation of tannin during malting. The low tannin content of the
extruded snacks as compared to Bolarinwa et al (2015) and Onoja et al (2014) could be due to
the extrusion cooking. Tannins form insoluble complexes with proteins thereby decreasing the
digestibility of proteins (Uzeochina, 2006). The Flavonoid content of the samples ranged
between 8.71 and 15.86%. It was observed that there was increase in the flavonoid content as

38
groundnut flour increased. Sample E (60% malted sorghum flour and 40% groundnut flour) had
the highest flavonoid content of 15.86% while sample f (100% wheat flour) had the lowest
content of 8.71.

Table 1. Phytochemical content of Extruded snacks made from Malted-Sorghum-

Groundnut Flour

Sample Tannin Phytate Flavonoids Total Phenolic

(mg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g)

A 6.77±0.02e 1.04±0.02a 10.30±0.03c 0.66±0.01a

B 6.18±0.78c 1.09±0.01b 10.72±0.57c 0.79±0.03c
C 5.88±0.05b 0.97±0.02a 12.80±0.78d 0.71±0.04b
D 5.78±0.01e 1.04±0.12ab 15.09±0.05e 0.87±0.14d
E 5.57±0.02d 1.28±0.21c 15.86±0.57f 0.97±0-.14e
F 4.22±0.14a 1.10±0.12a 8.67±2.71a 0.82±0.12d
Values are mean ± standard deviation of triplicate determinations. Mean values along the same column
with different superscripts are significantly different (p≤0.05) A= 100% malted sorghum flour, B= 90%
malted sorghum flour and 10% groundnut flour, C= 80% malted sorghum flour and 20% groundnut flour,
D= 70% malted sorghum flour and 30% groundnut flour, E= 60% malted sorghum flour and 40%
groundnut flour, F= 100% wheat flour

The colour parameter of extruded snacks made from malted-sorghum-groundnut flour

The colour parameter of the extruded snacks made from malted-sorghum and groundnut flour is
presented on Table 2. Colour is a very important parameter in judging food products. It also
provides information about the formation and quality of the product (Farina et al., 2006). There
were significant (p < 0.05) differences in the lightness and yellowness of the extruded snack.
Sample F have the highest L* value (61.00) while sample E have the lowest value (41.00).
Redness and yellowish increased with increased in groundnut flour inclusion. The yellow colour
observed could be attributed to Maillard and caramelization reactions, high expansion of
extrudate and starch dextrinization. Shi et al. (2011) reported that the product with least
expansion have a compact structure and appear dull in colour.

Table 2: Colour determination of Extruded snacks made from Malted sorghum-groundnut flour

39
Sample L* a* b*

A 50.00±0.00d 5.33±0.58b 16.20±0.00a

B 49.00±0.00e 6.00±0.00c 16.00±0.00a
C 48.67±0.58c 7.20±0.00d 16.10±0.00a
D 41.20±0.00a 7.00±0.00d 16.00±0.00a
E 41.00±0.00b 7.33±0.58d 16.40±0.00a
F 61.00±0.00f 1.00±0.00a 16.00±0.00a
Values are mean ± standard deviation of triplicate determinations. mean values along the same column
with different superscripts are significantly different (p≤0.05) L*= lightness, a*= redness, b*= yellowness
A= 100% malted sorghum flour, B= 90% malted sorghum flour and 10% groundnut flour, C= 80% falted
sorghum flour and 20% groundnut flour, D= 70% malted sorghum flour and 30% groundnut flour, E=
60% malted sorghum flour and 40% groundnut flour, F= 100% wheat flour

CONCLUSION
The result of the study showed that quality extruded snacks can be produced from malted
sorghum and groundnut flour. There were significant differences in the tannin, phytate,
flavonoids, total phenolic, lightness and redness as the groundnut flour increases. However, there
were no significant effect in the yellowness parameters.

REFERENCES
Anton, A. A., Fulcher, R. G. & Arntfield, S. D. (2009): Physical and nutritional impact of
fortification of corn starch-based extruded snacks with common bean (Phaseolus
vulgaris) flour: Effects of bean addition and extrusion cooking. Food chemistry. 113.
989-996.
Bolarinwa, I. F., Olaniyan, S. A., Adebayo, L. O. & Ademola, A. A. (2015): Malted Sorghum-
Soy Composite Flour: Preparation, Chemical and Physico-Chemical Properties. Journal
of Food Processing Technology. 6. 467-472
Chandra S., Samsher S. & Durvesh K. (2015): Evaluation of functional properties of composite
flours and sensorial attributes of composite flour biscuits. Journal of Food Science and
Technology. 52. 3681–3688
Nwosu, J. N. (2010): Effect of soaking, blanching and cooking on the antinutritional properties
of Asparagus bean (Vigna sesquipedis) flour. Nature and Science. 8. 163-167.
Onoja, U. S., Akubor, P. I., Gernar, D. I. & Chinmma, C. E. (2014): Evaluation of
complementary food formulated for staples and fortified with calcium, iron and zinc.
Journal of Nutrition and Food Science. 4. 1-6.
Hallen, E., Ibanglu, S. & Ainswoth, P. (2004): Effect of fermented/germinated cowpea flour
added on the rheological and bakery properties of wheat flour.
Journal Food Engineering. 63. 177-184.

40
 QUALITY COMPARISON OF MOI-MOI PRODUCED FROM WHITE
COWPEAS USING DIFFERENT PACKAGING MATERIALS

*SALAKO, M.O.1, AJANI, A.O.1, OYEYIPO, S.O.1, ZUBAIR, A. B. 2, AYANDA, I. S.1

1
Nigerian Stored Product Research Institute, PMB 1489, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria.
2
Food Science and Technology Department, Federal University of Technology Minna, Niger State,
Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The effect of different packaging materials on the quality of moi-moi produced from cowpea was
investigated. Cowpea (white beans) was soaked for 3 minutes, dehulled, rinsed and milled with
onions and pepper to form slurry. The mixture was packaged in five packaging materials
(banana leaf, cellophane nylon, tin, uma leaf and plastic) and steamed at (73-870C) for 60
minutes and cooled. The Moi-moi samples were evaluated for proximate composition, mineral
composition and sensory attributes using standard procedures. The moisture content was in the
range of 61.34 to 68.14%, ash content (0.47 to 0.99%), crude fat (10.80 to 12.59%), crude
protein (19.95 to 27.79%) and fibre (0.86 to 1.21%), there were significant differences in the
proximate composition of the samples. Magnesium was in the range of 109.95 to
153.75mg/100g, Potassium (117.35 to 192.75mg/100g), Calcium (19.75 to 29.76mg/100g).
There was significant difference in the sample minerals determined. Sample texture ranged from
6.25 to 7.15, Taste (7.20 to 7.55), Appearance (6.40 to 7.10), Aroma (6.85 to 7.65), overall
acceptability (7.35 to 7.75) and there was no significant difference in the sensory attributes. In
conclusion, moi-moi cooked with banana leaf and uma leaf were mostly preferred in term of
organoleptic properties, mineral compositions and physicochemical properties by the panelists.

Keywords: Cowpea, packaging materials, Steamed bean pudding, sensory attributes, mineral
composition.
INTRODUCTION

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) offers important nutrient and lofty level of protein (about 25%)
causing it to be highly valued in place where protein foods are not affordable such as meat and
fish (Akpapunam and Sefa-Dedeh, 1997). Cowpeas are transformed to a sticky stuff like for the
production of all kinds of customary foods, like Akara (fried cowpea paste) and moimoi (moist
bean pudding) (Henshaw et al., 2000). Cowpea are majorly made and consumed as a full or
partial meal in Nigeria. The commonest of meals from cowpea is moimoi (Steamed Bean
Pudding), akara (fried bean balls), apapa (steamed cake with bitter pepper); in developed world,
cowpea is mechanically produced in form of flour and is used in different preparations which
includes concentrate of protein and isolates for the preparation of animal food (Chinma et al.,
2008). Black-eyed peas used for moimoi contain 41 mg of calcuim, 356 mcg of folate, 13.22 g of
protein, 11.1 g of fiber and 26 IU of vitamin A. Moi-moi (Steamed Bean Pudding) is a food
which is traditionally cooked from peeled and wet-milled bean seeds (Henshaw et al., 2009). It is

41
usually seen as complement to rice made into different form like fried, jollof, plantain, custard,
akamu (ogi, pap) e.t.c. It is a proteineous food which is principal in Nigeria and originated from
South-West Nigeria (Akusu and Kiin-Kabari, 2012). Different food packaging materials adopted
for this study are cellophane nylon, tin, plastic, uma leaf (Thaumatococcus daniellii) and banana
leaf. Food packaging is used to preserve food, increase the shelf life of food, sustain the
nutrients, and offer food to consumers in a proper condition, among other functions (Ojekale et
al., 2007). Moi-moi (Steamed Bean Pudding) used to be prepared in different types of leaf in the
olden days but modernization and civilization has made it possible to be prepared with plastic,
tin, and cellophane nylon due to its convenience. When preparing moi-moi, nothing tastes as
good and original as moi-moi (Steamed Bean Pudding) wrapped and cooked in leaf (Dobbys,
2014). This is not limited to cooking in Uma leaf (Thaumatococcus daniellii) alone but also
banana leaves. This is a healthier option as the leaf releases antioxidants and good flavour into
the food, it is ‘GRAS’ (Generally Recognized As Safe). Leaf has a wide surface area which
makes them easy to cover a big quantity of cuisine and they have the capacity in sustaining heat
and moisture in the product; they can supply herbal ingredients which improve the food value
and encourage the consumer’s health. However, the leaf is not readily available and also not easy
to preserve. This study is therefore to produce moi-moi from white cowpea using different
packaging materials, assess the proximate composition, determine the mineral composition and
evaluate the sensory acceptability of the product.
MATERIALS AND METHOD

Collection and Processing of Materials

Cowpea (5 cups of white beans), ingredients (2g of table salt, 2 maggi cubes, 2 bulbs of onion,
5g of bell-shaped pepper, 3 boiled eggs, 3 tablespoons of groundnut oil). Packaging materials
(cellophane nylon, tin, and plastic bowls) were purchased from Kure market, Minna, Niger state.
Uma leaf was purchased at Owode market Offa, Kwara State while Banana leaf was gotten from
banana house Minna, Niger state.

Cowpea

Soaking (3 min)

Dehulling

Rinsing

Addition of Onion and Pepper

Grinding

42
 Mixing (Ingredients and Water)

Wrapping

Steaming (73-870C)

Cooling

Moi-Moin

Figure 1: Preparation of Moi-Moi

Source: Akpapunam (1985)
Determination of Proximate Analysis
The moisture, ash, protein, crude fiber and crude fat were determined following the procedure
outlined by AOAC (2005).
Determination of Mineral Composition
Mineral composition was done using the method of Onwuka (2005). Magnesium (Mg) was
analyzed using Flame Photometer while Potassium (K) and Calcuim (Ca) was analyzed using
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS).
Sensory Evaluation
Sensory analysis was done using a nine (9) point hedonic scale; each attribute was rated on a
scale of 1 to 9 using the sensory scale according to the method described by Ogundele et al.,
2016. A twenty (20) member panel consisting of students of the Federal University of
Technology Minna, Niger State was selected for sensory evaluation. Five wraps of moi-moi were
served on saucers coded with 5 alphabets (A, B, C, D, E), sachet water was given to rinse the
mouth between evaluations. Moi-moi prepared from cowpea were compared and evaluated for
appearance, aroma, texture, taste and overall acceptability.

Statistical Analysis
Data gotten was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using (SPSS) statistical package for
science (Version 16.0). The significant difference will be accepted at 0.05 (5%) probability
levels.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Proximate Composition
The proximate composition of moi-moi cooked with different packaging materials is presented in
Table i. The Moisture content was in the range of 61.34% to 68.14%. Sample B had the highest
value while sample A had lowest value at significant level (p≤0.05). The ash content ranged
from 0.47% to 0.99%, sample D had significantly (p≤0.05) higher ash content while sample A

43
had the lowest. The value for the crude protein ranged from 19.95% to 27.79%. Sample D had
the higher value and sample E had the lowest value at significant level (p≤0.05). The crude fibre
value varied from 0.86% to 1.21%. Sample A had significantly (p≤0.05) higher value and sample
D with significantly (p≤0.05) lower value. The fat content ranged from 10.80% to 12.59%,
sample A had highest value, sample C and sample E had the lowest value on (p≤0.05).

Table I: Proximate composition of moi-moi cooked with different packaging materials

Samples/ Packaging Materials

Parameters (%) A B C D E
Ash Content 0.47±0.04c 0.48±0.06c 0.55±0.05bc 0.99±0.01a 0.61±0.11b

Moisture 61.34±1.06c 68.14±0.66a 67.87±0.73a 62.00±0.41c 64.75±1.64b

Crude Protein 23.82±0.68d 26.62±0.02b 24.79±0.29c 27.79±0.56a 19.95±0.53e

Fat Content 12.59±0.41a 11.61±0.11b 10.80±0.69b 11.70±0.30b 10.80±0.69b

Crude Fibre 1.21±0.13a 1.06±0.00a 0.90±0.35b 0.86±0.05b 1.09±0.11a

Values are means ± standard deviation of duplicate determination. Values in the same row with
different superscript are significantly different (p ≤0.05)

Keys
Sample A - Moi-moi cooked and packaged with Banana leaf
Sample B - Moi-moi cooked and packaged with cellophane nylon
Sample C - moi-moi cooked and packaged with Tin
Sample D - moi-moi cooked and packaged with Uma leaf
Sample E - moi-moi cooked and packaged with Plastic

Mineral Composition
The minerals composition of moi-moi cooked with different packaging material is presented in
Table ii. Magnesium value ranged from 109.95 to 153.75 (mg/100g), sample A had the highest
magnesium value and sample B had the lowest Magnesium value. The Potassium value was in
the range of 117.35 to 192.75 (mg/100g). Sample A had the highest value of potassium and

44
sample E had the lowest value of potassium. The calcium value ranged between 19.75 to 29.76
(mg/100g) in which sample D had the higher value of calcium and sample E had the lower value
of calcium.

Table II: Mineral composition of Moi-moi cooked with different packaging materials

Samples/Packaging Materials

Parameters A B C D E

(mg/100g)

Magnesium 153.745±0.250a 109.95±0.250e 124.75±0.250d 148.83±0.252b 129.75±0.250c

Potassium 192.75±0.250a 120.97±0.250d 159.75±0.250c 179.75±0.250b 117.35±0.250e

Calcuim 27.75±0.250b 23.75±0.250d 29.75±0.250c 29.75±0.250a 19.75±0.250e

Values are means ± standard deviation of duplicate determination. Values in the same row with
different superscript are significantly different (p≤0.05)

Keys
Sample A - Moi-moi cooked and packaged with Banana leaf
Sample B - Moi-moi cooked and packaged with cellophane nylon
Sample C - Moi-moi cooked and packaged with Tin
Sample D is moi-moi cooked and packaged with Uma leaf
Sample E is moi-moi cooked and packaged with Plastic

Sensory Evaluation
The sensory attributes of cooked moi-moi with different packaging materials are shown in Table
iii. The appearance value ranged from 6.40 to 7.10. Sample A had significantly (p≤0.05) higher
value in terms of appearance and sample D had the lowest value. The values for the aroma
ranged from 6.85 to 7.65; sample A had the highest value and sample C had the lowest value at
significant level (p≤0.05). The texture values were in the range of 6.25 to 7.15 with sample E
having significantly (p≤0.05) higher value and sample A with significantly (p≤0.05) lower value.
The taste values ranged from 7.20 to 7.55, sample D had significantly (p≤0.05) higher taste value
and sample B had the lowest. The values for the overall acceptability ranged from 7.35 to 7.75.

45
Sample D had the maximum value and sample B with the minimum value at significant level
(p≤0.05).
Table iii: Sensory attributes of moi-moi cooked with different packaging materials

Samples / Packaging Materials

Parameter A B C D E

Appearance 7.10±1.71a 6.80±1.28a 6.60±1.50a 6.40±1.93a 7.00±1.58a

Aroma 7.65±1.30a 7.55±1.19a 6.85±1.95a 7.50±1.93a 6.95±2.35a

Texture 6.25±2.14a 6.50±0.94a 6.90±1.61a 6.40±2.08a 7.15±1.34a

Taste 7.50±1.50a 7.20±1.57a 7.25±1.44a 7.55±1.39a 7.45±1.76a

Overall 7.65±1.38a 7.35±1.18a 7.45±1.09a 7.75±1.37a 7.55±1.57a

Acceptability

Keys

Sample A - Moi-moi cooked and packaged with Banana leaf

Sample B - Moi-moi cooked and packaged with cellophane nylon

Sample C - Moi-moi cooked and packaged with Tin

Sample D - Moi-moi cooked and packaged with Uma leaf

Sample E - Moi-moi cooked and packaged with Plastic

CONCLUSION
The results obtained from this research work showed that moi-moi cooked with banana leaf and
uma leaf were mostly preferred by the panelists in term of organoleptic properties compared to
moi-moi cooked with other packaging materials. Mineral composition and physicochemical
properties of moi-moi cooked with banana and uma leaves also established their nutritional facts.
Food manufacturers should ensure that the selection of packaging materials for food is carefully
done in order to conserve the nutrients present in the food.

46
REFERENCES

Akpapunam M. A. (1985). Characteristics of moin-moin flour prepared from cowpea/maize

blends. Nigeria Food Journal. 2(3): 207-208.
Akusu, O. M. & Kiin-Kabari, D. B. (2012): Protein quality and sensory evaluation of moin-
moin prepared from cowpea/maize flour blends. African Journal of Food Science, 6
(3): 47-51.
AOAC (2005): Association of official analytical chemists. In: Official Methods of Analysis, 18th
edition. (Edited by W. Horwitz & G.W. Latimer Jr). Gaithersburg, MD, USA: AOAC
International.

Chinma, C.E., Alemede, I.C. & Emelife, I.G. (2008): Physicochemical and Function Properties
of Some Nigerian Cowpea Varieties. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 7 (1): 186-190.

Dobbys Signature www.dobbyssignature.com 2014/06 3 Jun 2014.

Henshaw, F.O. (2000): Functionality of flour in relation to physical and chemical properties of
seeds of selected cowpea varieties. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Henshaw, F.O., Mcwatters, K.H. & Akingbala, J.O. (2009): Sensory properties of akara (fried
cowpea paste) and moinmoin (steamed cowpea paste) prepared from five varieties of
cowpea flour. Journal of Sensory Studies, 24(2): 234–242.
Ojekale, A.B., Makinde, S.C.O. & Osileye, O. (2007):
Phytochemistry and anti-microbial evaluation of Thaumatococcus
Daniellii, Benn (Benth) leaves. Nigerian Food Journal 25(2): 176–
183.
Ogundele, O.M.A., Awolu, O.O., Badejo, A.A., Nwachukwu, I.D. & Fagbemi, T.N., (2016):
Development of functional beverages from blends of Hibiscus sabdariffa extract and
selected fruit juices for optimal antioxidant properties. Food Science and Nutrition, 4, 679-
685.
Onwuka G. I (2005): Food Analysis and Instrumentation Theory and Practice.
www.cenresinpub.org/functional.pdf Retrieved May 26, 2015.

47
 BACTERIAL SUCCESSION AND TEMPERATRE OF PROTEIN CONDIMENTS
FROM Citrullus colocynthis, Ricinus communis and Parkia biglobosa SEEDS

*Isiekwene, A.C.1, Inana, M.E.1, Awagu E.F.1, Okoroafor, C.H.1, Oyelakin, M.O.2, Aneke, C.C.1
1
Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Port Harcourt, Rivers State.
2
Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Sapele, Delta sate.
*Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Fermentation of protein seeds involves the succession of bacteria to produce foods with distinct
quality attributes. This study investigated bacterial succession and the effect of temperature on
the fermented seeds during the production of the protein condiments. Seeds were obtained,
processed, and fermented for seven days. Total heterotrophic bacteria count (THBC) was
carried out by standard microbiological techniques. The temperature of the fermenting medium
was also evaluated. The highest bacterial succession was recorded in the African locust bean.
On day 6, Bacillus subtilis had the highest mean count (3.67±0.88 x 107 cfu/g) in fermented
melon seed, Micrococcus luteus had the highest mean count (2.87±0.33 x 107 cfu/g) in fermented
castor oil seed while Bacillus subtilis had the highest mean count (4.70±0.12 x 10 7 cfu/g) in
fermented African locust bean seed. The absence of B. licheniformis, E. coli, S. epidermidis, P.
mirabilis, S. aureus and S. marcescens was reported in the corresponding samples they were
isolated. Furthermore, an increase in fermentation time resulted in increased temperature of the
fermented condiments. A succession of these bacteria and the corresponding increase in
temperature indicates that fermentation impacts positively on the quality and safety of the
condiments.

Keywords: Fermentation, condiments, bacteria, succession, temperature

INTRODUCTION
Fermented protein seeds have been used as a source of protein condiments for centuries. The
fermentation process involves the use of microbial communities that play a crucial role in the
degradation of complex macromolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, leading to
the production of various metabolites, including amino acids, organic acids, and volatile
compounds (Sharma et al., 2020). The bacterial community structure is known to undergo
changes during the fermentation process due to the process of succession, which can
significantly impact the metabolic outputs (Okorie and Olasupo, 2013; Du et al., 2019). Based on
these principles, the bacterial succession in the fermentation process is a critical factor that
determines the nutritional, functional, and sensory properties of the final product (Tamang et al.,
2016). Major bacteria implicated in the production of protein condiments are Bacillus species
which are known to produce enzymes that break down proteins into peptides and amino acids,
contributing to the flavor and nutritional value of the fermented products (Oguntoyinbo, 2014).
During the fermentation process, the temperature of the fermenting protein condiment can have a
significant impact on the outcome of the final product. The ideal temperature for fermentation
varies depending on the type of microorganism used and the desired outcome of the fermentation
48
process (Sharma et al., 2020). It is also important to note that the temperature can affect the
texture and flavor of the final product (Oguntoyinbo, 2014). Understanding the dynamics of
bacterial community succession and production potential can provide insights into the metabolic
pathways involved in the fermentation process and can be used to optimize the fermentation
process to produce specific metabolites, including protein condiments. This study aimed at
investigating the bacterial community succession and effect of temperature on the fermented
protein seeds during the production of the protein condiments.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Raw melon seeds (Citrullus colocynthis L.) were bought from Benin City Edo state; African
locust bean (Parkia biglobasa) was bought from Auchi, Edo state, while Castor oil seed (Ricinus
communis) was bought from Ogwashi-uku main market, Delta state.
Preparation of Ogiri-egusi
Dehulled melon seeds were properly washed and boiled for 3 h. The cotyledon was drained,
mashed, and wrapped tightly in blanched banana leaves (Musa sapietum). The wrapped
cotyledon was then boiled again for 2 h, drained and allowed to ferment at the prevailing
ambient temperature (28°C) for seven (7) days.
Preparation of Ogiri-isi
Raw castor oil seeds were dehulled and boiled for 6-7 h until the colour changed to brown. The
seeds were boiled again for another 1 h, drained, cooled, mashed, and wrapped with enough
blanched banana leaves (Musa sapietum) and there after packed in clean containers to ferment at
the prevailing ambient temperature (28°C) for seven (7) days (Enujiugha, 2008).
Preparation of Iru
Raw beans were soaked overnight in water and the adhering pulpy material was removed. The
resultant material was boiled for 8 h to loosen the dark brown or black, leathery testa. These
were then separated by rubbing the beans between the palms under running water. Then boiled
for 30 min, drained and the cotyledons wrapped with banana leaves (Musa sapietum) in covered
containers and allowed to ferment for 7 days (Ikenebomeh et al., 1986).
Isolation and Characterization of Isolates
One gram of each sample was collected daily for 7 days aseptically from the fermenting medium
and transferred aseptically into 9 ml of sterile saline solution in McCartney bottles and shaken
vigorously to dislodge the associated bacteria. The homogenate was serially diluted with sterile
distilled water and 1ml (10-7 dilution) was taken and plated on petri-dishes containing cooled and
solidified nutrient agar and incubated at 28 ± 2°C. The plates were examined for growth and
microbial load determined by physical counting. The pure cultures were obtained by streaking
repeatedly and stored in slants. Isolates were further characterized using growth on selective
media as well as microbiological and biochemical characteristics.
The temperature of the fermenting medium was determined using a thermometer according to
the method described by Nielson, (2010).

49
RESULTS
Table 1 shows the succession of the bacterial isolates in fermented melon seed throughout the
period of study. Six bacterial isolates were identified as E. coli, B. licheniformis, B. subtilis, S.
epidermidis, P. aeruginosa and P. mirabilis. There was significant difference (p>0.05) in the
population of all isolates. Bacillus subtilis was observed to have the highest mean count on day 6
(3.67±0.88 x 107cfu/g) while absence of E. coli and S. epidermidis was recorded from day 5 and
6 till the end of the study respectively. Absence of P. mirabilis was observed at day 2 and day 7.
The succession of bacteria in fermented castor oil seed is shown in table 2. Five bacterial isolates
were identified as E. coli, S. aureus, B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa and M. luteus. There was
significant difference (p>0.05) in the population of all isolates. Micrococcus luteus was observed
to have the highest mean count on day 6 (2.87±0.33 x 107cfu/g) while absence of E. coli and S.
aureus was recorded from day 4 and 5 till the end of the study respectively. Absence of P.
aeruginosa and M. luteus were also recorded at day 0 (12 h) and day 1 (24 h).
The succession of bacteria in fermented African locust bean seed is shown in table 3. Five
bacterial isolates were identified as S. aureus, B. licheniformis, B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, S.
marcescens and M. luteus. Significance difference (p>0.05) was observed in the population of
all isolates. Bacillus subtilis was observed to have the highest mean count on day 6 (4.70±0.12 x
107cfu/g) while absence of S. aureus was recorded from day 6 till the end of the study. Also S.
marcescens and M. luteus were not recorded till day 2 (48 h) and day 3 (72 h). The temperature
recorded in melon seed was 35.81±0.4 °C, castor oil seed 35.56±0.4 °C while African locust
bean was 37.46±0.6°C.

Table 1. Bacterial load of melon (Citrullus colocynthis) seed during fermentation

Bacterial load (x107 cfu/g)
Fermentation
period (day)
E. coli S. epidermidis B. licheniformis B. subtilis P. aeruginosa P. mirabilis

0 0.80b±0.06 1.17d±0.07 1.30d±0.00 1.00c±0.06 0.73b±0.03 0.00a±0.00

1 1.67d±0.03 1.27c±0.03 1.73d±0.03 1.33c±0.07 1.03b±0.03 0.00a±0.00

2 2.20d±0.15 1.93c±0.08 2.27d±0.08 1.80c±0.00 1.50b±0.00 0.50a±0.00

3 2.13d±0.03 1.50b±0.00 1.73c±0.07 2.13d±0.03 1.07a±0.03 1.60b±0.06

4 1.13b±0.08 1.30c±0.06 2.57d±0.08 2.70d±0.06 1.83b±0.08 2.17c±0.07

5 0.00a±0.00 0.83c±0.07 3.17e±0.03 3.43f±0.03 2.67d±0.08 1.10b±0.00

6 0.00a±0.00 0.00a±0.00 3.57d±0.03 3.67d±0.08 2.97c±0.08 0.70b±0.00

7 0.00a±0.00 0.00a±0.00 3.07d±0.03 3.47e±0.03 2.47c±0.07 0.00a±0.00

Values are the mean and standard error of triplicate

a-e: different characters in the same row indicate values with significant difference (p<0.05)

50
Table 2. Bacterial load of castor oil (Ricinus communis) seed during fermentation

Fermentation Bacterial load (x107 cfu/g)

period (day) E. coli S. aureus B. subtilis P. aeruginosa M. luteus
0 0.90b±0.00 c
1.23 ±0.33 d
1.53 ±0.03 0.00a±0.00 0.00a±0.00
1 1.63d±0.07 b
1.10 ±0.00 c
1.20 ±0.00 1.10b±0.00 0.00a±0.00
2 2.30d±0.06 1.03b±0.33 1.20c±0.00 0.60a±0.00 1.00b±0.00
3 1.10a±0.00 1.07a±0.33 1.73c±0.08 1.30b±0.00 1.10a±0.00
4 0.00a±0.00 b
0.30 ±0.00 e
2.10 ±0.06 1.57d±0.03 1.43c±0.03
5 0.00a±0.00 0.00a±0.00 2.40b±0.06 2.30b±0.12 2.50b±0.06
6 0.00a±0.00 a
0.00 ±0.00 b
2.80 ±0.06 2.80b±0.06 2.87b±0.03
7 0.00a±0.00 0.00a±0.00 2.40bc±0.00 2.63d±0.15 2.30b±0.12
Values are the mean and standard error of triplicate
a-e: different characters in the same row indicate values with significant difference (p<0.05)

Table 3. Bacterial load of African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa) seed during fermentation

Fermentation
Bacterial load (x107 cfu/g)

period (day)
S. aureus B. licheniformis B. subtilis P. aeruginosa S. marcescens M. luteus

0 1.50c±0.00 1.40bc±0.00 2.30d±0.17 1.20b±0.00 0.00a±0.00 0.00a±0.00

1 1.90d±0.06 1.53c±0.03 2.53e±0.03 1.10b±0.00 0.00a±0.00 0.00a±0.00

2 1.63d±0.03 1.80d±0.06 2.90e±0.12 1.50c±0.00 0.60b±0.00 0.00a±0.00

3 1.10a±0.00 2.30c±0.06 3.40d±0.12 1.00a±0.00 1.40b±0.06 1.20a±0.10

4 0.70a±0.00 2.30c±0.00 3.80d±0.06 2.10c±0.17 1.70b±0.12 1.80b±0.06

5 0.20a±0.00 2.80d±0.06 4.10e±0.12 2.50c±0.12 2.30c±0.17 2.10b±0.12

6 0.00a±0.00 3.23d±0.08 4.70e±0.12 2.80c±0.00 2.60bc±0.12 2.50b±0.12

7 0.00c±0.00 2.07c±0.15 4.60c±0.15 2.00c±0.12 1.50c±0.00 2.30c±0.00

Values are the mean and standard error of triplicate

a-e: different characters in the same row indicate values with significant difference (p<0.05)

51
 40

39

38

37
Temperature (°C)

36

35

34

33

32

31

30
0 1 3 5 7
Period of fermentation (Days)
Melon Seed Castor oil seed African locust bean

Figure 2. Effect of fermentation on temperature of the three varieties of condiments

DISCUSSION
The succession of bacteria in the fermented melon, castor oil and African locust bean revealed
that not all isolates were at the beginning of the fermentation process and not all isolates that
were at the beginning of fermentation were present at the end of the fermentation. Similar
findings were reported by Farinde et al. (2017). The isolation of bacillus species (B.
licheniformis and B. subtilis) as the most predominant bacterial species in the three seeds agrees
with the reports of Olosupo et al. (2016). Bacillus species have been documented and well
known to specifically possess the ability to commence fermentation of both protein (nitrogenous)
and carbohydrate products. The dominance of B. subtilis in a vegetable protein was reported by
Adesanya et al. (2021) to be because of their ability to produce certain antimicrobial metabolites
which are active and inhibitory against other organisms such as Lactic Acid Bacteria as reported
in this study. These various reports attributed the genus Bacillus to be responsible for the
fermentation of the seed while the absence of E. coli, S. aureus, S. epidermidis and P. mirabilis
could be attributed to the fact that they are not the fermentative species but contaminants which
may have gotten into the fermentation medium during processing of blanching of the leaves.
This may have reduced the population of the contaminants but not completely inhibiting or
inactivating them. Although, as fermentation progressed, change in pH, temperature, available
nutrients, and accumulation of metabolites that did not support their growth may have removed
their population from the medium. In the work of Ikenebonieh et al (1986), reduction in the

52
microbial counts of fermented P. biglobosa was observed and not their total elimination and
absence as observed in this study.
The isolation of S. aureus and E. coli from the fermenting seeds calls for public health
consideration as they are known to cause food poisoning (Frazer and Westhoff, 2000). The
occurrence and isolation of E. coli, which is a coliform, calls for health concern since it is
associated with gastrointestinal infections (Oleghe et al., 2020). However, Odibo et al. (2012)
documented that during preparation of soup, life threatening toxins produced by these pathogenic
contaminants and their ability to cause infection is eliminated. Similar temperature trend
observed in this study was reported by Ojewumi et al. (2016). Studies show that during
fermentation, microorganisms consume the available nutrients in the food substrate, which
results in the production of heat as a by-product, which can also increase the temperature of the
food substrate.

CONCLUSION
From the results, it can be concluded that the succession of bacterial isolates in fermented protein
seeds is dependent on the type of seed being fermented. Based on the findings, it is
recommended that microbial quality control measures be put in place during the fermentation
process of these protein seeds to ensure the safety and quality of the final product. This could
include the use of starter cultures or the monitoring of fermentation conditions such as
temperature and pH to encourage the growth of desired bacterial species and prevent the growth
of harmful bacteria.

REFERENCES
Adesanya, B. A., Faasema, J. & Acham, I. O. (2021). Effect of bacillus subtilis concentration
and fermentation time on the quality of African locust bean condiment. Bacteria
Empire, 4 (2):396
Cheesbrough, M. (2000). District Laboratory Practice in tropical countries Part II, Co-published
by the press syndicate of the University of Cambridge. pp. 36 – 400.
Du, F., Zhang, X., Gu, H., Song, J. & Gao, X. (2019). Dynamic Changes in the Bacterial
Community During the Fermentation of Traditional Chinese Fish Sauce (TCFS) and
Their Correlation with TCFS Quality. Microorganisms, 7(9):371.
Enujiugha, V. N., Akanbi, C. T. & Adeniran, H. A. (2008). Evaluation of starters for the
fermentation of African oil bean (Pentaclethra macrophylla benth) seeds. Nutrition and
Food Science, 38(5):451–457.
Falegan, C. (2011). Microbiology profile and biochemical characteristics of commercial “Ogiri”
samples from South-Western, Nigeria. Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology and
Food Science, 1(2):187-203.
Farinde, E. O., Abiose, S. H. & Adeniran, H. A. (2017). Natural and controlled fermentation of
Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) for daddawa production. Malaysian Journal of
Microbiology, 13(2):85-91.

53
Frazer, W. C. & Westhoff, D.C. (2000). Food microbiology, 4th ed. Tata McGraw-Hill
Publication Limited, New Delhi, pp. 17-34.
Ikenebomeh, M. J., Kok, R., & Ingram, J. M. (1986). Processing and fermentation of the African
locust bean (Parkia filicoidea Welw) to produce dawadawa. Journal of Science, Food
and Agriculture, 37:273-282.
Nielsen, S. S. (2010). Food analysis laboratory manual. Springer Science & Business Media.
Odibo, F. J. C., Nwabunnia, E., Ezekweghi, C. C. & Uzoeghe, E. (2012). Fermentation of
Cucumeropsis seeds, an uncommon substrate for Ogiri production. African Journal of
Microbiology Research, 6(24):5095-5099.
Oguntoyinbo, F. A. (2014). Safety challenges associated with traditional foods of West Africa.
Food Review International, 30:338-358.
Ojewumi, M. E., Omoleye, J. A., Ajayi, A. A. & Ekanem, G. P. (2021). Fermentation rate
monitoring in the production of African protein-based condiments. IOP Conference
Series Earth and Environmental Science, 655(1):012012.
Okorie, C. P. & Olasupo, N. A. (2013). Growth and extracellular enzyme production by
microorganisms isolated from Ugba - An indigenous Nigerian fermented condiment.
African Journal of Biotechnology, 12(26):4158-4167.
Olasupo, N. A., Okorie, C. P. & Oguntoyinbo, F. A. (2016). The Biotechnology of Ugba, a
Nigerian Traditional Fermented Food Condiment. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7:1153.
Oleghe, P. O., Oshoma, C. E. & Isiekwene, A. C. (2020). Antibiogram profile of bacterial
isolates from laboratory prepared cheese. Journal of Biologics Research and
Development, 1(1):77-91.
Sharma, R., Garg, P., Kumar, P., Bhatia, S. K. & Kulshrestha, S. (2020). Microbial Fermentation
and Its Role in Quality Improvement of Fermented Foods. Fermentation, 6:106.
Tamang, J. P., Shin, D. H., Jung, S. J. & Chae, S. W. (2016). Functional properties of
microorganisms in fermented foods. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7:578.

54
 KINETIC MODELING OF VITAMIN C IN THE KEEPING QUALITY OF LETTUCE
(Lactuca sativa L) UNDER ROOM AND REFRIGERATED TEMPERATURE USING
COMPUTER SIMULATION ANALYSIS

*Awagu, E.F.1, Okoroafor, C.H.1, Bamishaiye, E.I.2, Aneke, C.C.1, Ugama, E.E.1, Ajanwachuku, N.C.1
1
Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Port Harcourt, Rivers State.
2
Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Ilorin, Kwara State.
*Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Vitamin C is one of the most important vitamins in most fruits and vegetables; however, it is
easily degraded during pre-treatment and storage. In this study, kinetic modeling of vitamin C in
keeping quality of lettuce under room and refrigerated temperatures using computer simulation
technique was investigated at 17.5 °C and 6.5 °C respectively. HPLC was employed in analyzing
concentration of vitamin C in the vegetable samples. Time series analysis was used to forecast
degradation. The vitamin C concentration decreased as the storing time and temperature
increased. Lettuce at room and refrigerated temperature of 17.5 °C and 6.5°C had rate constants
of 0.7806 and 0.5165 min-1, activation energy of 0.4857 and 19.4052 Kcal/mol respectively. This
shows that ascorbic acid kinetic in the lettuce can be described by first order kinetics at different
temperature range as the average coefficient of determination (R2) was greater than 0.91. The
most appropriately designed modeling of vitamin C in keeping quality of lettuce was the
refrigerated temperature because the rate constants depicted from model equations were lower,
forecast and activation energy values were higher. It implied that the proposed simulation model
monitored the degradation of vitamin C in the lettuce.

Keywords: vitamin C, lettuce, degradation, modeling, time series.

INTRODUCTION
As one of the most important phytochemicals, vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is absolutely required in
the human diet since humans lack gluconolactone oxidase enzyme and cannot synthesize vitamin
C and entirely rely on dietary sources (Bai et al., 2013). The vitamin C has the least stability
among all kinds of vitamins and is easily destroyed during processing and storage, depending on
many variables such as pH (Munyaka et al., 2010; Wechtersbach et al., 2011), temperature
(Rattanathanalerk et al., 2005; Tiwari et al., 2009), light (Zhan et al., 2012; Noichinda et al.,
2007), and the presence of enzymes (Munyaka et al., 2010), oxygen (Martínez-Sánchez et al.,
2011), hydrogen peroxide (Özkan et al., 2004), and metallic catalyzers (Santos and Silva, 2008;
Santos and Silva, 2009; Lee and Kader, 2000). On the contrary, storage at lower temperatures,
such as freeze-drying, is more effective in preserving vitamin C (Barbosa et al., 2015). The rate
of degradation of vitamin C is directly related to increased oxygen concentration during food
storage. With so many important roles, the retention of vitamin C in products has been regarded
as a reliable and representative index during their storage (Giannakourou and Taoukis, 2003).
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L), a temperate annual or biennial plant is most often grown as a leafy

55
vegetable. It is typically eaten cold and raw in salads, hamburgers, and many other dishes.
Furthermore, understanding the degradation kinetics and various kinetic models is essential to
predict vitamin C loss and quality change under certain storage conditions. Thus, determining the
behavior of ascorbic acid during storage by the accurate mathematical model is necessary (Zheng
and Lu, 2011; Achinewhu and Hart, 1994). For ascorbic acid degradation of most materials
during storage, first-order kinetic model showed a good fit and has been applied by numerous
researchers (Burdurlu et al., 2006; Frýas and Oliveira, 2001; Uddin et al., 2002; Zheng and Lu,
2011; Blasco et al., 2004). Temperature is the most important factor during storage and many
researchers explored the relationship between vitamin C retention and temperatures and the
degradation kinetics (Kuljarachanan et al., 2009). This research determined the kinetic modeling
of thermal degradation of ascorbic acid in lettuce using computer simulation technique.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Matured and fresh lettuce was sourced from fruits and vegetable market located in Yankaba,
Nasarawa local Government area of Kano state, Nigeria which lies between Longitude 7 0 54 ꞌ
and 9 0 06 ꞌ East and Latitude 11 0 37 ꞌ and 12 0 21 ꞌ North. The fresh and matured vegetable (3
kg) was immediately washed with clean water to remove dirt and drained with muslin cloth.
Stems were removed by cutting with a clean knife to avoid contamination. The initial sample
was blended in a Kenwood blender (Philips, HR 1702, Borehamwood, England, UK) and filtered
with cheese-cloth. The liquid extract was used to assess the initial ascorbic acid using High
Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). The remaining lot was divided into two equal
parts, one part kept in conditioned mild room temperatures of 17.5 °C, 19.5 °C, 21 °C and the
other part under refrigerated temperatures at 6.5 °C, 7, 5 °C and 9.5 °C for eleven (11) days. They
were monitored for temperature and relative humidity using thermometer and hygrometer.
Analysis to determine the rate of degradation of vitamin C was carried out at two days intervals
for both samples using the same high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Experiments
were carried out in triplicates and the average measurement was reported. Statistical analyses
were done using time series analysis and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), using
statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) software. Treatment means were separated
using Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 95% confidence level.
Kinetic modeling
The degradation of vitamin C was modeled using the integrated rate law. Different models were
developed using the integral method of analysis. The integral law equation stated below:
𝑑𝐶
= −𝐾[𝐶]𝑛 - - - - - - - -
(1)
𝑑𝑡

was used to develop three models based on concentration (for order of reaction n = 0, 1 and 2)
and their associated half-lives (t1/2).
First order model (n = 1):
𝑙𝑛(𝐶 𝑘𝑡) = 𝑙𝑛(𝐶0 ) – kt - - - - - - - - (1a)
Where, k = rate constant

56
Co = initial concentration of vitamin C in sample
C = concentration of vitamin C in sample at time t

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A visual inspection of the kinetic plots of model (1a) presented in Table 1 shows that the first
order model fitted the kinetic data best in different times and temperatures for lettuce stored in
room and refrigerated temperatures. These were confirmed by the goodness of fit data. The first
order kinetics exhibited R2 values; 0.922843 and 0.940688, P –value of 0.009316 and 0.006243
at room and refrigerated temperatures respectively. Thus, the vitamin C degradation kinetics for
lettuce at room and refrigerated temperatures can best be described by a first order kinetics. The
model with maximum R2 and minimum P-value is adjudged the best (Silva et al., 2011; Mitra et
al., 2011). First-order kinetic model showed a good fit and has been applied by numerous
researchers (Burdurlu et al., 2006; Frýas and Oliveira, 2001; Uddin et al., 2002; Zheng and Lu,
2011; Blasco et al., 2004). From Table 2, lettuce exhibited rate constants of 0.7806 min-1 and
0.5165min-1, at room and refrigerated temperatures of 17.5 0C and 6.5 0C, respectively. This
implies that the rate of degradation at any time is dependent on the initial concentration of
vitamin C in the vegetable. Since the magnitude of the rate constant reflects the rate of reaction,
the inference is that degradation of vitamin C occurred faster in samples stored at increased time
and temperature than reduced time and temperature. The activation energy can be seen as the
energy barrier that molecules need to cross to be able to react and from Table 2, lettuce at
different room and refrigerated storage temperatures exhibited activation energy value of 0.4857
Kcal/mol and 19.4052 respectively. Also from Table 2, proposed model of ln(C) = ln(C0) -
0.7806t and ln(C) = ln( C0) - 0.5165t at high and low temperatures in the analysis confirm that
the rate of degradation at any time is dependent on the initial concentration of vitamin C in the
vegetable. It was clearly observed from Figure 1 that at day 9, LN(C) at room and refrigerated
temperatures were 0.22314 and 2.943386, implying retention of vitamin C in lettuce more in
refrigerated temperature than room temperature. The ln(C) forecast at day15, stored at room and
refrigerated temperature of 17.5 0C and 6.5 0C exhibited negative sign of -4.4776 for room
temperature and positive sign of 0.233822, implying retention of vitamin C in lettuce at
refrigerated temperature of 6.5 °C at day 15, while no vitamin C was retained at day 15 at
temperature of 17.5 °C. Respiration rate can be used as a criterion to compare perishability of
fruits and vegetables. (Gross and Saltveit, 2004). The preservation of ascorbic acid after storage
is a good indicator for the preservation of other nutrients (Perera et al., 2014). According to the
experts at the Cornell Cooperative Extension Center, vegetables generally need one of four types
of storage: cold (32-39 °F), moist storage cool (40-50 °F), moist storage cold (32-39 °F), dry
storage warm (50-60 °F), dry storage. These lettuce vegetables were stored in category of moist
storage cool (40-50 °F) of 6.5 °C, 7.5 °C and 9.5 °C respectively which justified the modeling
applied. From Table 2, lettuce at room temperature of 17.5 °C exhibited activation energy value
of 0.4857 Kcal/mol while at refrigerated storage temperatures of 6.5 °C exhibited activation

57
energy value of 19.4052 Kcal/mol. Activation energy value for ascorbic acid degradation in the
lettuce is in agreement with reported ranges by Mauri et al. (1989). The preservation of ascorbic
acid after pretreatment is a good indicator for the preservation of other nutrients (Perera et al.,
2014).

Table 1: kinetic statistical model analysis for lettuce

Vegetable Treatment Temp (0C) Statistics Parameters (First Order)

( R2) R2 adjusted P- value

Lettuce Room temp. 17.5 0.897124 0.897124 0.009316

Refrigerated 6.5 0.920918 0.920918 0.006243

temp.

n=3 (triplicate)

Table 2. Comparison of first order kinetic parameters and proposed model

Vegetable PT Temp (0C) k (min-1) EA kcal/mol Proposed Model

Lettuce Room temp. 17.5 0.7806 0.4857 ln(C) = ln( C0) - 0.7806t

Refrigerated 6.5 0.5165 19.4052 ln(C) = ln( C0) - 0.5165t

temp.

n=3 (triplicate)

58
 8
y = -0.5165x + 7.7621
R² = 0.9659
7

4 RTLNC

LN(C) FTLNC
3 Linear (RTLNC)
Linear (FTLNC)
2
y = -0.7806x + 8.0845
R² = 0.9347
1

0
0 5 10 15
-1
Days

Figure 1: Plot of first order Kinetics for the lettuce at room and refrigerated temperatures of

17.5 0C and 6.5 0C

10 y = -0.4972x + 7.6912
R² = 1
8
y = -0.8559x + 8.3606
6 R² = 1
4 FC RT

Conc mg/100g 2 FC FT

0 Linear (FC RT)

0 5 10 15 20 Linear (FC FT)
-2
-4
-6
Time (days)

Figure 2. Time series forecast analysis for the lettuce at room and refrigerated temperatures of
17.5 0C and 6.50C

59
CONCLUSION
The rate of vitamin C degradation in the Lettuce samples under defined storage methods
investigated in this study followed the first order reaction kinetics. This indicates that the
rate of degradation is dependent on the concentration of vitamin C present in the
vegetables. The refrigerated temperature was preferred in modeling the kinetics of vitamin
c in keeping quality of lettuce than room temperature using computer simulation analysis.

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inactivation and vitamin C degradation kinetics of Fuji apple quarters by high humidity
air impingement blanching. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 48
(6): 1135 -1141.

Barbosa, J., Borges, S., Amorim, M., Pereira, M. J., Oliveira, A., Pintado, M.E., & Teixeira, P.
(2015). Comparison of spray drying, freeze drying and convective hot air drying for the
production of a probiotic orange powder. Journal of Functional Foods, 17: 340 -351.

Blasco, R., Esteve, M. J., Frýìgola, A., & Rodrigo,M. (2004). Ascorbic acid degradation
kinetics in mushrooms in a high-temperature short-time process controlled by a
thermoresistometer. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 37(2): 171-175.

Burdurlu, H. S., Koca, N., & Karadeniz, F. (2006). Degradation of vitamin C in citrus juice
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Frýas, J. M., & Oliveira, J. C. (2001). Kinetic models of ascorbic acid thermal degradation
during hot air drying of maltodextrin solutions. Journal of Food Engineering, 47(4): 255262.

Giannakourou, M.C., & Taoukis, P.S. (2003). Kinetic modelling of vitamin C loss in frozen
green vegetables under variable storage conditions. Food Chemistry, 83(1): 33-41

Gross, K. C, Wang C. Y., & M. Saltveit (2004). The Commercial Storage of Fruits, Vegetabls,
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in lime residues during drying. Food Chemistry, 113 (4): 944–949.

Lee, S. K., & Kader, A. A. (2000). Preharvest and postharvest factors influencing vitamin C
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Munyaka, A. W., Oey, I., Van Loey, A., & Hendrickx, M. (2010b). Application of thermal
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Noichinda, S., Bodhipadma, K., Mahamontri, C., Narongruk, T., & Ketsa, S. (2007).

Light during storage prevents loss of ascorbic acid and increases glucose and fructose levels
in Chinese kale (Brassica oleracea var. alboglabra). Postharvest Biology and
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Özkan, M., Kýrca, A., & Cemeroçlu, B. (2004). Effects of hydrogen peroxide on the stability of
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62
 ANALYSIS OF CONSUMERS’ PREFERENCE AND CONSUMPTION PATTERN OF
CASSAVA PRODUCTS IN KWARA STATE, NIGERIA
*
Nworji, A. A.1, Adamu, D. A.1, Orimafor, P.1, Adedoyin, E. A.1, Ohaeri, C.V.1 and Chukwu S. E.2
1
Research Outreach Department, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Km 3 Asa Dan Road, Ilorin
Kwara State
2
Postharvest Engineering Department Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Km 3 Asa Dan Road,
Ilorin Kwara State
*Correspondents’ Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The increase in household consumption of Cassava products prompted this research. The study
assed the consumers’ preference and consumption pattern for cassava products in Kwara state,
Nigeria. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to achieve farmers’ socio-economics
characteristic and consumers’ preferences respectively. Multi-stage sampling procedure was
employed, 121 samples were randomly selected. The result shows that the mean age of the
household head was found to be 37 years, income of ₦207,203 and household size mean 5. The
result revealed that garri is the major cassava product preferred among others and found to be
consumed on daily basis. The result of the logit regression revealed that gender, marital status,
household size, educational level, amount spent on cassava products monthly, price of substitute
product and income are the major factor that enhance the consumers preference of cassava
products in the study area. The study recommend that government should and stakeholder should
aid all actors’ in cassava value chain to ensure quality, price and continuous availability of
cassava product.
Key Words: Consumers, Preference, Consumption, Pattern, Cassava & Logistic

INTRODUCTION
Recently, Nigeria has become the world’s highest producer of Cassava, leading with over 57
metric tons, followed by Thailand, Indonesia, and Brazil (Nnadozie, et al., 2015). It constitutes
37.3% of Africa and 20.8% of the world’s total production of Cassava. It has been identified as
the major supplier of carbohydrates to Nigerians above rice (40%) and maize (25%); and over
80% of Nigerians in rural areas consume cassava products on daily bases (FAO 2020) giving it
significant role in food diversity and security. Besides the nutrient supply, it has contributed to
the Gross Domestic Product of Nigeria, while providing jobs in production, processing and
marketing of cassava and its products. Cassava is used for domestic, commercial, and industrial
purposes. The uses include traditional food recipes, which are garri, fufu, lafun, lebu and pupuru,
and processed dried chips and pellets, starch, bread, biscuits, paperboard, beer, sugar syrup,
ethanol, high-quality cassava flour, and glue for industrial use (Ojo et al., 2020).
The consumption patterns for cassava products differs among regions. In Africa, most cassava is
used for human consumption. Consumption of cassava products is dependent on the proper
processing of cassava into finished products according to the preferences. Cassava contain about
70% of moisture with varying quantities of cyanide according to the varieties, the cyanide
content is not healthy for human, hence processing cassava into other products is paramount as

63
affirmed by (Ojo et al., 2020). However, despite intervention by the government and other
stakeholder in ensuring cassava processes is at best to enhance its acceptance for consumption,
limited study have been done on the aspect that address the issue of consumers preference and
consumption pattern. In order to fill this gap, this study was carried out. This study seeks to
describe the social economic and demographic characteristics of the respondent, identify various
forms of cassava product of the respondent and determine the factors affecting consumer
preference for cassava product of the respondent and to describe consumers’ pattern of cassava
product in the study area.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was carried out in Ilorin Kwara State. The study area is located approximately on
Latitude 8˚30ˈ N of the equator and longitude 4˚ 35ˈE of the Greenwich Meridian. Ilorin have a
projected 2023 population of about 1,030,000 with growth rate of 2.6%. It experiences a tropical
wet and dry climate with mean annual rainfall of 1,200mm (Kwara State Bureau of Statistic,
2022).
Sampling technique
A Multi-stage sampling procedure was employed for this study. First stage involves purposive
selection of one agricultural zone (Zone C) out of the four ADP zones in the State due to high
population density of dwellers in the zone in comparison to other Zones. Second stage involve
simple random selection of three Local Government Areas (LGAs) from the five LGAs in zone
C. Third stage is random selection of two communities from each of the LGAs to ensure
adequate representation of communities giving a total of six communities. The fourth stage
involves the use of Taro Yamane’s formula to obtain a scientific sample size at 0.08 confidence
interval from the sample frame of 362. A total sample size of 121 consumers’ household was
obtained. (Adamu, et al., 2018).
Model specification
The study employed the Logistic regression analysis to determine the significance of the number
of factors which contribute to the consumer’s preference for cassava products to the household.
The explicit model is expressed in the equation 2:

Yi = b0+b1X1+b2X2+b3X3+b4X4+b5X5+b6X6+…………..b12X12+ui (1)
Where;
Yi = preference for cassava products (1- preferred, 0 - otherwise).
b0 = Constant
b1 – b12 = Vector of the parameters to be estimated
X1 – X12 = vector of explanatory variables.
ui= error term.
X1 = Gender (Dummy)
X2 = Marital status (1= married, 0= otherwise)
X3 Age of respondent (Number)

64
X4 = Household size (Number)
X5 = Educational status (1= educated, 0= otherwise))
X6= Perception of cassava products nutritional quality (Dummy)
X7 = Taste of product (yes=1, no=0)
X8= Amount spent on Cassava products Monthly (₦)
X9 = price of substitute products (₦)
X10 = Income of Household Head (₦)
X11 = Numbers of time cassava products is consumed per week (Number)
X12 = Quantity of cassava produce purchase per month (Kg)
μ= error term.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The descriptions of socio-economic and demographic characteristics of respondents were shown
in Table 1 below. 37 years was recorded as the mean age of respondents. The result revealed that
about (52.31%) of the respondents were within the age range of 31 to 40 years this implies that
consumer cassava intake was in their active years and consumption rate is usually high.
Furthermore, about 22.31% falls within the age range of 21 to 30 implying that they are in active
age. The result also revealed that 79.34% of the respondents were female. This is an indication
that the household decision of cassava products to consumption is manly done by Married
women. Onyemauwa (2010) reported that household consumption management in Nigeria is at
the concern of women. The result further revealed that the mean income of the respondent was
₦207,203 this implies that respondents have capacity to purchase cassava products.
The result reveals that 50.41% of the respondents have income distribution ranging between
N301,000 – N400,000 while about 26.45% falls within the range of N201,000 – N300,000. This
implies that respondent can afford to feed household averagely. Education is a crucial variable in
studying of food demand and consumption. About 47.50% of the respondents had secondary
education, followed by primary education (25.83%) and tertiary education (17.50%). The result
also shows that many (45.00%) of the cassava consuming household head were farmers, 38.33%
were traders, 11.67% were civil servant and 5.00% were into other occupations. The mean
household size was 5 persons, implying that the cassava consumers’ preference of the products is
influenced by their family size. The result reveals that 48.76% of respondent have household
ranging from 7 and above moreover, about 36.36% fall between 4 to 6 household sizes. Large
household size is associated with increased household consumption. Large family size implies
increase in family expenses since almost all members depend on the family. The Organization
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2013) reported that the number of
persons living in a household is in close relation with consumption. Majority (78.51%) of the
respondents have basic education. Opeyemi et al., (2021) reported that the level of education of a
person increases the total stability of individual, hence household maintenance is assured.

65
Table 1 Distribution of Socio-economic and Demographic Characteristics
Explanatory Variable Frequency Percentage (%) Mean
Age of Respondent 37
Less Than 20 16 13.22
21 – 30 27 22.31
31 – 40 63 52.31

41 – 50 6 4.96
51 and Above 9 7.44
Gender
Female 96 79.34
Male 25 20.66
Income of Respondents (₦) ₦207,203
Less Than 200,000 25 20.66
201,000 – 300,000 32 26.45
301,000 – 400,000 61 50.41
401,000 and Above 3 2.48
Marital Status
Single 10 8.26
Married 111 91.74
Cassava Product Consumption
Yes 112 92.56
No 9 7.44
Household Size 5
Less than 3 18 14.88
4–6 44 36.36
7 and Above 59 48.76
Educational Qualification
Primary 51 42.15
Secondary 44 36.36
Tertiary 23 19.01
None Formal Education 3 2.48
Source: Field Survey 2023

Distribution of Various Forms of Cassava Product

The result revealed the various forms of cassava products consumed by the respondents in the
study area is represented in Figure 1. The results show that the various forms of cassava products

66
with the highest percentage is garri which is consumed by about 55% of the respondents. Lafun
was found to be about 39%, followed by lebu with 14% and fufu which is consumed by 12% of
the respondents. These are the actively available consumable cassava form. The result
corroborates with the finding (FAO, 2020)

Garri
Lafun
Fufu
Lebu
starch

Figure 1: Distribution of Various Form of Cassava Product in the Study area

The distributions of consumers’ preference for cassava products in the study area is shown in
Table 2. The result reveal that about 72.73% of respondents preferred garri. This implies that
most of the respondents consume more cassava products such as garri for both drinking and
making eba because of the family size and low price of the product. Followed by lafun with
about 22.31% as a ranked for consumers preference, this implies that lafun consumption is
complementary to the use of other floor while only 1% of the respondents are into starch.
Table 2: Distributions of Consumers Preference for Cassava Products in the Study Area

Variables Frequency Percentage%

Garri 88 72.73
Lafun 27 22.31
Fufu 2 1.65
Lebu 3 2.31
Starch 1 1.00
Total 121 100

Source: Field Survey 2023

Result in Table 3 reveals variables affecting consumers’ preference for cassava products. The
pseudo R square of 34% imply that 34% variations in the explanatory variable was explained by
the dependent variable. Likelihood ratio test was -55.49 with 12 degrees of freedom significant at
67
 (P<0.005). The result showed that gender and income of household head was positively
significant at 5% level of probability with coefficient of 1.6791 and 0.0001 respectively. This
means that the probability of consumers’ preference for cassava product increases as numbers of
males in household and income of household head increases. Educational level and amount spent
on cassava products monthly was negatively significant at 5% level of probability with
coefficient of -1.157 and -0.0016 respectively. Marital status and household size of the
respondents was positively significant at 10% level with coefficient of 1.333 and 0.375
respectively. Price of substitute products was significant at 1% level of probability with
coefficient 0.0005. This implies that a unit increase in prices of substitute product will lead to an
increase in consumers’ preference for cassava products in the study area.

Table 3: Factors affecting Consumers Preference for Cassava Products

Explanatory Variables Parameters Coefficients Standard Z Value

Error

Gender X1 1.679072 0.703143 2.39**

Marital status X2 1.333466 0.772739 1.73***
Age of respondent X3 -0.0254678 0.0340596 -0.75
Household size X4 0.3747809 0.2078518 1.80***
Educational Level X5 -1.15669 0.5472471 -2.11**
Perception of cassava products nutritional quality X6 0.5901141 0.5374955 1.10
Taste of product X7 0.1282726 0.5361624 0.24
Amount spent on Cassava products Monthly X8 -0.0016137 0.0007294 -2.21**
price of substitute products X9 0.0004596 0.0001775 2.59*
Income of Household Head X10 0.0001009 0.0000445 2.27**
Numbers of time cassava products is consumed X11 -0.2162707 0.5772627 -0.37
per week
Quantity of cassava produce purchase per month X12 -0.0065464 0.0061125 -1.07
Constant -4.996493 4.821103 -1.04
Diagnostic Result
Log likelihood -55.490388
Pseudo R2 0.3376

LR Ch2(12) 34.58

Prob > chi2 0.0005

68
 Marginal effects for Consumers Preference for Cassava Products

Variable dy/dx

Gender 0.3697582

Marital Status 0.2881315

Household Size 0.0672449

Educational Level -0.1950903

Amount spent on Cassava products Monthly -0.0002895

price of substitute products 0.0000825

Income of Household Head 0.0000181

Source Field Survey 2023

* **and *** = Significant at 10%, 5% and 1%, respectively

The table further describes the marginal effects which was computed for the significant variables
to ascertain the probability of consumers’ preference for cassava products. The marginal effect
on gender, marital status, household size, educational level, amount spent on cassava products
monthly, price of substitute products and income of household head. This implies that one
percent change in these explanatory variables leads to a proportionate change in the probability
of consumer’s preference for cassava products.
Table 4 describes the consumption pattern of the respondents for cassava products. It was
revealed that daily and weekly consumption pattern are the major patterns with about 55.37%
and 38.84% respectively. This implies that the cassava products constitute one of the main food
item household depend on for survival and feeding.

Table 4: Distributions of Consumption Pattern Cassava Products.

Parameters Frequency Percentage%
Daily 67 55.37
Weekly 47 38.84
Fortnightly 2 1.65
Monthly 4 3.31
Undecided 1 0.83
Total 121 100
Source: Field Survey 2023

69
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The Study concludes that the consumption of cassava and its products were mostly on a weekly
basis which implies that household depends on it as a staple food. Furthermore, garri and lafun
were mostly consumed. Preference for garri and Lafun was due to some variables identified in
this study. The study therefore recommend that Government and stakeholder should aid good
processing of cassava product to ensure its safety and healthy consumption.

REFERENCE
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Food and Agriculture Organization. (2020). Nigeria at a glance. Retrieved from:

https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/top-cassava-producing-countries-in-the-world.html.

Kwara State Bureau of Statistic (2022) Data Base, retrieved on 15 March 2023 from
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Nnadozie, A., Ume, S., Isiocha, S., & Njoku, I. (2015). Nigerian Cassava potentials in national
economic development. Science Journal of Business and Management, 3(5/1), 47-49.
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Ojo O. S., Olofinsao A. O. & Abdulaleem A. M. (2020) Analysis of Consumer Preference for
Cassava Products in Akoko South West Local Government Area of Ondo State, Nigeria,
International Journal of Social Sciences Perspectives (7)1, 46-52.

Opeyemi, G. 1, Opaluwa, H. I., Adeleke, A. O., Ugbaje, B. (2021) Effect of climate smart
agricultural practices on farming Householdsʹ food security status in Ika North East Local
Government Area, Delta State, Nigeria. Journal of Agriculture and Food Sciences, (19)2,
30 – 42.

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2013). Framework for
statistics on the distribution of household income, consumption and wealth. Paris: OECD
Publishing. Pp 35

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 EFFECTS OF SELECTED DRYING METHODS ON THE PROXIMATE
COMPOSITION OF SOFT CANE (Thaumatococcus daniellii) SEED

*Adebayo, T. K.1, Daramola, A. S.1 and Raji, A. O.2

1
Federal Polytechnic Offa, Kwara State, Nigeria
2
Department of Food Science and Technology, Kwara State University, Malete, Ilorin, Kwara State,
Nigeria
Corresponding author: [email protected]; Telephone: +234 805 162 8539

ABSTRACT
Soft cane (Thaumatoccoccus daniellii), a multipurpose perennial herb produces aril which bears
sweet substances called thaumatin. It is under-utilized and highly perishable due to its high
moisture content. Drying as a preservative technique could influence the overall qualities of food
components. This study, therefore, investigated the effect of selected drying methods (sun, rotary
and freeze drying) on the proximate composition of soft cane (T. daniellii) seed. A 3-level full
factorial design was used for the study. The procured soft-cane seeds were thoroughly washed and
then sun-dried for 2, 4, 6, and 8 days, rotary-dried at 40 to 100 oC for 2 to 8 h and freeze-dried at -52
°C for 3 to 9 h. This study has shown that sun-drying of T. daniellii seed for 1 day, rotary drying at
100 oC for 3 h, and freeze-drying at -52 oC for 8 h gave the optimum quality parameters of T. daniellii
seed flours.
Keywords: T. daniellii seeds; Proximate composition; Drying

INTRODUCTION
Thaumatococcu daniellii is a plant species of African origin. It is the natural source of thaumatin,
an intensely sweet protein of interest in sweeteners' development. It is a rhizomatous, flowering
herb native to the rainforests of western Africa (Nwodo-Chimedu et al., 2008). T. daniellii plays
a vital role in the traditional packaging of food products like bean pudding and local pastries,
owing to its beneficial packaging properties such as aroma, taste, low cost and does not transfer
any colour to the wrapped food.
The fruit of T. daniellii contains 1 to 3 black seeds surrounded by a gel and capped with a
membranous sac; the aril contains the sweet protein called thaumatin. In addition to being the
source of the natural sweetener: thaumatin in the food and confectionary industry, the leaves are
used for wrapping and boiling food in Nigeria and Ghana as a way of extending the shelf life of
the food (Ojekale et al., 2007).
Every food processing or preparation does have effects on the nutritional qualities. In particular,
processes that expose foods to high levels of heat, light or oxygen cause great nutrient loss.
Nutrients can also be "leached-out" of foods by fluids that are introduced during the processing
operations. Therefore, this research investigated the effects of the oven-drying on the chemical
properties of soft cane (T. daniellii) seed flour.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Raw T. daniellii seeds, undamaged by any cracks, soſt spots or bruises were purchased from a

71
farm at Dagbolu in Ikirun, Osun State, Nigeria. The equipment which includes an oven, Soxhlet
apparatus, water bath and sieve shaker were available in the Department of Food Science and
Technology, Kwara State University, Malete, Ilorin, Kwara State Nigeria and Department of
Food Technology, Federal Polytechnic Offa, Nigeria. All chemicals that were used are of food
standard and analytical grade.
Methods
Sample preparation
The soft-cane seeds procured were cleaned and washed. A 3-levels full factorial design was used
for the study. The seeds were subjected to sun-drying (2, 4, 6 and 8 days), rotary-drying (40, 60,
80 and 100 ⁰C for 2, 5, and 8 h) and freeze-drying (-20, -40 and -52 ⁰C for 3, 6 and 9 h). The
dried seeds were grinded, sieved and packaged in ziploc bag (Shallom et al., 2014).
Proximate analysis
Moisture, Crude protein, Crude fat, Ash and Crude fibre were determined using the method of
AOAC (2000). Carbohydrate was calculated by difference (subtracting the sum of percentage
moisture contents, crude fiber, lipid, crude protein and ash content from 100%).
Statistical Analysis
Data generated from this study were analyzed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Values
were expressed as mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM) from three determinations.
Differences in mean were compared using Duncan’s multiple test range. P<0.05 was considered
significant (Osuocha et al., 2018).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The results obtained for the proximate composition of T. daniellii seed flour from the sun-drying
method are presented in Table 1. The moisture contents ranged between 5.17 – 10.62% (control)
had the highest moisture content (10.62%) while the least value (5.17%) was observed in T.
Danielli seeds sundried for 8 days. The moisture contents differed significantly at (P< 0.01).
However, no significant (P>0.05) reduction in moisture contents were observed at day 2 of the T.
danielli seeds drying when compared with control. Higher moisture content encourages
microbial growth in foods. Findings are in agreement with 6.83 – 7.99% reported for sun dried
leaves of Ocimum basilicum by (Mahirah et al., 2018) and 4.00 – 11.00% for cherry,
watermelon, pawpaw, guava and bitter melon seeds by (Mathew et al., 2014).
Table 1: Results for the proximate composition of sun dried T. daniellii seeds powders

Parameters Control Sundried Sundried Sundried Sundried

(%) (2 days) (4 days) (6 days) (8 days)
Moisture 10.62±0.21d 10.13±0.01d 8.77±0.14c 6.56±0.55b 5.17±0.04a

Ash 13.33±0.06e 11.90±0.02d 8.37±0.01c 6.43±0.52b 4.65±0.11a

72
 Protein 11.73±0.09e 9.97±0.03d 7.20±0.14c 5.53±0.06b 4.17±0.10a

Fat 2.24±0.02d 2.14±0.04c 2.05±0.05c 1.86±0.05b 1.12±0.01a

Crude Fibre 9.90±0.03e 8.15±0.02d 7.20±0.01c 6.31±0.04b 5.50±0.06a

Carbohydrate 62.81±0.03a 67.86±0.04b 75.19±0.19c 79.88±0.57d 84.57±0.16e

Values are means of triplicates:Values along the same row having different letters (a,b,c,d)
indicates that they are significantly different (P<0.05).

Ash content is the residual of inorganic materials remaining after the organic matter has been
removed away by heating (Ocloo et al., 2010). The result indicated significant (P< .05) reduction
in ash contents of the T. daniellii seeds powder as the sun drying periods progressed and this is
contrary to the findings of (Mahirah et al., 2018) whose study reported increased ash contents of
Ocimum basilicum after freeze and vacuum oven drying (Chinedu et al., 2014).

The protein contents of the T. daniellii seeds powders decreased as the drying days extended.
Findings here are in line with other literatures; Artocarpus odoratissimus (8.78%), A. altilis
(8.12%) and A. integer seed flour by (Tukura et al., 2015) and (Masri et al., 2017).

The fat contents of the T. daniellii seeds powders differed significantly at (P< 0.01) with values
ranging from 1.12 – 2.24% and this is in consonance with the findings of Olagoke and Opeyemi
(2021) for fat contents of T. daniellii (1.72%) and Megaphynium macrostachyum (2.96%).

There were significant (P< .05) reductions in the crude fibre contents of the T. daniellii seeds
powders with increase in sun drying periods and this is not in line with Alalade et al. (2019) and
(Olagoke and Opeyemi, 2021) reported (20.40%) and (21.90 – 22.11%) for crude fibre contents
of Crotalaria retusa seeds, T. daniellii seeds and M. macrostachyum seeds which are higher than
those obtained in the current study.

The carbohydrate contents of the T.daniellii seeds powders differed significantly (P< 0.05).
There was significant (P< .05) reduction in the carbohydrate contents of the T. danielli seeds
with increased sun drying periods. The carbohydrate contents of guava-cherry seeds (53.95 –
62.30%) reported by (Mathew et al., 2014) are slightly in conformity with the findings of the
current work.

Samples Moisture Ash Protein Fat Crude Carbohydrate

(%) (%) (%) (%) Fibre (%) (%)
Control 10.62±0.21h 13.33±0.06i 11.73±0.09 2.24±0.02i
h
9.90±0.03 g
62.81±0.03a
40 oC for 3 h 10.44±0.02g 13.10±0.01h 11.15±0.06g 2.19±0.01h 9.36±0.03f 59.00±7.30ab
40 oC for 6 h 9.82±0.01e 12.92±0.01f 10.97±0.02f 2.15±0.01g 8.99±0.01e 64.98±0.06ab

73
40 oC for 9 h 9.46±0.01d 12.88±0.01ef 10.03±0.01c 1.97±0.01e 8.43±0.03c 66.70±0.01ab
70 oC for 3 h 10.25±0.01f 13.01±0.01g 10.98±0.01f 2.11±0.01f 9.03±0.04e 64.88±0.01ab
70 oC for 6 h 9.47±0.02d 12.81±0.01d 10.33±0.01d 1.94±0.01e 8.64±0.02d 66.29±0.06ab
70 oC for 9 h 8.98±0.01b 12.13±0.04b 10.07±0.01c 1.61±0.01c 8.21±0.01b 67.99±0.00ab
100 oC for 3 h 10.15±0.04f 12.86±0.04de 10.54±0.03e 1.91±0.01d 8.62±0.01d 66.09±0.08ab
100 oC for 6 h 9.25±0.02c 12.66±0.02c 9.91±0.01b 1.55±0.03b 8.39±0.01c 67.50±0.01ab
100 oC for 9h 8.58±0.02a 11.53±0.01a 9.58±0.02a 1.20±0.01a 8.00±0.01a 69.71±0.01c
Values are means of triplicates

Values along the same row having different letters (a,b,c,d) indicates that they are significantly
different (P<0.05).
The results for the proximate composition of rotary dried T. daniellii seeds powders are
presented in Table 2. The moisture contents of the powders differed significantly at (P< 0.01)
with values ranging from 8.58 – 10.62%. No significant differences (P> .05) were observed
between the rotary dried T. daniellii seeds at 40 oC for 9 h and 70 oC for 6 h; 70 oC for 3 h and
100 oC for 3 h.
There were reductions in the ash, fat and crude fibre values of the T. daniellii seeds powders as
the drying temperature and time extended.
The carbohydrate contents of the rotary dried T. daniellii seeds powders indicated a range
between (59.00 – 69.71%) and no significant differences (P> .05) were observed between the
carbohydrate contents values except for control. The reduction in the values of moisture, ash,
protein, fat and crude fibre is in line with what was reported by (Adeyemi et al., 2014) on the
dried Moringa oleifera.
Table 3: Results for the proximate composition of freeze dried T. daniellii seeds powders

Samples Moisture (%) Ash Protein Fat CrudeFibre Carbohydrate

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Control 10.62±0.21g 13.33±0.06i 11.73±0.09g 2.24±0.02i 9.90±0.03b 62.81±0.03a

20 oC for 2 h 10.47±0.04ef 13.24±0.01h 11.71±0.01g 2.21±0.01i 9.71±0.01j 63.15±0.02b

20 oC for 5 h 10.62±0.01g 13.11±0.01e 11.66±0.01g 2.11±0.01h 9.61±0.01i 63.52±0.04c

20 oC for 8 h 10.56±0.03fg 12.98±0.02d 11.23±0.01d 1.91±0.01e 8.83±0.03b 65.06±0.06hi

36 oC for 2 h(a) 10.36±0.01e 13.16±0.02f 11.25±0.02e 2.09±0.01h 9.23±0.04h 64.29±0.05e

36 oC for 5 h(a) 10.24±0.01d 12.93±0.03d 11.37±0.04f 1.91±0.01d 9.02±0.02ef 64.79±0.04h

36 oC for 8 h(a) 9.92±0.03b 12.88±0.01b 10.90±0.01a 1.81±0.01b 8.90±0.01c 65.52±0.01j

36 oC for 2 h(b) 10.35±0.01e 13.17±0.1fg 11.28±0.01e 2.10±0.01h 9.27±0.01h 64.19±0.01de

36 oC for 5 h(b) 10.24±0.02d 12.97±0.01d 11.39±0.01f 1.94±0.00ef 9.04±0.03f 64.58±0.17f

74
36 oC for 8 h(b) 9.94±0.03b 12.89±0.01bc 10.92±0.04a 1.83±0.01b 8.93±0.04cd 65.44±0.00ij

36 oC for 2 h(c) 10.36±0.02de 13.21±0.1gh 11.30±0.01e 2.10±0.00h 9.28±0.03h 64.12±0.03d

36 oC for 5 h(c) 10.28±0.01d 12.98±0.01d 11.37±0.01f 1.95±0.01f 9.08±0.01e 64.64±0.01f

36 oC for 8 h(c) 9.93±0.00b 12.89±0.00bc 10.92±0.03a 1.81±0.01b 8.97±0.01de 65.41±0.03ij

52 oC for 2 h 10.10±0.01c 12.98±0.02d 11.12±0.01c 1.99±0.01g 9.07±0.04f 64.85±0.07g

52 oC for 5 h 9.98±0.02b 12.88±0.02b 11.02±0.01b 1.88±0.02c 8.93±0.01cd 65.31±0.06i

52 oC for 8 h 9.78±0.02a 12.69±0.02a 10.92±0.03a 1.77±0.04a 8.15±0.04a 66.49±0.12k

Values are mean ± standard deviation. Data with different superscripts in the same row
are significantly different at P< .05

The results for the proximate composition of freeze dried T. daniellii seeds powders are
presented in Table 3. The moisture contents of the powders differed significantly at (P< 0.01)
with values ranging from 9.78 – 10.62%. No significant differences (P> .05) were observed
between the freeze dried T. daniellii seeds at-52 oC for 5 h, -36 oC for 8 h(c); -36 oC for 8 h (b), -
36 oC for 2 h (b) and the samples freeze dried at -36 oC for 5 h, -36 oC for 5 h(c) and -36 oC for 8
h (a). These results indicated slight reduction in moisture contents of the dried T. daniellii seeds
powders when compared to the other drying methods. This is in agreement with 6.83 – 7.99%
reported for freeze and vacuum oven dried leaves of Ocimum basilicum by (Mahirah et al., 2018)

There were reductions in the ash, protein and fat contents of freeze dried T. daniellii seed powder
and this is in agreement with the findings of (Shaahu et al., 2015) and (Zaharaddeen and Samuel,
2019) who observed a similar decrease in lablab seeds.

The carbohydrate contents of the freeze dried T. daniellii seeds powders indicated a range
between (62.81 – 66.49%). The results of protein, ash, fat, crude fibre and carbohydrate, here,
are not in agreement with the findings of (Mahirah et al., 2018) who works on freeze drying
leaves of Ocimum basilicum leave

REFERENCES

Adeyemi, T. O. A., Idowu, O. D., Ogboru, R. O., Iyebor, W. E. and Owoeye, E. A. (2014).
Phytochemical Screening, Nutritional and Medicinal Benefits of Thaumatococcus
daniellii Benn (Benth.). International Journal of Applied Research and Technology, 3(8):
92 – 97
Alalade, J. A. , Akinlade, B. A. , Akingbade, , A. A. Emiola, , C. B. and Adebisi, I. A. (2019).
Proximate Composition and Phytochemical Screenings of Crotalaria retusa Leaves and
Seeds. Open Access Library Journal, l (6): e 5058.

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AOAC (2000): Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 15th edition, Analytical Chemists,
Washington, DC, 123-129.
Chinedu, S. N., Oluwadamisi, A. Y., Popoola, S. T., David, B. J. and Epelle, T., (2014).
Analyses of the leaf, fruit and seed of Thaumatococcus danielli (Benth) exploring
potential uses. Pakistan Journal of Biological Science, 17:849-854
Mahirah, S. Y., Rabeta, M. S. and Antora, R. A. (2018). Effects of different drying methods on
the proximate composition and antioxidant activities of Ocimum basilicum leaves. Food
Research 2 (5): 421 – 428
Masri, N., Mansoor, A. H. and Mamat, H. (2017). Proximate composition, mineral content and
functional property of Tarap (Artocarpus odoratissimus ) seed flour. Food Research, 1
(3), 89–96
Mathew, T, Ndamitso, A., Otori, E., Shaba, A., Inobeme, A and Adamu, A. (2014). Proximate
and mineral compositions of seeds of some conventional and non-conventional fruits in
Niger State, Nigeria," Academic Research International, 5, 113-118.
Nwodo-Chimedu, S., Omonhinmin, I.D., Omotosho, V.O., Oyelade, O. and Adebiyi, E. (2008).
Species level exterisation of Soft-cane: Revaluating morphological evidence via in silico
studies. Proceeding of the international society for computational biology conference,
July 18-23 Toronto, Canada.
Ojekale, A. B., Makinde, S. C. O., and Osileye, O., (2007). Phytochemistry and antimicrobial
evaluation of Thaumatococcus danielli Benn. (Benth.) Leaves. Nigeria Food Journal, 25
(2): 176-183.
Olagoke, O. O. and Opeyemi, A. S. (2021). Comparative analysis of the nutritional composition
of two less known seeds: Thaumatococcus daniellii (benthi) and megaphynium
macrostachyum (benthi). International Journal of Pure and Applied Science, 21 (9),
2743-6264
Osuocha, K. U., Okafor, I. J. and Nweke, E. O. (2018). Evaluation of the mineral and vitamin
compositions of leaves of Alchornea cordifolia and Thaumatococcus danielli. Asian
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Shaahu, D.T., Carew, S. N. and Ikurior, S. A. (2015). Effect of processing on proximate, energy,
anti-nutritional factor, amino acid and mineral composition of lablab seed. International
Journal of Scientific & Technology Research, 4.
Shallom, D., Zaide, G., Shulami, S., Zolotnitsky, G., Golan, G., Baasov, T. and Shoham, G.
(2014) European Journal of Biochemistry, 268: 3006-3016.
Tukura, B. W. and Obliva, O. (2015). Proximate and Nutritional Compositions of red fruit
(Artocarpusaltilis) Seeds. IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, 9 (3), 2319–2399.
Zaharaddeen, N. G. and Samuel, O. (2019).The effect of different drying methods on the
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University for Science, 13 (1): 396-401

76
 EFFECT OF FERMENTATION PERIOD ON THE CHEMICAL CONTENT OF
“GARRI ANALOGUE” FROM DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF OFSP
*
Bolarin, F.M.1, Akande, E.A.2 and Oke, M.O.3
1 Processing and Storage Engineering Department, National Centre for Agricultural
Mechanization, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria
2 Food Science Department, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo State,
Nigeria
3 Food Engineering Department, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo
State, Nigeria
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Garri” is a fermented, dry granular meal produced from cassava roots which is of high
carbohydrate content with little of other nutrients. Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato (OFSP) is a root
crop with high nutritional properties and so its use for “garri analogue” has been found to be of
better nutritional qualities than cassava. However, considerations are yet to be given to the effect of
processing variables on the qualities of OFSP “garri analogue”. Therefore, this study evaluated the
effect of processing variables of OFSP on the chemical quality of “garri analogue”.
Three varieties of OFSP (Mother’s Delight, King J and Solo Gold) were procured from local
farmers in Osun state. Three fermentation time (24, 48, 72 and 81.96 h) were considered. The
chemical quality of the “garri analogue” was determined. Data obtained were subjected to Analysis
of Variance and means were separated using Duncan Multiple Range Test at 5% level of
significance.
The range of values for protein (.7.24-24.83%), moisture (4.37-8.89%), ash (3.81-4.65%), fat (1.15-
1.95%), fibre (4.12-9.68%), carbohydrate (60.32-70.96%) and carotenoid (20.73 -75.23 ug/g)
respectively. The optimum results in terms of the processing variables on the chemical content of
“garri analogue” were obtained at 48.00 and 72.00 h respectively.
Keywords: Mother’s Delight, King J, Solo Gold, chemical, Fermentation period

INTRODUCTION
Sweet potato (Ipomea batatas L.) is an important staple food crop in Nigeria (Ukpabi, 2009). It
is one of the starchy root crops that are generally consumed in the country as an energy giving
food. On dry matter basis, the non-carbohydrate macronutrient composition of the edible
tuberous roots include: protein (1.4 to 8.6%); crude fibre (3.4 to 5.9%); lipid (0.3 to 1.9%) and
ash (1.5 to 6.3%).
The utilization of OFSP roots in the alleviation of Vitamin A Deficiency (VAD) in countries like
Guatemala was recorded in as early as in the mid-1990s (Talsma et al., 2017). The depth of the
flesh colour is largely a function of the concentration of beta-carotene. Orange Fleshed sweet

77
Potato (OFSP) has main importance as a source of Vitamin A especially for children, lactating
mothers and other people with low immunity (Vimala, 2011). The chemical composition as well
as the nutritional composition of the OFSP roots is largely influenced by the genotype and
growing conditions (Vizzotto, et al., 2017), thus the variety grown must be suited for the intended
purpose.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials
Matured orange-fleshed sweet potatoes of different varieties (Mother’s Delight, King J and Solo
Gold) were purchased from a local Farmer in Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria. All reagents used in
the analysis are of food standard and analytical grade.

Sample preparation
The freshly harvested orange-fleshed sweet potatoes was washed, peeled, re-washed, grated,
pressed (fermented 24-72 h), garified into “garri analogue” and packed in an air tight container
and stored in a desiccator (containing silica gel) for further analysis.

Proximate composition determination

Moisture, Crude protein, Crude fat, Ash And Crude fibre were determined using standard
laboratory procedures (AOAC, 2005). Carbohydrate was calculated by difference (subtracting
the sum of percentage moisture contents, crude fibre, lipid, crude protein and ash content from
100%).

Total Carotenoid Content (Vitamin A Content)

The total carotenoid content was determined by the method described by Chan and Cavaletto
(1982) using UV/Visible spectrophotometer. Six grams (6g) of the sample was mixed with 5 g of
hyflosupercel (celite, a filtration aid) and 15 ml of 70% methanol (v/v), and filtered through a
Buchner funnel with filter paper. The residue was extracted two more times with 15 ml
acetone‐petroleum ether 1:1 (v/v). The extract was transferred to 500 ml separating funnel. 5ml
of 10% KOH in methanol (v/v) was added and the mixture was allowed to stand for 1½hours.
Partition was achieved by adding 15 ml of petroleum ether and 20 ml of 20% NaCl (w/v), and
mixed gently. The hypophasic (lower) layer was discarded. The epiphasic (upper) layer was
washed three times with 20 ml of distilled water to remove excess acetone; it was filtered
through a small funnel containing 3 g anhydrous sodium sulfate to remove residual water. The
funnel was plugged with glass stopper to hold sodium sulfate. The filtrate was made up to 100 ml
with petroleum ether and the absorbance was measured at 450 nm; the wavelength of maximum
absorption for β‐carotene in petroleum ether.
Statistical Analysis
All data obtained were subjected to Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using Statistical Package for
Science and Social Science (SPSS version 16). Means were separated using Duncan Multiple
Range Test at 5 % level of probability as described by Bamidele et al. (2014).

78
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Effect of fermentation period on the chemical composition of Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato
“garri analogue” produced from three different varieties.

The chemical composition of Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato “garri analogue” of the three
varieties are presented in Table 1. The protein content ranged from 16.79-24.83% (Mother’s
Delight), 7.24-11.11% (King J) and 16.13-16.52% (Solo Gold). The sample that did not undergo
any treatment had a protein content of 4.60%. The highest protein content was obtained for the
samples that were fermented for 48 h. The difference in protein content across the “garri
analogue” samples might be due to the period of fermentation. The protein content increased
significantly with fermentation. This might be mainly due to the reproduction of microorganisms
and their metabolic activity during fermentation, as reported by Airaodion et al., (2019). The
protein content obtained for the samples are higher than the one (1.57%) obtained by Bamidele et
al. (2014) and 5.68% obtained by Ajifolokun and Adeniran (2018). It was observed that the
protein content was also higher than the one obtained by Ojo and Akande (2013). According to
Ojo and Akande (2013), the nutritional value of protein in sweet potato “garri” was a
combination of two factors: total essential amino acid content of the protein and protein
digestibility which is an indicator of the availability of the essential and non-essential amino acid
in the protein. This explains why the protein content of OFSP “garri analogue” was high. The
moisture content ranged from 4.37-5.27% (Mother’s Delight), 8.28-8.89% (King J) and 4.62-
5.18% (Solo Gold). The lowest moisture content was obtained for the sample that was fermented
for48 h. Low moisture content indicates low water activity, low susceptibility to deterioration or
spoilage. It is also an indication of high storage potential and greater dry matter (Agbara and
Ohaka, 2018).

79
 Table 1. Chemical Composition of three Varieties of Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato “Garri Analogue”
SAM P C (%) M C (%) A C (%) F C (%) FBC (%) CHO (%) CAROTENOID
P (ug/g)
M KJ S M KJ SG M KJ SG M KJ SG M KJ SG MD KJ SG MD KJ SG
D G D D D D
A 18. 8.42 17. 4.8 8.8 5.1 4.3 4.5 3.9 1.5 1.5 1.4 4.1 6.6 7.4 66.9 69. 65. 56.9 42.6 20.73±
28 ± 57 0± 9 8 0± 1± 7± 6± 5± 5± 2 4± 9± 3 98 34 7± 2± 0.00a
±0. 0.23 ±0. 0.0 ±0. ±0. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 ±0. 0.0 0.1 ±0.1 ±0. ±0. 0.12 0.04
01d d 12e 2c 03d 09c 3b 4c 2b 2b 3c 2a 13a 8c 4ab 7c 28b 09e b c
B 16. 7.24 16. 5.2 8.4 4.8 4.4 4.5 4.1 1.8 1.1 1.5 8.5 7.7 7.5 63.1 70. 65. 57.6 52.8 23.73±
94 ±0.0 38 7± 2± 3± 0 ± 0 2± 4± 5 ± 4± 5 2± 9± 1 96 38 5±0. 9±0. 0.00b
±0. 2a ±0. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 ±0. 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 ±0. 0.0 0.0 ±0.3 ±0. ±0. 06c 05d
14b 11b 2d 6bc 6ab 2d 09c 7c 2d 4a 2ab 31c 6e 2b 7b 03c 15c
cd
C 24. 8.25 16. 4.4 8.5 4.8 3.8 3.9 4.6 2.1 1.8 1.6 4.4 6.4 9.5 60.3 70. 62. 58.3 58.5 27.34±
79 ±0.1 38 0± 6± 8± 2± 5± 4± 5± 7± 9± 6± 2± 9± 8±0. 58 53 6±0. 4±0. 0.05e
±0. 6bcd ±0. 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.1 33a ±0. ±0. 06d 07f
06e 18b 5a 6c 2ab 4a 9b 4f 2f 0d 3b 8ab 9b 0d 12c 11a
cd
D 17. 11.1 16. 4.8 8.2 4.7 4.3 4.0 4.3 1.7 1.9 1.4 4.2 5.5 7.4 67.4 70. 65. 68.8 73.1 24.21±
39 1±0. 13 1± 8± 8± 2± 1± 5± 6± 5± 2± 9± 5± 6± 3±0. 09 75 2±0. 4±0. 0.02c
±0. 49f ±0. 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 15d ±0. ±0. 01h 13j
15c 10b 1c 4a 26a 2bc 60b 2e 2c 5b 3a 9ab 6a 2ab 10b 31d
b e
E 16. 9.90 16. 4.8 8.2 4.9 4.2 1.9 1.5 1.4 4.2 6.8 7.3 67.9 69. 65. 67.9 54.9 26.18±
79 ±0.0 22 8± 8± 3± 4.2 4.4 8± 3± 6± 3± 0± 7± 6± 8±0. 97 72 0±0. 8±0. 0.05d
±0. 8e ±0. 0.0 0.0 0.1 9± 3± 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 19e ±0. ±0. 06f 05e
16b 22b 8c 3b 3bc 0.0 0.0 5d 3e 3c 0a 0ab 4d 2a 14c 41d
c 9b 3c e
F 4.6 8.13 4.8 7.7 8.4 8.1 3.8 3.7 3.6 7.7 1.4 1.4 8.6 7.6 8.5 73.9 70. 73. 73.9 29.5 75.23±
0± ±0.0 3± 4± 4± 8± 5± 9± 0± 4± 9± 6± 0± 2± 1± 8±0. 52 50 5±0. 1±0. 0.07j
0.0 2b 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.0 24g ±0. ±0. 07j 00a
4a 1a 2e 3bc 3d 5a 3a 4a 2e 1c 5a 5c 1e 4c 03c 02f

80
Values are expressed as mean±SD. Values with different alphabets along the same column
are significantly different at p<0.05

KEYS
PC- Protein content A-14.06 h, M.D – Mother’s Delight
MC-Moisture content B-24.00 h K.J- King J
AC–Ash content C-48.00 h S.G – Solo Gold
FC-Fat content D-72.00 h,
FBC-Fibre content E-81.96 h
CHOC-Carbohydrate content F-- 0 h

Komolafe and Arawande (2010) reported a range of 11.78-11.81% of “garri” produced from
three cultivars of cassava; Bamidele et al. (2014) reported a moisture range of 7.28-7.78% for
cassava-cocoyam “garri”, a range closer to the values obtained. Ojo and Akande (2013)
reported a range of 10.20-11.74% for cassava-sweet potato “garri”, while Abu et al. (2006)
recommended a shelf stable “garri” to have a moisture content of 12%.

The ash content ranged from 3.81% - 4.40% (Mother’s Delight), 3.95% - 4.51% (King J) and
3.97% - 4.65% (Solo Gold). The sample with the highest ash content was fermented for 14.06
h. The ash content is higher than the ash content obtained for 100% breadfruit garri by
Ajifolokun and Adeniran (2018) which was 2.35% and closer to the range (1.10 to 3.30%)
reported by Ekunola (2006) for garri obtained from 100% cassava and breadfruit as well as
from blended “garri” at ratio of 80:20, 70:30 and 60:40 Cassava: Breadfruit.

The fat content ranged from 1.56-2.16% (Mother’s Delight), 1.15-1.95% (King J) and 1.42-
1.70% (Solo Gold). The highest fat content was obtained for Mother’s Delight variety, while
the lowest fat content was obtained for King J variety. “Garri” samples with low fat content
will not undergo rancidity during storage. Dietary fats function to increase food palatability
by absorbing and retaining flavours (Ilori et al., 2017). The decrease in crude fat could be
attributed to the rising temperature of fermentation. As the duration of fermentation increases,
the temperature also increases (Airaodion et al., 2019). Temperature is known to have an
effect on physical characteristics of food fats. It was reported that as temperature increases,
the solid fat index of certain foods decreases (Airaodion et al., 2019). Temperature could
probably be the reason for the rate of decrease of crude fat in “garri” during fermentation.

The Fibre content ranged from 4.12-8.55% (Mother’s Delight), 5.55-7.72% (King J) and
7.36-9.68% (Solo Gold). The sample with the highest fibre content was fermented at 48 h.
Crude fibre is a measure of the undigested components of foods such as cellulose, hemi-
cellulose and lignin, it also plays a very important role in nutrition, and it adds bulk and aids
proper digestion of food (Ajifolokun and Adeniran, 2018).

The carbohydrate content ranged from 60.32-68.49% (Mother’s Delight), 68.66-70.96%

(King J) and 62.46-65.83% (Solo Gold). The highest carbohydrate content was obtained by
sample that was fermented for 48 h. Carbohydrate content showed the level of sugar and
starch present in a sample. Onyeneke (2018) reported that in all the solid nutrients in roots

81
and tubers carbohydrate predominates. Carbohydrate supplies quick source of metabolizable
energy and assist in fat metabolism. The carbohydrate content falls within the range obtained
by Ajifolokun and Adeniran, (2018) for cassava breadfruit garri analogue (66.88-82.39%)
and lower than the range obtained by Ojo and Akande, (2013) for Cassava and sweet potato
garri analogue (82.52-87.10%).

The carotenoid content ranged from 52.71-73.67 ug/g (Mother’s Delight), 29.51-73.14ug/g
(King J) and 20.73 -75.23 ug/g (Solo Gold). The sample that had the highest carotenoid
content was fermented at 72 h. Carotenoid content shows the level of vitamin A in food
samples. Processing techniques involving slicing, grating, mashing, and drying, which most
often increase the surface area of food or food products, have been reported to expose the
carotenoids food to light and air, It is thus not surprising that processed plant-based food
products often contain significantly lower carotenoids than the raw or unprocessed form of
the same food. The higher the carotenoid content the higher the vitamin A content. The
carotenoid content of OFSP “"garri analogue” obtained by Ezeocha and Ofodile (2019) was
2786.96mg/100g (100% orange fleshed sweet potato “garri-analogue”) which was higher
than the one obtained by the three varieties.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained showed that processing methods have an effect on the chemical content
of the “garri analogue” produced. The best fermentation period is 48 h.

REFERENCES

Agbara, G.I. & Ohaka, S.J. (2018). Evaluation of the quality of melon (Citrullus
colocynthis) seed meal enriched garri produced from Cassava (Manihot esculenta), Sweet
Potato (Ipomoea batatas) and Irish Potato (Solanum tuberosum). International Journal of
Food Science and Nutrition. 3 (6): 36-42.

Airaodion, A.I., Airaodion, E.O., Ewa, O., Ogbuagu, E.O. & Ogbuagu, U. (2019).
Nutritional and Anti-nutritional Evaluation of garri processed by traditional and instant
mechanical methods. Asian food Science Journal 9(4):1-13

Ajifolokun, O.M. & Adeniran, H.A. (2018) Proximate and Mineral Composition of Co-
Fermented Breadfruit and Cassava into Gari Analogue. Journal of Nutrition and Food
Science. 8: 658-665.

AOAC (2005). Official methods of analysis, Association of official analytical chemist

18th edition, Washington D.C., USA.

Bamidele, O.P., Ogundele, F.G., Ojubanire, B.A., Mofoluwaso B. Fasogbon, M.B. &
Bello, O.W. (2014). Nutritional composition of “garri analogue” produced from Cassava
(Manihot esculenta) and Cocoyam (Colocasia esculenta) tuber. Food Science and
Nutrition. 2(6): 706-711.

82
Ekunola KO. (2006). Use of breadfruit (Artocapus communing) as an extender for
cassava meal (gari) and instant (pounded) yam flour. International Journal of Food
Science and Nutrition 36: 176-181.

Ilori O.A; Afuape A.O. & Nupo S.S. (2017). Proximate Compositions, selected Minerals
and Shelf Life of Garri fortified with Pretreated Moringa Leaves, CARD International
Journal of Medical Science and Applied Biosciences (IJMSAB) 2(3): 1-11

Komolafe, E.A. & Arawande, J.O. (2010). Evaluation of the quantity and quality of garri
produced from three cultivars of cassava. Journal of Research in National Development.
8(1): 15-23

Ojo, A. & Akande, E.A. (2013). Quality evaluation of ‘garri’ produced from Cassava and
Sweet Potato tuber mixes African Journal of Biotechnology 12(31): 4920-4924.

Onyeneke, E. (2019). Functional and pasting properties of products of white and yellow
cassava Journal of Agriculture and Food Sciences, (17) 1:1-17.

Talsma, E.F., Melse-Boonstra, A. & Brouwer, I. D. (2017). Acceptance and adoption of

biofortified crops in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Nutrition
Review 75(10): 798- 829.

Ukpabi U.J. & Ekeledo E.N. (2009). Feasibility of using Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato as
an alternative to carrot in Nigerian salad preparations. Agricultural Journal 4(5): 216-220

Vimala, B., Nambisan, B. & Hariprakash, B. (2011). Retention of carotenoids in Orange-

Fleshed Sweet Potato during processing. Journal Food Science Technology 48(4): 520-
524.

Vizzotto, M., Pereira, E.S., Vinholes, J.R., Munhoz, P.C., Ferri, N.M., Castro, L.A. &
Krolow, A.C. (2017). Physicochemical and antioxidant capacity analysis of colored
Sweet Potato genotypes: in natural and thermally processed. Cienc Rural St Maria
47(4):1-8.

83
 PRODUCTION OF VALUE-ADDED FOOD FROM PLANTAIN AND CATFISH

*Agboola, A. A1., Oladeinde, M. O1., Akinniyi, N. J1., Johnson, O. M2., Oluseyi, J1., Makinde, M. T3.
and Asiwaju-Bello, S. K3.
1
Perishable Crops Research Department, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Yaba, Lagos.
2
Research Outreach Department, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Yaba, Lagos.
3
Durable Crops Research Department, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Yaba, Lagos.
*Corresponding author: [email protected], +2348023590678

ABSTRACT
Snacks range from sweet corn, bread, cracker, potatoes, and biscuits, this research is
experimental to make a snack from plantain and catfish. The study aims to produce a
nutritious, safe and acceptable snack from plantain and catfish. The snack was stored for one
month at an average temperature and relative humidity of 27.9oC and 81% respectively.
Moisture content, ash content, protein content and glycemic index initially ranging from 4.8
% - 5.3%, 6.2 % - 8.3 %, 49.21 % - 60.37%, and 0.07 - 0.16 over a one-month period on the
shelf respectively. The counted fungal and bacteria microorganisms in this study had loads
below the International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICSMF),
which means they did not exceed the standard of ×106cfu/g of food, and are
microbiologically safe for consumption. Statistical analysis indicated that was no significant
difference between the taste, texture, acceptability, color, and flavor of different forms of the
plantain fish snack. Thus, the plantain fish snack produced is expected to offer a new variety
of snacks and add value to the fish and plantain food chain.

Keyword: Snack, catfish, plantain

INTRODUCTION

Snack could be a food or beverage that is processed and purchased along the way. Snack that
is sold and frequently bought is cakes, fish meatballs, bread, donut, biscuits, chocolate which
contains low calories and protein (Alfid et al., 2013). One of the advantages of utilization of
food ingredients mix with specific proportions is that it can change the nutrient composition
of the ultimate product while foods with low nutrient content may be increased by the
addition of other food ingredients with higher nutritional composition (Munifa et al., 2015).
Nigeria is understood to be the world’s largest producer and consumer of plantain (10.5
million tons annum-1), accounting for roughly 10% of total global production (FAOSTAT,
2006). With increasing urbanization, plantain is becoming a vital crop providing the only real
source of income to rural populations in some cases, thus playing a crucial role in poverty
alleviation (Alao et al., 2020). The nutritional composition of the crop revealed that starch is
the predominant carbohydrate within the green fruit (Tremblay, 2018). Plantain is an
inexpensive and simply produced source of energy, which is additionally rich in some
essential minerals and contribute substantial amount of ascorbic acid, B6, and carotene (pro-
vitamin A), which are among the six vitamins included within the recommended daily
allowances of the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council (Ogazi, 1996).
Plantain has diversity of minerals; it is high in potassium, low in sodium (17 mg/100 g) and
fat (0.1%) making it suitable to manage pressure level (Kanazawa et al., 2000). It is often

84
recommended for persons who are intolerant to salt. Many of its nutritive minerals are
essential to living organisms because they are accustomed activate hormone, enzymes, and
other organic molecules that participate within the growth, function and maintenance of life
processes (Aslam et al., 2005). In Nigeria, plantain could be a versatile food in addition as a
staple for several popular delicacies and snacks. Among plantain products are flour and chips.
Plantains are highly perishable, with a major proportion of the harvested crop being lost from
the farm gate to the market place. This is often because of poor handling, inadequate storage
and transportation of the fresh fruits. Put together, an estimate of 35% loss of the assembly of
Plantains was reported for developing countries (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2006).
Processing of unripe plantain to chips and flour, the moderately ripe to fried snack and
therefore the overripe to local snack (dodo-ikire) are a number of the common indigenous
methods of curbing post-harvest losses of plantain thereby providing more income for the
processors. Nigerian Stored Products Research Institutes (NSPRI) also produced a highly
nutritious and healthy snack from potato and catfish (Pessu et al., 2016). Processed fish
mostly as a dish with a spread of delicious flavors using variations of spices and other
materials and the way cooking like fried, baked, and cooked soupy. Fish encompasses high
protein content, in 100 grams of fish contains17-20 grams of protein. Fish products are
processed to give diverse shapes, and colours which its flavor enhances palatability and
acceptability (Munifa, 2015). Despite the contribution of this research to the livelihood of the
processors, they have to produce other alternative especially a snack which will be consumed
by those with health challenges like diabetes. The general objective of this study was to
produce a nutritious, safe and acceptable snack from Plantain and Catfish.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sampling: One bunch of unripe and breaker stage plantains were purchased from Idi-oro
market while 15kg of fresh catfish was purchased from Makoko market both in Lagos.

(A) (B) (C)

FIGURES 1 (A-B): A: Fresh Catfish; B: Unripe Plantain; C: Breaker Stage Plantain.

First Trial (Various Combinations of Catfish and Plantain)

Sample Preparation

85
Fish Filleting: 4.7 k.g of fresh catfish was weighed; the catfish was weakened and washed
with salt. The catfish was then filleted, the head, skin, bone removed; the flesh, skin and bone
was then weighed.
The flesh were then spiced with dry pepper and salt; and placed on the racks in pre-heated
NSPRI Smoking Kiln and allowed to dry for 5hours. The dried catfish was then squeezed into
flakes to suit (Pessu et al., 2016).

Plantain fish snack processing: Seven (7) different treatments each of the two different
plantain bunches (Fully Unripe and Breaker) were considered making a total of Fourteen (14)
treatments. The fish fillets were enclosed in plantain and placed in the pre-heated oven at
temperature of 55oC for 4 h. Each treatment was allowed to cool for 30 min and then
packaged in nylon and sealed.

(a). Treatment 1{Raw Plantain (RP) + Dried Catfish (DC)} in Sausage Shape

(b). Treatment 2 {Raw Plantain (RP) + Boiled Catfish (BC)} in Sausage Shape

(c). Treatment 3 {Raw Plantain (RP) + Dried Catfish (DC)} in Stripe and Round Shape

(d). Treatment 4{Raw Plantain (RP) + Boiled Catfish (BC)} in Stripe and Round Shape

(e). Treatment 5 {Boiled Plantain (BP) + Dried Catfish (DC)} in Sausage Form

(f). Treatment 6 {Raw Control (RC)}

(g). Treatment 7 {Boiled Control (BC)}

***All these treatments were made for both FULLY UNRIPE and BREAKER STAGE
PLANTAIN to know the best outcome***

Second Trial (Only the Flat Combinations of Catfish and Plantain)

i. Fish Filleting same as FIRST TRIAL.

ii. Plantain Fish Snack Processing: One (1) treatment each of the two different plantain
bunches (Fully Unripe and Breaker) were made, making a total of Two (2) treatments.

iii. Packaging: The fish fillets were enclosed in plantain and placed in the pre-heated oven at
temperature of 55oC for 4 hours. Each treatment was allowed to cool for 30 minutes and then
packaged in nylon and sealed.

Final Trial (Only the Flat Combinations of Catfish and Plantain)

i. Fish Filleting

ii. Plantain Fish Snack Processing: Two (2) treatments each of the two different plantains
bunch (Fully Unripe and Breaker) were made, making a total of four (4) treatments:

(a). Treatment 1 (Boiled Plantain and Dried Catfish) in Stripe Shape

86
(b). Treatment 2 (Boiled Plantain and Dried Catfish) in Separate Form

Proximate Analysis

Moisture content, ash content, protein content and glycemic index was carried out according
to AOAC (2009) methods.

Microbial Analysis

Microbial analysis was carried using the pour plate method of Aruwa and Akinyosoye
(2015). About 1 g of each food sample was weighed aseptically into test tubes containing 9
ml of sterilized distilled water. Afterwards, the test tubes were shaken vigorously to allow
dislodgement of food sample and even distribution of microorganisms. A four-fold serial
dilution of each sample was prepared. 1ml of dilution factor 10−2 and 10−4 were inoculated
into sterile Petri dishes containing nutrient agar (NA), MacConkey (MAC) and potato
dextrose agar (PDA) for bacterial and fungal isolation/growth respectively. Incubation was
carried out at 37˚C for 24 hours for bacterial growth, and 25˚C for 48-72 h for fungal growth.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sensory Evaluation

Semi-trained panelists were formed. The number of panelists was 20 and this was carried out
using 5-point Hedonic Scale with 1 representing ‘Poor’ and 5 representing ‘Excellent’.
Sensory attributes assessed included taste, texture, overall acceptability, flavor and color.
Panelists were also given option to make general comment and resulting data subjected to
statistical analysis using SPSS 20. Statistical significance was set at a level of 95%
confidence interval (Lawless and Heymann 2010).

The sensory scores attributed by each panelist indicated there was no significant difference
between overall acceptability and taste of unripe plantain and the breaker plantain. Treatment
3 (boiled plantain + dried catfish) in stripe and round shape had the highest rating in all
attributes.

Table 1: Organoleptic assessment of snack initial trial

Months Snack Taste Texture Acceptability Colour Flavour
Form

0 Sausage 2.3±0.01a 3.3±0.67a 2.3±0.31a 2.3±0.22a 2.3±0.33a

Unripe

0 Sausage 3.6±0.01a 3.0±0.11a 1.6±0.41a 2.3±0.61a 2.6±0.27a

Breaker

0 Round 3.3±0.21a 1.6±0.57a 3.3±0.51a 3.3±0.21a 3.3±0.11a

Unripe

87
0 Round 2.6±0.61a 2.6±0.41a 2.6±0.31a 2.6±0.71a 2.6±0.13a
Breaker

0 Stripe 4.6±0.15a 4.6±0.31a 4.6±0.21a 4.6±0.61a 4.6±0.41a

Unripe

0 Stripe 4.67±0.61b 5.0±0.33a 3.67±0.41b 3.67±0.11a 3.67±0.51a

Breaker

**Means with different superscripts on the same column show significant difference at
p<0.05

Table 2: Moisture content, ash content, protein content, and glycemic index
of snack in final trial
Months Snack Form Moisture Ash Content Protein Glycemic
Content Value (%) Content Index
Value (%) Value (%)

0 Stripe 4.8±0.01a 8.3±0.02a 60.15±0.01a 0.08±0.01a

0 Separate 4.8±0.05a 8.1±0.42a 60.37±0.05a 0.07±0.35a

1 Stripe 5.3±0.45a 6.2±0.03a 49.21±0.08a 0.14±0.01a

1 Separate 5.2±0.09a 6.3±0.05a 50.08±0.05a 0.16±0.01a

**Means with different superscripts on the same column show significant difference at
p<0.05

MICROBIAL ANALYSIS

For the second trial, no microbial growth was seen on all four agars used (NA, MAC, PDA)
on Day 1 and Day 6. However, no microbial growth was seen on three agars (MAC, SSA and
MEA) on Day 10 but microbial growth was seen on NA on Day 10. This growth seen on NA
on Day 10 may be due to microbes present naturally in plantain. No pathogenic microbe was
seen.

The highest bacteria count was found in plantain and fish snack separate form (2.9 × 103
cfu/ml) while flat form showed the lowest bacterial count (1.2 × 103 cfu/ml). The microbial
count results were below the safe limit which was in agreement with the study on potato fish
snack (Pessu et al., 2016). However, this food samples do not contain any faecal and coliform
bacteria which are known as causative organisms of water and air borne diseases. The
counted fungal and bacteria microorganisms in this study had loads below the International
Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICSMF), which means they did
not exceed the standard of ×105cfu/g of food, and are microbiologically safe for consumption.

88
 ND ( 10) ND ( 10)

ND ( 10) ND ( 10)

ND ( 10) ND ( 10)

ND ( 10) ND ( 10)

ND means not detected or too low than 10 colonies

Colony forming unit (CF ) is calculated for plates with 30 300 colonies.

Statistical analysis indicated that was no significant difference between taste, texture,
acceptability, color and flavor of flat form and separate forms of the snack.

CONCLUSION

The values shown by the glycemic index were below recommended levels of 0.5
recommended for diabetic patients and so can serve as a healthy nutritious snack for
diabetics. This fish snack product is acceptable and safe for consumption in the first month
and thus is expected to offer a new variety of snack and add value to the fish and plantain
food chain. An oven or Multi-purpose dryer with temperature up to 250oC is recommended
for the optimum drying and processing of the fish snack.

89
REFERENCES

Alao, O. T., Alabi, D. L. and Famakinwa, M. (2020). Profitability of indigenous

banana/plantain snack (dodo-ikire) among processors in Irewole Local Government
Area of Osun State, Nigeria. Technoscience Journal for Community Development in
Africa. 1(1). 63-70.
Aruwa, C.E. and Akinyosoye, F.A. (2015) Microbiological Assessment of Ready-To- Eat
Foods (Rtes) for the Presence Bacillus Species. Journal of Advances in Biology &
Biotechnology , 3, 145-152.
Alfid, T. A., Retno, I. and Setho, H. (2013). Peer Influence Behavior Group Suport to Grade
5 Healthy Snacks SDN. Skripsi Ajung Kalisat Jember. Faculty of Nursing Airlangga
University Surabaya.
Aslam, M., Anwar, F., Nadeem, R., Rashid, U., Kazi, T. G., and Nadeem, M. (2005). Mineral
composition of moringa oleifera leaves and pods from different regions of Punjab,
Pakistan. Asian Journal of Plant Sciences. 4. 417-421.
Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC), 2009. Official Methods of Analysis of
the Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Vols. I & II, Association of
Analytical Chemists, Arlington.
FAOSTAT, (2006). Food and agriculture organisation of the United Nations. Production
Year Book.
Food and Agriculture Organization, (2006). Food and Agriculture Organization for the
improvement of banana and plantain Montpellier, France FAO Statistical Year Book
2006 (6).
Kanazawa, K. and Sakakibara, H. (2000). High content of dopamine, a strong antioxidant, in
cavendish banana. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 48. 844- 848.
Lawless, H.T. and Heymann, H. (2010) Sensory Evaluation of Food: Prinsiples and Pratcices.
Springer, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6488-5.
MoH, R. I. (2003). Decree no. 942 / MoH / SK / VII / 2003 on snacks.
Munifa et al. 2015. Basic Culinary Nutrition. Graha Science. 2015.
Ogazi, P. O. (1996). Plantain: Production, processing and utilisation. Paman and Associates
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Pessu P. O, Atanda, S. A., Agoda S., Nwanade, C. F., Benson O. B, Solagbade M. A, Adeniyi
B. M, and Adeniran, T. R. (2016). Development and production of new snack from
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Tremblay, S. (2018). What nutrient do plantains have? SFGATE.
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composition of unripe plantain flour. Food Science and Quality Management, 41.

90
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CHILLI PEPPER POWDER, MIXED WITH
GARLIC AND GINGER
*
Akanni, A.A.,1 Kajihausa, O.E.,2 Opaleye, S.O.3 and Ajani, A.O.1
1
Nigerian Stored Product Research Institute, PMB 1489, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria
2
Food Science and Technology Department, Federal University of Agriculture
Abeokuta, Nigeria
3
Food Technology Department, Gateway ICT Polytechnic Saapade, Nigeria
Corresponding author: [email protected]; 08038068967
ABSTRACT
This study evaluated the chemical compositions of spices blend made from dried ground
chilli pepper mixed with garlic and ginger at different proportions. The blend ratios for dried
chilli pepper, garlic and Ginger in (%) are 85:7.5:7.5, 100:0:0, 85: 0:15, 87.5: 2.5:10, 85:
15: 0, 87.5: 10: 2.5, 90:5: 5, 92.5: 7.5: 0, 85: 15:0, 100: 0: 0, 85: 0:15, 95:2.5:2.5,
85:7.5:7.5, and 92.5:0:7.5. Chemical compositions and Phytochemicals were carried out on
the blends. Data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the
statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 21.0. The result showed that there were
significant (p<0.05) differences among the samples. The moisture content, Ash content, fat
content, crude fibre, crude protein and carbohydrate ranged from 5.29-10.67%, 4.34-5.73%,
7.68-12.13%, 3.06-4.85%, 5.23-11.39% and 61.14-68.69 %, respectively. The phytochemical,
lycopene ranged from 279.8 mg/kg - 469.2 mg/kg, beta-carotene was between 2434.4
µg/100g and 5940.7µg/100g, and vitamin C ranged from 0.06 mg g -1 to 0.13 mg g -1 Spice
blend with 100% dried chilli pepper, 92.5%, 0% garlic and 7.5% ginger has the higher
values at retaining proximate composition of the spices blended.

Keywords: Spices, Proximate Composition, Phytochemicals

INTRODUCTION

Spices refer to all the edible parts of a plant used for flavouring, colouring and general aroma
improvement. They could be vegetable substances parts or fruits. They are usually dried for
use and have distinct flavours and aromas. They stimulate appetite by increasing the flow of
gastric juice and are used in most homes and restaurants all over the world (Nwinukal et al.,
2005).
Chilli Pepper (Capsicum annuum) is an important vegetable crop because it provides an
abundant and cheap source of vitamins, minerals and fibre. It is highly rich in vitamins (Lee
et al., 1995). It is a vital commercial crop, cultivated for vegetables, spices, and value-added
processed products (Kumar and Rai, 2005). It is an important constituent of many foods,
adding flavour, colour, vitamins A and C. It can be used medically for the treatment of fevers,
indigestion, and constipation (Dagnoko et al., 2013). The presence of lycopene in pepper is
believed to possess anti–cancer properties (Simmone et al., 1997). It can be used whole,
chopped or in various processed forms such as fresh, dried and ground into powder or as an
extract. In most advanced countries it can be processed into a paste and bottled for sale in
supermarkets.

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Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is a well-known spice and flavouring agent which has also been
used in traditional medicine in many countries. Ginger, a source of valuable phytonutrients is
characterized as having an aromatic odour and a pungent taste (Bruneton and Jean, 1995).
The part of the ginger plant that is used is the root, which is botanically the rhizome. (Bisset,
1994). Ginger contains essential oils including gingerol and zingiberene. It also contains
pungent principles such as zingerone, and shogaol (Yamahara et al., 1985). Ginger has been
noted to treat migraine headaches without side effects (Mustafa and Srivastava, 1990).
Garlic (Allium Sativum) is an important spices crop belonging to the family Alliaceace along
with onion and chives. Garlic plants, the green top as well as the bulb are use as spices for
flavourings and seasoning vegetables, it gives food a delightful fragrance. it is usually
dehydrated for industrial and home uses, it is used medically for treating of whooping cough,
and disorder resulting from childbirth (Kosfaloval,1982).
It has been observed that ginger and garlic are normally added to pepper to enhance their
flavour, and aroma as well as the health benefit of most consumers. The common chilli
brands are largely constituents of everyday spice sources, especially when consumed with
most noodles and pasta products in the markets, hence the need to develop new blends of
chilli that will improve the health status of consumers. Thus, the study therefore, evaluates
the chemical compositions of dried chilli pepper powder mixed with ginger and garlic.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fresh chilli pepper, garlic and ginger were purchased from Kuto market in Abeokuta, Ogun
state. Other materials were obtained from Food Science and Technology Laboratory, the
Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta.

Production of chilli pepper powder

Dried chilli pepper was sorted, de-seeded, wash with water and soak with potassium meta-
bisulphite for 10 min to retain the colour, cut into thin slices and oven dried at 50°C - 60°C
for 24 h. The dried chilli pepper was blended into a powdery form using a Kenwood blender
(Xpro BLM800WH).
Production of garlic and ginger powder
The ginger and garlic were properly cleaned and sorted, washed with potable water, peeled,
cut into thin slices and oven dried at 50°C - 60°C for 24 h. The garlic and ginger were milled
into a powdery form using a Kenwood blender (Xpro BLM800W).

Preparation of the powder blend

One hundred grams (100 g) of each of chilli pepper, garlic and ginger was prepared according
to each formulation using a simple-centroid mixture design to give fourteen samples.
Proximate analysis
The standard methods of AOAC (2005) were used to determine the proximate composition of
the powder blends from chilli pepper, garlic and ginger. The moisture content was
determined by oven method at 103°C for 3 h. The micro kjeldahl method was used for the
determination of protein content. The fat content was determined by the solvent extraction
method. Ash was determined weighing 5 g of sample into crucible was incinerated at 6000 oC

92
for 6 h until ash is obtained. The crude fibre was determined by exhaustive extraction of
soluble substance in the sample using 1.25% H2SO4 and 1.25% NAOH solution after the
residue was ashed and the loss in weight was recorded as crude fibre.
Phytochemical analysis
The lycopene was determined by weighing I g of the sample in a mixed solvent of (hexane,
ethanol, and acetone) in a ratio in the ratio 2:1:1. for 10 min. The β-carotene was determined
using the spectrophotometric method. Vitamin C was determined by using a 2, 6-
chlorophenol indophenol (DCPIP) titration procedure based on the method of (Casanas et al.,
2002)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Proximate composition of mixed spiced powder
The proximate composition values of mixed spices powder made from chilli pepper, garlic
and ginger are shown in Table 1. Moisture contents of these spices ranged between 5.29%
and 10.67 % which is the minimum limit of moisture of spices (Adeleke and Odedeji, 2006).
The Spice blended with 92.5% dried chilli pepper, 0% garlic and 7.5% ginger had the highest
value for moisture content, while the spice blended with 87.5% dried chilli pepper,10% garlic
and 2.5% ginger had the lowest value as compared to early work on pepper which has
moisture of 5.29% (Gloria et al., 2010). The presence of a higher ratio of ginger as compared
to garlic, in a proportion of pepper in the blend formulation increases the moisture content of
the blend. Ginger and garlic have 6.37% and 4.55% of moisture content when analysed
separately (Gloria et al., 2010).
The crude protein range of the spices was between 5.23% and 11.39%. The Spice blended
with 100% dried chilli pepper had the highest value of protein, while the spice blend of
92.5% dried chilli pepper, 0% garlic and 7.5% ginger had the lowest value of protein. As
compared to the early work on pepper with a protein content of 11.70% (Gloria et al., 2010).
An increase in garlic proportion as compared to ginger in a portion of chilli pepper tends to
increase crude protein values, as garlic and ginger have a protein content of 15.33% and
8.58%, respectively (Gloria et al., 2010).
The range of the fat of the spices was between 7.68 % and 12.13 %. The spice blend of
92.5% dried chilli pepper, 0% garlic, and 7.5% ginger had the highest value while the spice
blend of 8% dried chilli pepper, 7.5% garlic, and 7.5% ginger had the lowest value out of the
samples. As compared to early work on the major spices, pepper has a fat content value of
12.70 % (Gloria et al., 2010). A higher ratio of ginger as compared to garlic in mixed pepper
is said to be high in fat content, as ginger and garlic had fat content of 5.35 % and 0.72 %,
respectively (Gloria et al., 2010).

The range of the ash of the spices was between 4.34 % and 5.37 %. The spice blended with
100% dried chilli pepper had the highest value, while the spice blended with 92.5% dried
chilli pepper, 0% garlic and 7.5% ginger had the lowest value. As compared to work done on
pepper with an ash content of 4.35% (Gloria et al., 2010). The addition of more ginger
compared to garlic in a mixed chilli pepper tends to increase the ash content, as garlic and
ginger have ash contents of 4.08 % and 6.30 % respectively (Gloria et al., 2010).

93
The range of the crude fibre of the spices was between 3.06 % and 4.85 %. The spice blended
with 90% dried chilli pepper, 5% garlic and 5% ginger had the highest value while the spice
blended with 92.5% dried chilli pepper, 0% garlic and 7.5% ginger had the lowest value. As
compared to the work done on pepper with a fibre content of 2.61 % (Gloria et al., 2010). A
high ratio in the proportion of ginger as compared to garlic in a mixed pepper tends to
increase the fibre content. The fibre contents of garlic and ginger are 2.10 % and 2.61 %,
respectively.
The carbohydrate content of the spices ranged between 68.69 % and 61.14 %. The spice
blended with 85% dried chilli pepper,15% garlic and 0% ginger had the highest value while
the spice blend of 85% dried chilli pepper, 0% garlic and 15% ginger had the lowest value.
As against the work done on pepper by Gloria et al., (2010) which was 62.94 %. The addition
of a higher garlic ratio as compared to ginger in a mixed chilli pepper was said to be high in
carbohydrate content.

Table 1 Proximate Composition of Spice Blends from Chilli Pepper Garlic and Ginger

Chilli pepper, Moisture Ash % Crude Fibre Crude Fat % Carbohydrate %

garlic and Content % % Protein%
ginger
formulation %
85:7.5:7.5 6.66±0.01g 4.99±0.01e 3.67±0.01f 9.87±0.01g 10.1±0.1i 64.7±0.11e
100:0:0 6.54±0.05f 5.73±0.16h 4.33±0.02k 11.39±0.01m 9.13±0.005f 63.05±0.02c
85:0:15 6.76±0.01h 5.02±0.01e 4.26±0.01j 10.22±0.01j 8.3±0c 65.45±0.01g
87.5:2.5:10 6.56±0.01f 5.58±0.01g 4.09±0.01i 10.08±0.01i 8.745±0.01e 64.96±0.01f
85:15:0 6.22±0.02e 4.58±0.01bc 3.28±0.01d 8.55±0.01d 8.69±0.01e 68.69±0.02m
87.5:10:2.5 5.29±0.01a 5.04±0.01e 3.76±0.01g 10.83±0.01l 9.39±0.01g 65.69±0.01h
90:5:5 6.03±0.01d 5.04±0e 4.85±0.01l 9.65±0.02e 8.145±0.01b 66.32±0.01i
92.5:7.5:0 5.65±0.01b 5.4±0.01f 3.08±0.01a 9.75±0.01f 10.4±0.1j 65.72±0.07h
85:15:0 9.78±0.01k 4.49±0.01b 3.38±0.02e 9.63±0.02e 10.11±0.01i 62.62±0.01b
100:0:0 5.92±0.01c 5.38±0.01f 4.05±0.01i 9.97±0.01h 8.12±0.01b 66.58±0.02j
85:0:15 9.65±0.01j 4.63±0.01c 4.25±0.01j 10.53±0.02k 9.815±0.02h 61.14±0.01a
95:2.5:2.5 9.58±0.01i 4.87±0.01d 3.25±0.01c 6.46±0.01c 8.57±0.01d 67.27±0.02k
85:7.5:7.5 9.81±0.01k 4.85±0.01d 3.17±0.01b 6.32±0.02b 7.68±0.01a 68.19±0.03l
92.5:0:7.5 10.67±0.03l 4.34±0a 3.06±0.01a 5.23±0.02a 12.13±0.01k 64.58±0.01d

94
 Values represent Means and standard error, data with the same superscript across the column are not
significantly different p≤ 0.05

Phytochemical of mixed spiced powder

Table 2: The result of the phytochemical content of mixed spiced powder made from chilli
pepper, garlic, and ginger. The range of lycopene for the spices was between 279.8 mg/kg
and 469.2 mg/kg. The spice blended with 87.5% dried chilli pepper, 2.5% garlic and 10%
ginger had the highest value of the sample. β-carotene ranged between 2434.4 µg/100g and
5940.7µg/100g. The spice blend of 92.5% dried chilli pepper,7.5% garlic, and 0% ginger had
the highest value while the spice blend of 85% dried chilli pepper,7.5% garlic and 7.5%
ginger had the lowest value, as compared to the early work on the major spices, pepper with
carotene value of 648.0 µg/100g (Gloria et al.,2010). An increase in the ginger proportion as
compared to the garlic in a mixed pepper spiced tends to increase the carotene content. Garlic
and ginger have the following values when analysed separately 0.00 µg/100g and 0.64
µg/100g respectively (Gloria et al., 2010). Also, the high carotenoid in pepper as compared to
virtually none of garlic and gingers is not surprising as it is responsible for the high amount
of red colour of pepper (Tripathi and Mishra, 2009). There is a significant difference (p<0.05)
in the mean value of beta-carotene among the blends.

Vitamin C of the spices ranged from 0.06 mg g -1 to 0.13 mg g -1. Spice blended with 92.5%
dried chilli pepper, 2.5 % garlic and 7.5% ginger had the highest value while the spice
blended with 100 % dried chilli pepper had the lowest value. Although, Bidhental et al.,
(2014) reported 5.555 mg g -1 vitamin C content in pepper. Garlic and ginger have the
following value when analysed separately 0.37 mg g- 1and 0.48 mg g-1 respectively. There is a
significant difference (p<0.05) in the mean value of vitamin C among the blends. Vitamin C
is one of the most powerful anti-oxidant (Horemaneta,2000).

Table 2 Phytochemical content of Spice Blends from Chilli Pepper Garlic and Ginger

Chilli pepper, garlic Lycopene mg/kg β Carotene µg/100g Vitamin C mg g -1

and ginger
formulation %

85:7.5:7.5 444.9±0.4k 2434.4±1.3a 0.08b

100:0:0 422.3±0.5j 3150.7±41.8b 0.06a

85:0:15 468.7±0.4m 5473.2±2i 0.11ef

87.5:2.5:10 469.15±0.25m 5081±6.4h 0.10e

85:15:0 357.9±0.5f 4013.65±29.65de 0.09c

87.5:10:2.5 304.6±0.4d 3783.45±20.55c 0.09c

90:5:5 279.8101±0.3a 3716.1±0.1c 0.09c

95
 92.50:7.5:0 361.85±0.45c 5940.7±18.6j 0.13h

85:15:0 300.75±0.45c 3877.1±11.6cd 0.13h

100:0:0 345.3±0.5e 3895.05±98.75cd 0.11i

85:0:15 289.35±2.95b 4913.45±95.55g 0.13h

95:2.5:2.5 465.6±0.5i 3842±138.9cd 0.09c

85:7.5:7.5 391.95±0.75i 4115.4±0e 0.11fg

92.5:0:7.5 381.15±0.25h 4477.5±6.4f 0.13h

Values represent Means and standard error, data with the same superscript across the column are
not significantly different p≤ 0.05

CONCLUSION
The study showed that the chemical properties of dried ground chilli pepper were significantly
affected by the addition of ginger and garlic. It was observed that spice blends with 100% dried
chilli pepper, and 92.5%, 0% garlic and 7.5% ginger had the highest proximate composition. The
addition of garlic and ginger to dried chilli pepper, as a form of mixed spice can be used to improve
the nutritional composition of spiced foods e.g. noodles and pepper soup.

REFERENCES
Bruneton, A.L. & Jean, S.O. (1995). Ginger. Pharma Cognos, Phyto-chemistry, Medicinal
plants, Lavoisier PublishingCo. Inc. 258-261.
Dagnoko, S. Yaro, N. & Diarisso, O. (2013) Overview of pepper breeding in West Africa
African Journal of agricultural research vol 8, no. 13 pp 1108-1114, 2013.
Gloria, A. O., Oyelola, B. O., Adenike, T. O. & Anthony, J. A. (2010). Comparative Analysis
of the chemical composition of three spices- Allium sativun L. Zingiber officinale
Rosc, Capscicum frutescens L, commonly consumed in Nigeria. African Journal of
Biotechnology 9(41):6927-6931.
Horeman, N., Foryerch, J., Potter, G. & Asardh, K. (2006). Ascorbic function and associated
transport system in plants pi. Physio. Biochem 38: 531-540.
Kostalov, A.D. (1982). The importance of garlic and ginger preparation and therapy. Hort.
Abst. (1982) vol 52, no 11 pp 697.
Lee, Y., Howard, L.R. & Villalon, B. (1995) Flavonoid and anti-oxidants activities of
Manage 9(1):150-155
Mustafa, T. & Srivastava, K.T. (1990) Ginger (Zingiber Officinale) in Migraine Headache.
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 29: 267-273.
Tripathi, S. & Mishra, H.U. (2009). nutritional charge in powdered, red pepper, upon in vitro
infection of Aspergillus Flavas Bras microbial 40(1): 1939-1440
Yamahara, J. (1985). Cholagogic Effect of Ginger and Its Active Constituents. Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, 13: 217-225.

96
EFFICACY OF BUSH MANGO (Irvingia gabonensis) WOOD ASH (BWA) AGAINST
Callosobruchus maculatus IN STORED BAMBARA NUT

Nwebor, E., *Abdulbaki, M. K., Okike, O. O., Nwokpoku, D. E., Ogodo, C. O., Ugama, E. E., and
Awagu, E. E.
Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute (NSPRI), Port-Harcourt Zonal Office, Rumueme, Port-
Harcourt, Nigeria
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Bambara nut is an important grain legume and is rich in essential nutrients. The Bruchid beetles
cause major damage to this grain during storage. This study tested the efficacy of Bush mango wood
ash (BWA) against Callosobruchus maculatus in stored Bambara nuts. The Bush mango wood ash
was thoroughly admixed with 50 g of Bambara nut at the rate of 0.25 g, 0.5 g and 1 g (0.5, 1 and 2%
weight/weight concentration. respectively) in separate plastic vials. Twenty newly emerged adults of
C. maculatus were introduced into each plastic vial and covered with muslin clothes. Rambo® was
also tested as a positive check. Each treatment was replicated thrice and arranged in a Complete
Randomized Design (CRD). The mortality of the beetle increased with an increase in concentration
and duration. Total mortality (100%) was observed at 1 and 2% conc. After 14 days. Treated grains
suppressed the F1 progeny by more than 70%. All the treatments have little kennel damage compared
to negative control and grain germination showed no significant change. This study showed that Bush
mango wood ash is effective in controlling the beetle infestation of stored Bambara nut, Therefore, it
can be used against insects infesting dried stored grain products.

Keywords: Bush mango wood ash, Callosobruchus maculatus, Bambara nut

INTRODUCTION
Bambara nut is an important grain legume that plays a significant role in sustainable
agriculture, food and nutritional security in sub-Saharan Africa (Ayamdoo et al., 2013). It is
rich in carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals and very balanced protein components (Leonard et
al., 2016). The seeds are highly nutritious, they contain more lysine and methionine than
cowpea and groundnuts (Ezedinma and Maneke, 1985).
There are high grain losses incurred during storage of the harvested grains, this constitutes a
major constraint in the availability of this product during the dry season and inflation in the
price of the Bambara groundnut (Golobet al., 1996; Ayamdo et al., 2013). The major storage
insect pests of Bambara groundnut are the Bruchid beetles and the larvae cause major damage
by developing within the grain and consuming the seed (Haines, 1991; Obeng-Ofori and
Danquah, 2004). C. maculatus causes up to 75% grain yield loss in areas with ineffective
techniques against the pest (Mba-Omeje, 2019).
The widely used methods by the local people in the Southeastern part of Nigeria in
controlling the pests are; exposing to dust, keeping them in non-air-tight containers and
application of hazardous pesticides (Elemasho et al., 2022). The local methods adopted in
controlling the pests by local farmers are either not effective, toxic, expensive or not
ecologically accepted. Storing the grains in non-airtight containers proffers ineffective
storage, using pesticides are highly effective but toxic and expensive. Using flames from
burning wood to control the pests affect both ecological habitats and makes the food insecure

97
to the health of the consumers. The wood of Bush mango (Irvingia gabonensis) has been
reported to be termite resistant (Singh, 2007). Therefore, this study aims to test the efficacy of
the Bush mango wood ash on stored Bambara groundnut since it is not harmful, cheap and
readily available means.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experimental environmental condition: This study was carried out inside the Entomology
laboratory, NSPRI Port-Harcourt Zonal office, Port-Harcourt at ambient laboratory
temperature and humidity of 28.70C & 76.6% respectively.

Source of Bambara nut: Bambara nut used was obtained from a farmer in Ezza South,
Ebonyi state and transported to NSPRI Port-Harcourt office.

Source of Bush mango: Bush mango stem used was obtained from a tree in the same
location as above and transported to NSPRI Port-Harcourt laboratory for processing. The
Bush mango wood was processed to dust in the following ways:

• Dried- using an oven at a temperature of 40oC and then burnt.

• Ashed- completely in a furnace at a temperature of 600oC for 5 hours.
• Sieved- using a U.S standard #200 sieve (0.075mm openings).
Experimental set-up: Fifty grams of Bambara grains were weighed and added to plastic
vials. Each plastic vial was treated with 0.25 g, 0.5 g and 1 g (0.5, 1 and 2% weight/weight
conc. respectively) and then covered with a muslin cloth. Each treatment was replicated
thrice. The plastic vials were manually shaken vigorously for approximately 5 minutes to
ensure proper and uniform coating of the grains with the dust, where applicable. Equal weight
(50 g) was put into two separate vials, one with Rambo and the other untreated (positive and
negative controls). Both treated and untreated grains were set up in triplicate. Twenty newly
emerged adults of C. maculatus were introduced into each plastic vial. The cap lids were
closed back with the muslin cloth to allow aeration and prevent insects from escaping. The
vials were arranged on the table in the laboratory using Complete Randomized Design
(CRD).

Afterwards, the mortality of the insects was observed at 7 days and 14 days post-treatment.
On the fourteenth day post-treatment, contents in the vials were sieved to remove all insects
(dead and alive), then closed back and returned for an additional 55 days (69 days post-
treatment). On the additional 55th day (69 days post-treatment), the number of F1 progeny in
each was determined. The numbers of damaged and undamaged kernels were also recorded,
and the percentage of kernel damaged was calculated with the formula:

%IDK = Number of damaged kennels X 100

Total number of kernels 1

Also, ten randomly selected undamaged kennels from each sub-sample per treatment after the
F1 progeny count was planted. Percentage germination was determined by:

% Germination = Number of kennels germinated X 100

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 Total number of kennels planted 1

Statistical analyses were performed using ANOVA and the difference between the mean
tested.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 shows that the BWA dust, at all the three dose rates— 0.5, 1 and 2 % conc. (wt/wt)
offered good control against C. maculatus, both at 7 d and 14 d post-treatment. The dust and
Rambo (positive control) were not significantly different (p=0.000) from each other with
respect to inducing mortality. The percentage mortality of more than 80% after 7 d and more
than 90% after 14d post-treatment in all treatments in this study is more than; >30% and
>80% reported by Abdulbaki et al., (2022), >15% and >20% reported by Goudoungou et al.,
(2015) and >70% and >80% reported by Nwaubani et al., (2014).

Table 1: Percentage mortality for C. maculatus after 7d and 14d post-treatment at 28.70C &
76.6%

Treatments 7d mortality 14d mortality

0.5% BWA 86.67±8.82b 96.67±3.33b

1% BWA 96.67±3.33b 100.00±0.00b

2% BWA 96.67±3.33b 100.00±0.00b

Rambo® 100.00±0.00b 100.00±0.00b

Control 3.33±3.33a 16.67±3.33a

F 32.035 202.200

Df 5 5

P 0.000 0.000

Means±SE and means followed by the same subscript letter(s) within first column are not
significantly different according to the Turkey Post Hoc test at a 5% level of probability

Table 2 shows the F1 progeny and reduction in progeny. The F1 progeny emerged from the
treated grains reduced as the concentration of the dust reduce and the value of positive
control has the lowest means of emergence (6.00). The treatment with the lowest conc. of the
dust reduced the progeny emergence with (79.5%). Reduction of F1 emerged is observed
where there is high percentage mortality and this is similar to the results of (Abdulbaki et al.,
2022; Otitodun et al., 2015; Nwaubani et al., 2014). It is observed from the study that there is
greater protection for the crop when the quantity of the powder (conc.) increased and this is
similar to the findings reported from previous works (Lagunnes, 1993; Paez et al., 1990).

Table 2: F1 progeny counts for C. maculatus after 69d post-treatment

99
 Treatments F1 Progeny RPP (%)

0.5% BWA 27.67±1.52c 79.5

1% BWA 19.33±3.06bc 92.4

2% BWA 15.33±6.03ab 88.6

Rambo® 6.00±4.36a 95.5

Control 134.67±10.02d -

F 253.319 -

Df 5 -

P 0.00 -

Means±SE and means followed by the same subscript letter(s) within first column are not
significantly different according to the Turkey Post Hoc test at a 5% level of probability

Table 3 depicts the result for percentage kennel damage of the Bambara nut caused by the
insect pest. There is higher percentage kennel damage in control (untreated) grain when
compared to BWA powders and Rambo (treated) grains. There were significant differences
(F=23.569, P=0.000) in the values obtained for the percentage of kennel damaged among the
treatments. It was observed that there was a decrease in the percentage of kennel damage in
the grains with dust that had the least F1 emergence and this is similar to the report of
Goudoungou et al., (2015). Several previous research findings have reported a decrease in
percentage grain damage with a decrease in insect emergence, which caused the destruction
through the boring of holes in the Bambara nut (Abdulbaki et al., 2022; Tefera et al., 2011).

Table 3: Percentage kennel damage after 69d post-treatment

Treatments % Kennel Damage

0.5% BWA 21.00±4.00c

1% BWA 18.67±2.08bc

2% BWA 14.00±12.12ab

Rambo® 6.00±5.57a

Control 57.00±6.93d

F 23.569

Df 5

P 0.00

100
Means±SE and means followed by the same subscript letter(s) within first column are not
significantly different according to Turkey Post Hoc test at 5% level of probability

Table 4 shows the result of the percentage of seed germination for treatments. The result
implies that the percentage of seed germination in treatments is≥70% and there was no
significant difference (F=1.462, P=0.285). High values of percentage seed germination
obtained for all the treatments in this study is similar to findings obtained by Goudoungou et
al., (2015) and Abdulbaki et al., (2022). Muhammad et al., (2019) have reported that seed
germination is pivotal to crop yield and quality.

Table 4: Percentage seed germination

Treatments % Seed Germination

0.5% BWA 70.00±5.77a

1% BWA 76.67±10.00a

2% BWA 76.67±11.54a

Rambo® 83.33±11.54a

Control 86.67±5.77a

F 1.462

Df 5

P 0.285

Means±SE and means followed by the same subscript letter(s) within first column are not
significantly different according to Turkey Post Hoc test at 5% level of probability

CONCLUSION
Bush mango Wood Ash (BWA) showed potency to protect stored Bambara nut grains against
Bambara nut weevil infestation. Therefore, the use of this ash can greatly reduce post-harvest
losses due to its effectiveness, availability, eco-friendly and ease of application. This finding
recommended that further studies should estimate the efficacy at a commercial level and
confirm the safety.

REFERENCES
Abdulbaki, M. K., Nwebor, E., Uzu, D., Arohunmolase, O. M., Daramola, D. S., Nwokpoku,
D. E., Onyegbule, F. O. & Naubani, S. I. (2022): Comparative Bioactivity of Bamboo
Leaf Ash and Bularafa Diatomaceous Earth against Maize Weevil (Sitophilus zeamais
Motschulsky). J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage., 26(5): 961-967

Ayamdo, A. J., Demuyakor, B. & Sowley, E. N. K. (2013): Storage for Bambara Groundnut
(Vigna Subterranean) and their implications for Bruchid pest imanagoement in Tale

101
 nsi-Nabdams Distric, Upper East region, Ghana. International Journal of Scientific &
Technology Research, 2: 181-186

Goudoungou, W., Nukenine, E. N., Ndojonka, D. & Christopher, S. (2015): Efficacy of

diatomaceous earth and wood ash for the control of S. zeamais in stored maize.
Journal of Entomology and Zoology, 3(5): 390-397

Lagunnes, A (1993): Uso de extractos y polvosvegetales, y polvosminerales para el combate

de plagas del maiz y del frijol en la agricultura de subsistencia. CamaraNacional de la
Industria Editorial Mexicana. Texococo, Estado deMexico, Mexico. P35

Leonard, S. N. T., Chantal, M.n, Watching, D., Augustin, G. & Robert, N. (201 6): Post-
harvest storage systems and insect pests occurring on Bambara megroundnut (Vigna
Subterranean (L.)Verdc) in the Sudano-Guinean Savannah of Cameroon. Journal of
Ent. & Zoology studies, 4(2):167-173

Mbah-Omeje, K. N. (2019): The Insecticidal activity of neem (Azadirachta indica) against

weevils in stored Bambara nuts (Vigna subterranea) and Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris).
American Journal of Biomedical and Life Sciences, 7(2): 31-35

Nwaubani, S. I., Opit, G. P., Otitodun, G. O. & Adesida, M. A. (2014): Efficacy of two
Nigeria derived diatomaceous earths against Sitophilus oryzae (Coleoptera:
Curculionidae) and Rhyzopertha dominica (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) on wheat.
Journal of Stored Products Research, 59: 9-16.

Otitodun, G. O., Opit, G. P., Nwaubani, S. I., Okonkwo, E. U. & Gautam, S. G. (2015):
Efficacy of Nigeria-derived diatomaceous earth, botanicals and riverbed sand against
Sitophilus oryzae and Rhyzopertha dominica on wheat. African Crop Science Journal,
23(3): 279-293.

Paez, A., Lagunes, A., Carrillo, J. L. & Rodrigez, J. C. (1990): Polvosvegetales y materials
inertes para el combatedelgorgojo S. Zeamais (Coleoptera. Curculionidae) en
maizalmacenado. Agrociencia, 1: 35-46

Singh, A. K. (2007): BushMango (Irvingia gabonensis): New Potential multipurpose fruit for
India. Journal of Plant Genetic Resources, 20(1): 32-37

Tefera, T., Mugo, S. & Likhayo, P (2011): Effects of Insect population density and storage
time on grain damage and weight loss in maiz3 due to the maize weevil Sitophilus
zeamais and the larger grain borer Prostephanus truncatus. African Journal of
Agricultural Research, 6(10): 2249-2254

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 PRODUCTION CAPACITY AND NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF GARRI AMONG
SMALL AND MEDIUM PROCESSORS IN RIVERS STATE NIGERIA
*1
Abdulbaki, M. K., 1Elemasho, M. K., 1Daramola, D., 1Aneke, C. C., 1Chugali, A. J. C., 1Nwahia O.,
2
Nwaehujor, U. I.. and 1Awagu, E. E.
1
Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute (NSPRI), Port-Harcourt Zonal Office, Rumueme, Port-
Harcourt, Rivers State
2
Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute (NSPRI), Headquarters, Ilorin, Kwara State
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The study was conducted to assess production capacity and nutritional quality of garri
among small and medium scale processors in Rivers state, Nigeria. The objectives of the
survey were to; ascertain the socio-economic characteristics of garri processors; determine
the production capacity and monthly income of the garri processors; determine the proximate
composition of the processed garri; and determine the sensory evaluation of the processed
garri in the study area. Purposive and snow-ball sampling procedure were used to select 120
small and medium scale garri processors in the study area. A well-structured questionnaire
was used to obtain information from the respondents. A medium custard rubber of garri was
purchased from a respondent in each of the community for proximate and sensory analysis.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze the data. The result revealed that the
house-hold size mean per family was 8 persons. The production capacity ranges between
156.25kg and 334.38kg and the income range between N63,500 and N133,750. The values of
proximate and sensory evaluations of the garri from the study area were above average.
Production of garri is the primary means of livelihood in the study area, therefore,
government intervention is needed to erect mini garri processing centre in each community.
Keywords: Garri, Production capacity, Nutritional quality, Processor

INTRODUCTION
In developing countries, the quantity and quality of food availability for consumption is
greatly reduced at post-harvest losses, with inclusion of all the value chains such as
production, transportation, processing, storage and marketing. Processing is the one of the
post-harvest stages with higher level of food losses in developing countries (Aiyedun et al.,
2022). Garri is a food product obtained from cassava through the processing called
fermentation (Olaoye et al., 2015). People in rural and urban areas of the southern and central
parts of Nigeria depend on garri as a means of livelihood or earning income (Agbamu and
Waziri, 2006).
Garri is a major source of carbohydrates because it is restively cheap when compare with
other staple carbohydrates such as rice and maize (Iwuoha, 2013), and it is generally
acceptable and consumed by all categories of people in Nigeria (Oluwasun et al., 2014).
Ozigbo et al. (2020) reported that more than two-third of the Nigeria population (148 million
people) eats garri and it encompasses about 74% different tribes of people in the country.
Agbor-Egbe and Mbome (2006) has reported that general acceptability, rising effects and
eating quality are some of important characteristics for better preference of a particular

103
cassava garri. This study therefore set to assess production capacity and nutritional qualities
of garri produced by small and medium scale processors in River’s state, Nigeria.
The general objective is the production potential and nutritional quality of the garri among
small and medium scale processors in River’s state, Nigeria and the specific objectives are to;

METHODOLOGY
The study was carried out in Rivers State, Nigeria. The population for this study includes
small and medium garri processors. A purposive sampling procedure was used for the study.
This first stage involved the purposive selection of 3 Local Government Areas (Oyigbo,
Abua/Odua and Ikwere) where cassava production is high in the study area. In the second
stage, two communities where garri is majorly produced were selected to make 6
communities and then, snowball sampling was used to select 20 small and medium scale garri
processors from each community to make 40 garri processors per L.G.A. and a total of 120
garri processors in all the 3 L.G.A. selected in the state. A medium custard rubber of garri
was purchased from a respondent in each of the communities and served as a sample for
proximate analysis and sensory evaluations in the laboratory. The proximate compositions
were determined by the standard official methods of analysis of the AOAC (2010) while
sensory evaluations were done by fifteen trained panelists using 9-Point Hedonic Scale.
The Data collected were statistically analyzed using a computer program (SPSS 11.01, SPSS
Inc.) by analysis of variance (ANOVA).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Socio-economic characteristics:

Table 1: Distribution of Respondents According to Socio-Economic Characteristics (N=120)

Socio-Economic Characteristics Frequency Percentage Mean

Age (Years)
21-30 15 12.5
31-40 33 27.5
41-50 31 25.8 45.5
51-60 34 28.3
61-70 3 2.5
71-80 4 3.3

Sex
Female 94 78.3
Male 26 21.7

Years of formal Education

6years 40 33.3
12years 62 51.7 9.9
16years 10 8.3
Non formal 8 6.7

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 House-Hold Size
1-5 29 24.2
6-10 67 55.8 8
11-15 24 20

Marital Status
Single 16 13.3
Married 85 70.8
Widowed 5 4.2
Divorced 14 11.7

Years of Business Experience

1-15 53 44.2
16-30 48 40 19.8
31-45 17 14.2
46-60 1 0.8
61-75 1 0.8

Secondary Occupation
Yes 46 38.3
No 74 61.7

Source: NSPRI Field Survey 2022

The result on socio-economic characteristics of the respondents is presented in Table 1. The

results shows that the garri processors mean age was 45.5 years and this means that garri
processors in the study area were still in their active and productive age. This agrees with
Osuafor et al. (2020) that garri processors are still strong and agile to boost their economy.
Majority (78.3%) of the respondents were females, this could be as a result of the nature of
the work, which is processing and gender bias in Nigeria. Most of the respondents (93.3%)
were literates and the mean for years of processing experience was 19.8 years. This implies
that the processors were familiar with the limitations to the processing success. Many of the
respondents (61.7) had no secondary occupation and depend solely on the garri processing for
a living, which could influence their needs for production improvement. Majority (70.8%)
was married and the mean for the house hold of the respondents in the study area was 8
persons, meaning that there will be no need to hire labor. Hence, family labor could be
cheaply employed to reduce the cost of labor and this could solve problem of labor
unavailability as reported by Amoah et al. (2022) that one of the challenges of women group
in garri processing activities is unavailability of labor for peeling the cassava.

105
Table 2: Distribution of Respondents According to Production capacity and Monthly
income (N=120)

Site Production level (Kg) Monthly income (N)

Emagu 198.75±25.097 a 84,200.00±46,062.429 a

Otari 191.225±23.922 a 88,250.00±69,276.619 a

Komkom 334.38±40.686 b 133,750.00±72,780.763 b

Obeama 225.50±23.431 a 94,300.00±46,058.430 a

Ozuaha 171.88±16.092 a 68,250.00±29,212.245 a

Igwuruta 156.25±20.510 a 63,500.00±36,168.465 a

Means±SE for Production level while Means±SD for monthly income. Values are means of
opinions from 120 respondents followed by the standard error of means or standard deviation.
Means in the same column with different superscripts for each dusts are significantly
different (p<0.05).

Table 2 reveals the production capacity and monthly income of the small and medium
processors in the study area. The production ranges between 156.25kg and 334.38kg and the
processors in Oyigbo local government (Komkom and Obeama) have highest production
capacity when compare with productions from other communities. The production observed
in this study is less than approximately 465.7 kg/month (5588kg/annum) to 3,704kg/month
(44448kg/annum) in small and medium garri processors in Ekiti state reported by Ojo et al.
(2009). The highest production capacity recorded in Oyigbo could be as result of 450 metric
tons cassava processing plant established in Oyigbo local government in 2021 and Ezeaja
(2021) reported increase in production as one of the aim of the establishment of the plant.

The income of the processors in the study area ranged from N63,500 to N133,750 and
Oyigbo local government had the highest value of income among the communities in the
study area. The income reported in this study is in accordance with values reported for small
and medium garri processors in Ekiti state, Nigeria (N6,053.67) N72644/annum to
(N3,156,767.67/month) N37,881,212/annum (Ojo et al., 2009).

Table 3: Proximate Analysis Results of Garri Collected from the Communities in the
Study Area

Site Moisture Total Ash Crude fat Crude Crude Carbohydr

content fibre protein ate

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Emagu 13.48±0.044 b 0.74±0.096 ab 0.30±0.030 b 2.63±0.156 b 1.04±0.002 a 81.81±0.156 c

Otari 12.68±0.044 a 0.86±0.011 b 0.33±0.040 b 3.10±0.008 c 1.23±0.003 a 81.81±0.038 c

Komkom 12.43±0.045 a 0.49±0.089 a 0.16±0.031 a 3.69±0.101 d 1.17±0.205 a 82.07±0.138 c

Obeama 13.30±0.187 b 0.59±0.174 ab 0.17±0.034 a 3.50±0.092 d 1.34±0.147 a 81.11±0.260 b

Ozuaha 18.54±0.115 c 0.53±0.117 ab 0.13±0.033 a 2.07±0.008 a 1.85±0.019 b 76.85±0.083 a

Igwuruta 18.37±0.133 c 0.57±0.084 ab 0.20±0.003 a 3.10±0.009 c 1.05±0.101 a 76.67±0.058 a

Means±SE. Values are means of triplicate samples followed by the standard error of means.
Means in the same column with different superscripts are significantly different (p<0.05).

Table 3 shows the proximate compositions of garri samples collected from a processor in
each community from the three local governments of the study area. The moisture content of
garri obtained from the six processors in the study areas were high ranging from 12 – 19 %
and there were significant differences among the values statistically (P=0.000). The value is
lower than some previous research findings such as (Bamidele et al. 2014; Ajifolokun and
Adeniran, 2018) and it agrees with the maximum value (13.0) of Moisture content set by
Codex Standard 176-1989 (FAO 1995).

The total ash content varied between 0.5 and 0.9% and there was no significant different
(P=0.165). The values recorded in this finding are lower than the values reported by several
previous findings (Adepoju et al., 2010; Bamidele et al., 2014; Olaoye et al., 2015;
Ajifolokun and Adeniran, 2018).

The crude fat, crude fibre, crude protein and carbohydrate observed ranged between 0.13-
0.33%, 2.07-3.69%, 1-2%and 76-82% respectively and there were significant differences in
the values (p<0.05). The values of the crude fat, crude protein and carbohydrate observed in
this study are similar to what was reported in previous research findings (Adepoju et al.,
2010; Olaoye et al., 2015; Ajifolokun and Adeniran, 2018). The low value of crude fat
content reported in this study will enhance the storability of the garri because rancidity would
have been reduced (Ajifolokun and Adeniran, 2018). USDA (2009) has reported that
components of the crude fibre are very vital in nutrition as they added in bulk and help in
proper foods digestion. This result of carbohydrate affirms that garri (as a food that gives
energy to the body) is loaded with a lot of calories (Ajifolokun and Adeniran, 2018).
Table 4: Sensory score Results of Garri Collected from the Communities in the Study
Area

Site Appearance Taste Texture Aroma General Acceptability

Emagu 7.00±0.297 b 6.93±0.323 c 6.36±0.401 b 7.00±0.574 c 7.57±0.202 b

Otari 6.71±0.370 b 5.57±0.272 bc 7.29±0.286 b 6.50±0.416bc 7.14±0.404 b

107
Komkom 4.14±0.702 a 3.79±0.735 a 3.71±0.559 a 4.21±0.585 a 4.79±0.585 a

Obeama 2.85±0.490 a 3.57±0.510 a 3.57±0.609 a 4.85±0.512 a 4.79±0.547 a

Ozuaha 3.57±0.542 a 4.00±0.545 a 3.71±0.641 a 4.29±0.658 a 4.93±0.642 a

Igwuruta 4.00±0.695 a 4.29±0.624 ab 4.57±0.571 a 5.00±0.432 ab 5.00±0.545 a

Means±SE. Values are means of fourteen trained panels followed by the standard error of
means. Means in the same column with different superscripts are significantly different
(p<0.05).

Table 4 reveals the sensory score results of garri samples collected from the study area. The
appearance, texture and general acceptability of the garri collected from Abua/Odual have
best means score when compare from the garri samples from other two local governments.
The analysis of variances in the values recorded are significantly different (p<0.005). These
findings are similar to what were reported from the previous research findings (Bamidele et
al., 2014; Olaoye et al. 2015; Laya et al., 2018).

The results of the taste and aroma collected from Abua/Odual also have highest mean value.
Statistically, there were significant differences among the values recorded for the taste
(P<0.05). Similar result was reported for taste and aroma by Olaoye et al. (2015) and Laya et
al. (2018). The differences in the values observed for tastes of the garri, even in the same
local government in the study area, have been attributed to differences in the processing
methods (such as fermentation period) used by the processors (Laya et al., 2018).
CONCLUSION
The study revealed thatgarri processing is the primary means of livelihood through which
people in the study area earning their income. The result of proximate compositions and
sensory evaluations of the garri from the study area will enhance better preference of (garri)
product from these communities. Government intervention is needed to erect mini garri
processing center in each community so as to increase the production capacity and enhance
the processors’ income.

REFERENCES
Adepoju, O. T., Adekola, Y. G., Mustapha, S. O. & Ogunsola, S. I. (2010). Effect of
processing methods on nutrient retention and contribution of cassava (manihotspp) to
nutrient intake of Nigerian consumers. African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutrition
and Development, 10:2099-2111
Agbamu, J. U. & Waziri, R. P. (2006). Marketing of Cassava By-product, Gari, in Delta
State and the Implication for agricultural Development. Proceedings of the 21st
Annual Conference of Farm Management Association of Nigeria, pp 205-211
Agbor-Egbe, T. & Mbome, I. L. (2006). The effects of processing techniques in reducing
cyanogen levels during the production of some Cameroonian cassava foods,” Journal
of Food Compositionand Analysis, 19(4): 354–363

108
Ajifolokun, O. M. & Adeniran, H. A. (2018). Proximate and Mineral Composition of Co-
Fermented Breadfruit and Cassava into Gari Analogue. Journal of Nutrition & Food
Science, 8: 658.
Amoah, F., Akowuah, J.O. & Bobobee, E.Y.H (2022): The Need for Adoption of Improved
Technologies to Address Challenges in Small Scale Cassava Processing in Ghana.
Afr. J. Food Agric. Nutr. Dev.,22(6): 20609-20622
Bamidele, O. P., Ogundele, F. G., Ojubanire, B. A., Fasogbon, M. B. & Bello, O. W. (2014).
Nutritional composition of “gari” analog produced from cassava (Manihot esculenta)
andcocoyam (Colocasia esculenta) tuber. Food Science and Nutrition, 2:706-711
FAO- Food and Agriculture Organisation (1995). Codex standards for edible cassava flour.
In: Joint FAO/WHO food standards programme, Codex Standard 176-1989, Codex
Alimentarius Commision. Food and Agricultural Organisation and World Health
Organisation of United Nations, Rome.
Laya, A.,Koubala, B. B., Kouninki, H. & Nukenine, E. N. (2018). Effect of Harvest Period on
the Proximate Composition and
Functional and Sensory Properties of Gari Produced from Local and Improved
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Varieties. International Journal of Food
Science, 6241035 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/6241035
Ojo, A. O., Amos, T. T., Ojo, M. A. & Ogaji, A. (2009). Economic Analysis of
GariProductioj in Ekiti State, Nigeria.Journal ofRural Economy and Society, 5:1-11
Olaoye, O. A., Lawrence, I. G., Cornelius, G. N. & Ihenetu, M. E. (2015). Evaluation of
Quality Attributes of Cassava Product (gari) Produced at Varying Length of
Fermentation. American Journal ofAgricultural Science, 2(1): 1-7
Osuafor, O. O., Obianefo, C. A. & Dike, A.D (2020). Food Security and Poverty Status of
Cassava Processors in AwkaNort Local Government Area of Anambra State. The
Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Economics, 41(1): 1-16
USDA (2009) Preparing and canning fermented food and pickled vegetables. In: Complete
Guide to Canning, pp: 231-234.

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 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION AND GLYCEMIC INDEX OF SOME SELECTED
CEREALS SOLD IN JIMETA-YOLA ULTRA-MODERN MARKET, ADAMAWA
STATE

Christopher, K.*1, Umaru H.A.2, Bakari S.B.2, Awagu, E.F1., Oyelakin, M.O3., Okoroafor, C.H1.,
Okike O.O.1
1
Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Port Harcourt, Rivers State.
2
Biochemistry Department, Modibbo Adama University, Yola, Adamawa State.
3
Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Sapele, Delta State.
*
Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Proximate composition and glycemic index of Twelve (12) selected cereals sold in Jimeta-
Yola ultra-modern market in Adamawa State was determined. Near Infrared Reflectance
Spectrophotometer was used to determine the proximate composition while glucometer was
used to determine the glucose level of the selected cereals. The results showed that hungry
rice and white rice had the highest level of starch (70.5 ± 0.6 and 69.5 ± 2.1) and fat (5.2 ±
1.7, 5.1 ± 2.1) respectively. Hungry rice, white sorghum and white kafircorn showed the
highest fiber content (3.5 ± 1.8, 3.4 ± 4.1, 3.4 ± 0.6 respectively) while wheat had protein
content (12.2 ± 4.0) which is significantly high (p≤0.05) among the group. Glycemic index
(GI) of the cereals were also determined using albino rats of weight ranging from 90g-180g
administered with the cereal samples at 50mg/kg. The results show that yellow maize, hungry
rice, and wheat have lower GI, whereas white rice, white sorghum, pearl millet and foxtail
millet have higher GI. The results showed that hungry rice, Wheat and Yellow Maize had low
GI and is best recommended for diabetic patients to manage the spike of blood sugar after
meal.

Keywords: Proximate Composition, Glycemic Index, Cereals, Food.

INTRODUCTION
Cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain. Cereal grains are grown
in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop and
are therefore staple crops as reported by Chibuzor and Ugochukwu, (2017). They have a long
shelf life under favorable conditions because they are harvested at relatively low moisture
content. In some developing countries, grain in the form of rice, wheat, millet, or maize
constitutes most of the daily sustenance (Chibuzor and Ugochukwu, 2017).
Cereals provide most of the calories and proteins consumed worldwide. Abdulrahman and
Omoniyi (2016) reported that when cereals are refined by the removal of the outer covering-
bran and germ, the remaining endosperm is mostly carbohydrate and lacks the majority of the
other nutrients. The most common grains consumed as cereals include rice, maize (corn),
wheat, barley, sorghum, millets, and oats.
Glycemic index (GI) is defined as the incremental blood glucose area (0-2 h) following
ingestion of 50 g of available carbohydrates as a percentage of the corresponding area
following an equivalent amount of carbohydrate from a standard reference product (Jenkins
et al, 2008). GI was originally designed as a guide to food selection for diabetic patients, to

110
select foods with a low GI which will help diabetes patients to minimize their postprandial
rise in blood glucose.
Cereals are important sources of nutrients and energy for many people in Nigeria, particularly
in the northern region. However, there is limited information on the nutritional and glycemic
properties of the different types of cereals consumed in this region. This study investigated
the proximate composition and glycemic index of some selected cereals commonly sold in
Jimeta-Yola ultra-modern market, Adamawa State, Nigeria. This will provide valuable
information for nutritional recommendations and public health policies in the region and the
country at large.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experimental samples {Zea mays (saccharata), Zea mays (indenata), Oryza sativa,
Oryza sativa spp, Sorghum bicholor (saccharatum), Sorghum bicholor (caffrotum), Sorghum
bicholor (vulgare), Sorghum bicholor (sudanensis), Digitaria exilis, Triticum aestivum,
Pannisetum glaucum and Setaria italica} used were bought from Jimeta-Yola Ultra-Modern
Market, Adamawa State, collected in polythene bags and transported to the laboratory for
analysis. The samples were ground to powder using manual grain grinder before
administration to the experimental rats. Proximate analysis was carried out using Near
Infrared Spectrophotometer-NIRS, DS2500.
Male adult albino rats weighing 90-180 g obtained from the animal breeding unit of the
National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI), Vom, Plateau State, Nigeria were used for
the study. They were acclimatized for one week, then the different powdered cereals were
administered to the rats for one week after which they were reweighed and then fasted for 12
hrs overnight. The blood glucose concentration of each animal was taken at zero time from
the tail vein, followed by feeding them with 50 mg/kg bw of available experimental samples
and glucose (a control), and 2 hours postprandial was determined using glucometer. Results
obtained were expressed as average mean ± SEM and data were analyzed using analysis of
variance (ANOVA) with the help of Statistical Package for the social sciences (SPSS)
software version 17. The values p˂ 0.05 were considered significant.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The moisture content of the samples ranged from 7.7% to 13.7%, foxtail millet had the lowest
moisture content and parboiled rice had the highest as shown in Table 1. The higher the
moisture content, the faster the spoilage of that commodity. The lower moisture content value
of the foxtail millet indicates that it would have a good keeping quality than the other cereals
under consideration (Alozie et al., 2009). This is because food-spoiling micro flora thrives
where there is adequate moisture (Abdulrahman and Omoniyi, 2016).
Protein is the building block of the body and its content varied widely among the samples,
from 5.4% in white rice to 12.2% in wheat as shown in Table 1. The protein value of the
perboiled rice and white rice is below the recommended value while the other samples are
within the recommended values. It was reported that plant food provide more than 12% of its
calorific value from protein and it is considered good source of protein (Abdulrahman and
Omoniyi, 2016).

111
The crude fibre content ranged from 2.5% in wheat to 3.5% in Hungary rice, with significant
differences observed among samples as shown in Table 1. Fibre helps to prevent heart
diseases and diabetes by reducing the rate of the release of glucose into the blood stream. It
also reduces the intracolonic pressure, hence reducing the risks of colon cancer (David et al.,
2015). The high fibre content of these samples can have some biological beneficial effects
such as laxative effect on the Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT), increased faecal bulk and
reduction in plasma cholesterol level. However, the values obtained for these test diets (2.5 to
3.5%) fell within the recommended ranges.
The fat content varied from 3.0% in red kafircorn to 5.2% in white rice, with significant
differences observed among samples as shown in Table 1. This low percentage of crude fat
indicates that prolong storage of the grains may not affect the quality as poor storage causes
rancidity (peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acid) that would impact unpleasant odour and
reduced intake of food and nutrient (Abdulrahman and Omoniyi, 2016).
Ash content generally represents the concentration of mineral contents present in a given
product. The ash content of the samples considered ranged from 1.0% in most samples to
1.4% in Hungary rice, with significant differences observed among samples as shown in
Table I. The ash content of a sample may be affected by nature and amount of ions present in
the soil from which plants draw their nutrients.
The starch content was highest in hungry rice (70.5%) and lowest in white sorghum (63.2%)
as shown in Table I. Carbohydrates are good sources of energy. The high carbohydrates
content of the studied samples would make it a good source of energy (Hailu, 2018; Yankah
et al., 2020). Generally, the values reported for carbohydrate content in this study are in line
with the recommended values for carbohydrate as reported by Saidu et al., (2021). However,
in proximate analysis, it is important to note that the nutrient composition of cereal grains can
be influenced by several factors, including genetic, environmental, and processing conditions.
Therefore, it is essential to consider these factors when interpreting the results of analyses
such as those presented in the table.
Table 2 shows the Fasting blood sugar level together with the 2 hours postprandial blood
sugar effects in millimole per litre (mmol/L). The reference sample (glucose) had the highest
rising effect due to its pure glucose form followed by white rice. Hungry rice and Wheat
showed the lowest rising effect due to variation in digestion and absorption rate. Digestion
and absorption of the various foodstuffs depends on structural differences of the food
molecule and the rate at which amylase enzyme hydrolyzed glucose molecules and their
absorption into the blood (Omoregie and Osagie, 2008).
The glycaemic index (GI) is a measure of the food power to raise blood glucose (B-glucose)
concentration after a meal. For healthy eating, foods with low GI are recommended and
Rovner et al, (2009) reported that, a low-GI diet may lower postprandial hyperglycemia and
decrease the risk for postabsorptive hypoglycemia in people with type 1 diabetes. High GI
foods results to gain weight and obese, it trigger diabetes in individuals that are at risk to the
disease, or worsen the management of the disease (Gilberston et al., 2001).
As revealed in the study (Table 3) after the 2 hours postprandial among the twelve samples
analyzed, White rice happened to possess the highest GI of 73, followed by millet and
sorghum with 71 and 70 respectively. Hungry rice and Wheat showed the lowest GI with 59
and 50 respectively. Yellow maize also showed low GI of 52. This research showed that the

112
food forms are classified as high GI, medium and low GI and cause a variable rise in blood
glucose level as proved by Ludwig (2002). There are some factors that affect the GI of foods;
these include composition, content, and type of carbohydrate (food type), physical character,
procession (cooking methods) and fibre content (Yue-Xin et al., 2006).
Type II diabetes is associated with insulin insensitivity resulting from elevated blood sugar
levels and increased insulin demand, thus over burdening the ability of the pancreas to
produce insulin. The regular consumption of high glycemic load foods will lead to health risk
implications in diseases like the heart diseases due to insulin resistant syndrome called
metabolic syndrome X (Ludwig, 2002).

Table 1. Proximate Analysis of the Selected Cereals in Percentage (%)

S/N Sample Moisture Protein Fibre Fat Ash Starch
1 Zea mays 10.2 ± 0.1 7.7 ±3.3 3.2 ±0.6 3.1 ±0.2b 1.1 ±0.8 67.1 ±2.1
(saccharata)
White maize
2 Zea mays 12.1 ±2.3a 7.1 ±1.2 3.1 ±2.3 3.3 ±0.6 1.2 ±0.3 64.0 ±4.1
(indenata)
Yellow maize
3 Oryza sativa 13.7 ±3.0a 6.7 ±5.2 3.3 ±1.7 3.6 ±2.1 1.3 ±3.1 64.3 ±0.5
spp.
Parboiled rice
4 Oryza sativa 9.4 ±7.1 5.4 ±2.8b 2.8 ±0.5 5.2 ±1.7 1.0 ±0.3 69.5±2.1
White rice
5 Sorghum 13.5 ±1.1 8.1 ±3.1 3.4 ±4.1a 3.1 ±0.9b 1.0 ±1.2 63.2±0.7b
bicholor
(saccharatum)
White sorghum
6 Sorghum 12.0 ±0.8 7.5 ±0.7 2.7 ±0.8 4.1 ±0.3 1.1 ±2.6 67.7 ±2.9
bicholor
(caffrotum)
Red sorghum
7 Sorghum spp 13.2 ±8.2 7.9 ±2.4 3.4 ±0.6a 3.2 ±0.7 1.3 ±5.0 66.4 ±4.0
(vulgare)
white kafircorn
8 Sorghum spp 11.9 ±4.0 9.1 ±2.0 2.6 ±1.3 3.0 ±2.1 1.0 ±0.3 66.8 ±2.2
(sudanensis)
Red kafircorn
9 Hungary rice 8.3 ±7.3 8.1 ±1.6 3.5 ±1.8 5.1 ±2.1a 1.4 ±3.1 70.5±0.6a
Digitaria exilis
10 Triticum 10.0 ±1.9 12.2±4.0a 2.5 ±0.9b 3.2 ±4.1 1.1 ±2.3 65.8 ±0.7
aestivum
Wheat
11 Pannisetum 8.3 ±2.1 8.8 ±3.1 3.0 ±2.8 4.5 ±3.2 1.2 ±0.3 68.8 ±6.2

113
 glaucum
Pearl millet
12 Setaria italica 7.7 ±3.3b 8.3 ±0.9 2.9 ±3.1 4.5 ±2.6 1.0 ±1.8 68.9 ±0.3
Foxtail millet
13 Recommended <5.00 7-15.00 <5.00 1.00-7.00 <3.00 ≥64.00
values
Values are means ± SEM of 3 replicates
a= significantly higher (p≤0.05) compared to other values in the same group
b= significantly lower (p≤0.05) compared to other values in the same group

Table 2. Fasting Blood Sugar and 2 hours Postprandial of Rats Fed with Different Cereals in
mmol/l.
S/No Sample Fasting Blood Sugar 2 hours Postprandial
Average Mean ± SEM Average Mean ± SEM
1 Glucose 4.35 ± 0.29 5.83 ± 0.19
2 Zea mays (saccharata) 4.58 ± 0.28 5.32 ± 0.13
(White maize)
3 Zea mays (indenata) 4.35 ± 0.37 5.12 ± 0.15
Yellow maize
4 Oryza sativa spp 4.53 ± 0.30 5.40 ± 0.38
Parboiled rice
5 Oryza sativa 4.68 ± 0.36 5.52 ± 0.14
White rice
6 Sorghum bicholor. 4.35 ± 0.16 5.39 ± 0.13
(Saccharatum)
White sorghum
7 Sorghum bicholor 4.75 ± 0.30 5.46 ± 0.16
(caffrotum)
Red sorghum
8 Sorghum bicholor 4.55 ± 0.27 5.34 ± 0.23
vulgare
white kafircorn
9 Sorghum bicholor 4.43 ± 0.26 5.33 ± 0.09
(sudanensis)
Red kafircorn
10 Digitaria exilis 4.55 ± 0.26 5.18 ± 0.10
Hungary rice
11 Triticum aestivum 4.70 ± 0.28 5.27 ± 0.13
Wheat
12 Pannisetum glaucum 4.80 ± 0.31 5.53 ± 0.12
Pearl millet
13 Setaria italica 4.83 ± 0.10 5.53 ± 0.12
Foxtail millet

114
Values are means ± SEM of 4 replicates
SEM (Standard Error of Mean)

Table 3. Glycemic Index of the selected cereals

S/N Samples Glycemic Index
1 Glucose 100
2 Zea mays (saccharata) 59
White maize
3 Zea mays (indenata) 52
Yellow maize
4 Oryza sativa spp 67
Parboiled rice
5 Oryza sativa 73
White rice
6 Sorghum bicholor (saccharatum) 70
White sorghum
7 Sorghum bicholor (caffrotum) 66
Red sorghum
8 Sorghum bicholor (vulgare) 62
white kafircorn
9 Sorghum bicholor (sudanensis) 64
Red kafircorn
10 Digitaria exilis 49
Hungary rice
11 Triticum aestivum 50
Wheat
12 Pannisetum glaucum 71
Pearl millet
13 Setaria italic 70
Foxtail millet
Glycemic Index (GI)
Low level GI = less than 55 (<55)
Medium level GI = 55 - 69
High level GI = greater than 70 (>70)

CONCLUSION
Based on the result of this research, some of the food types are good while some are not good
for pre-diabetics, diabetics, obesity and even those with cardiovascular diseases as some of
the food types contain high carbohydrate content and have high GI which can affect the
progression of these disease conditions. However, results from this study also indicated that
hungry rice and Wheat have low glycemic index and are cheap source of carbohydrate for
man.

REFERENCES

115
Abdulrahman W. F. & Omoniyi A. O. (2016). Proximate Analysis and Mineral Compositions
of Different Cereals Available in Gwagwalada Market, F.C.T, Abuja, Nigeria.
Journal of Advances in Food Science & Technology, 3(2): 50-55.
Alozie YE, Iyam MA, Lawal O, Udofia U. & Ani IF. (2009). Utilization of Bambara ground
flour blends in bread production. Journal of Food Technology. 7(4):111-114.
Chibuzor O. & Ugochukwu A. (2017): Proximate and Vitamin Composition of Selected
Cereals Commonly Used for Weaning Babies’ Food Preparation in South-Eastern
Nigeria. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare, 7(22):71-75.
David, O., Arthur, E., Kwadwo, S. O., Badu, E., & Sakyi, P. (2015). Proximate composition
and some functional properties of soft wheat flour. International Journal of
Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, 4(2): 753-758
Gilbertson R., Evans S., Brand-Miller C., Chondros P., Thornburn A. & Werther G. (2001).
The effect of flexible low glycemic index dietary advice versus measured
carbohydrates exchange diets on glycemic control in children with type 2 diabetes.
Diabetes Care, 24: 1137-1143.
Hailu K. H. (2018). Determination of proximate composition and bioactive compounds of
the Abyssinian purple wheat. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 4(1): 1421415.
Jenkins D.J, Augustin LSA, Esfahani A, et al (2008). Glycemic index, dietary fiber, and
human health: An historical perspective. Dietary fibre: An international perspective
for harmonization of health benefits and energy values. American Association of
Cereal Chemists; 137-149.
Ludwig, D., (2002). Dietary Glycemic Index: Physiological Mechanisms Relating to Obesity,
Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease. Journal of American Medical Association, 287:
2414-2423.
Omorigie E.S. & Osagie AU (2008). Glycemic Indices and Glycemic Load of Some Nigeria
Foods. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 7, 710-716.
Rovner A.J., Nansel T.R. & Gellar L. (2009). The effect of a low-glycemic diet vs a standard
diet on blood glucose levels and macronutrient intake in children with type 1 diabetes.
Journal of American Dietetic Association, 109(2):303-7.
Saidu U., Tijjani K., Mamman S. & Sadiq A. C. (2021). Proximate Analysis and Mineral
Compositions of some Cereals commonly sold in Kafin Hausa Market, Jigawa State,
Nigeria. Dutse Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences (DUJOPAS), 7 (2a): 22-29.
Yankah, N., Intiful, F. D., & Tette, E. M. (2020). Comparative study of the nutritional
composition of local brown rice, maize (obaatanpa), and millet—A baseline research
for varietal complementary feeding. Food science & nutrition, 8(6): 2692-2698.
Yue-Xin Y., Hong-Wei, W., Hong-Mei, C., Yan, W., Lian-Da, Y., Shi-Xue, X. & Shui-Ying,
Z. (2006). Glycemic index of cereals and tubers produced in China. World Journal of
Gastroenterology, 12(21):3430-3433.

116
EFFECT OF COWPEA FLOUR INCLUSION ON THE PASTING PROPERTIES OF
COMPOSITE WHEAT-COWPEA FLOUR

*Alimi, J. P.1, Shittu, T. A.2, Alimi, J.O.1, Awagu, E. F.1, Yepshak N. B.3,
1*
Durable Crop Research Department, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, P.M.B. 1489,
Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria.
2
Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria.
3
Department of Home and Rural Economics, Plateau State College of Agriculture Garkawa.
*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]; +2348030460903

ABSTRACT
Pasting properties of food depicts various uses of starch-based food ingredients in food
production processes. This study was conducted to determine the effect of cowpea flour (CF)
inclusion on the pasting properties of composite wheat-cowpea (CWC) flour. Wheat flour
was substituted at 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20% with cowpea flour. The flours were analyzed for
pasting properties. Analysis of variance was performed on the data generated while
significant means were separated by applying Duncan Multiple Range Test using Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 25.0). The peak viscosity, trough viscosity,
breakdown viscosity, final viscosity, setback viscosity peak time and pasting temperature
ranged from 203.83-221.62 RVU, 105.46-142.75 RVU, 78.88-99.63 RVU, 221.58-282.54
RVU, 116.12-139.79 RVU, 5.37-6.10 min and 70.10-79.95, respectively. In conclusion, on
increasing the cowpea flour inclusion above 10%, the peak viscosity was attained at a later
temperature in the heating cycle (i.e. higher temperature) suggesting a requirement for
increased baking time (i.e. more energy would be expended) especially when the composite
wheat-cowpea flour is intended for baking purpose. The CWC flour with 5% and 10%
cowpea flour (CF) inclusion possesses the most acceptable pasting properties in comparison
with 100% wheat flour.

Keywords: Pasting properties, flour quality, retrogradation, staling, extrusion cooking

INTRODUCTION
Pasting properties of food depicts various uses of starch-based food ingredients in food
production processes. The pasting properties of composite wheat-cowpea (CWC) flour are
important in studying the behaviour of flour suspension during regulated heating, holding and
cooling temperature regime. Such information obtained from the pasting profile of food has
been used to correlate the functionality of starchy food ingredients in processes like baking
and extrusion cooking (Defloor et al., 1994; Alimi et al., 2021)
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is a high-protein, starchy legume that can easily be processed
into flour and blended with wheat flour. In addition to being a good source of B-vitamins,
cowpea contains substantial quantities of lysine and when blended with cereals, produces
mixtures with complementary amino acid profiles and improves nutritional quality (Mensa-
Wilmot et al., 2001). Nigeria produced 2,500,000 metric tons of cowpea (FAO, 2013).
Dependence on the importation of wheat by countries in regions of the world where soil and
climatic conditions are less favourable for the production of wheat is inevitable and this is
critical issue when considering the economic and national development of such a country. In

117
view of the aforementioned point, flours produced from cassava, cowpea etc. had been
researched into and prospected for application at domestic and industrial level in replacing
wheat flour up to 30% with the view to reducing the over-dependence on wheat importation
for use as food and industrial application to the barest minimum (Shittu et al., 2008; Alimi et
al., 2016; Alimi et al., 2021). Interestingly, the replacement of wheat flour with high quality
cassava flour (HQCF) and flours from other food crops such as cowpea, potato etc. had been
found beneficial both in terms of functional properties and nutritional composition (Alimi et
al., 2023). This study was conducted to determine the effect of cowpea flour inclusion on the
pasting properties of composite wheat-cowpea (CWC) flour.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials
The wheat flour used for this study was provided by Honeywell Flour Mills, Lagos while the
cowpea was procured at Bodija market and processed into beans flour at the Nigerian Stored
Products Research Institute, Ibadan.
Composite flour preparation
Wheat and cowpea flour were blended together in ratio 100WF:0CF; 95WF:5CF;
90WF:10CF; 85WF:15CF and 80WF:20CF. The proportion these flours were weighed and
admixed together thoroughly before subsequent analysis.

Pasting properties
The pasting characteristics of the samples (composite wheat-cowpea flour ) were determined
using a Rapid Visco Analyzer (Model RVA-4C, Newport Scientific, Warriewood, Australia)
interfaced with a personal computer equipped with the Thermoclined software supplied by
same manufacturer (Newport Scientific, 1998). Two and a half gramme (2.5g) of sample
(composite wheat-cowpea flour) was weighed into a dried empty canister, and then 25ml of
distilled water was dispersed into the canister. The paddle was placed into the canister and the
blade vigorously joggled through the sample up and down for sometimes as recommended by
RVA. The test proceeded and terminated automatically; the slurry was heated from 50 ºC to
95 ºC with a holding time of 2 min followed by cooling to 50 ºC with 2 min holding time.
The heating and cooling were at a constant rate of 11, 25 ºC per min. Peak viscosity, trough,
breakdown, final viscosity, set back, peak time, and pasting temperature were read from the
pasting profile with the aid of thermocline for Windows software connected to a computer.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The pasting properties of composite wheat-cowpea flour at 5-20% level of substitution is
presented in Table 1. The peak viscosity also measures the alpha-amylase activity and other
contributory factors such as the inherent susceptibility of the starch to amylase and the starch
gel strength. Therefore, a higher value of RVU at the peak of the curve indicated a lower
diastatic activity and vice versa (Kamel and Ponte, 1993). The peak viscosity ranged from
203.84 RVU in the composite flour with 15% cowpea inclusion to 221.63 RVU in the control
(wheat flour).
The through (holding strength) (TV) is an index of starch granule stability to heating i.e. the
ability of the starch granules to maintain their gelatinized structure when the paste was held at

118
Table 1: Pasting characteristics of composite wheat-cowpea (CWC) flour at different substitution level
S.L. P.Visc. Trough B.Visc. F.Visc. Stb.Vis. P.Time P.Temp.
(RVU) (RVU)
(%) (RVU) (RVU) (RVU) (Min.) (ºC)

Control 221.62±2.65 142.75±2.0 78.88±1.66a 282.54±1.5 139.79 ± 6.10±0.05 70.13± 0.04a

c 0 d 9 d 0.41 c d

5 215.08±0.71 129.83±2.0 85.25±1.71a 260.00±0.4 130.21 ± 5.87±0.09 70.10 ±

bc 0 c b 1 c 1.59 b c 1.13a
10 206.29±2.65 117.46±0.8 88.83±0.83b 239.42±0.8 121.96 ± 5.63±0.05 71.35 ±
ab 3 b 3 b 1.00 a b 0.64a
15 203.83±2.31 105.46±5.9 98.38±1.36c 221.58±1.3 116.12 ± 5.47±0.09 79.00 ±
a 5 a 7 a 1.42 a ab 1.13b
20 206.58±1.30 106.96±0.2 99.63±1.01c 224.00±0.3 117.04 ± 5.37±0.05 79.95 ±
ab 9 a 5 a 0.06 a a 0.00b
Mean values followed by different alphabet within a column are significantly different (p≤0.05)
S. L.: Substitution Level; P. Visc.: Peak Viscosity; B. Visc.: Breakdown Viscosity; F. Visc.: Final Viscosity; Stb.
Vis.: Setback Viscosity; P. Time: Peak Time; P. Temp.: Pasting Temperature

119
95°C for 2 min 30 sec under mechanical shearing stress. The values for trough varied
between 105.46 and 142.75 RVU in composite flour with 15% cowpea inclusion and the
control (wheat flour), respectively.
Breakdown viscosity is a measure of the degree of starch disintegration. It is an indication of
the hot paste stability of the starch (Alimi et al., 2021). The smaller the breakdown viscosity,
the higher the paste stability (Zheng et al., 1998). Breakdown viscosity varied between 78.88
and 99.63 RVU; the control (wheat flour) and composite flour with 20% cowpea inclusion
had the lowest and highest values respectively. The breakdown value of the control (wheat
flour) was not significantly (p>0.05) different from that of the 5% level of wheat substitution.
Similarly, there was no significant difference (p>0.05) in the breakdown value of composite
flour with 15% and 20% cowpea inclusion.

Final viscosity (FV) is the section of the paste gel curve where the gelatinized dispersion of
starch becomes viscoelastic on cooling resulting in the formation of a loose paste or gel. The
FV is characteristic of the final product quality of starch-based foods. Final and setback
viscosities ranged from 221.58 to 282.55 RVU and 116.13 to 139.79 RVU, respectively. The
control (wheat flour) and sample with 15% cowpea inclusion had the highest and lowest final
viscosity, while the control wheat flour and composite flour with 15% cowpea inclusion had
the highest and lowest setback viscosity, respectively.

The setback viscosity (SV) depicts the phase of the pasting curve after cooling the starches to
50°C. The higher the SV, the greater the tendency toward retrogradation. The setback
viscosity of composite flours with 10% 15% and 20% cowpea inclusion were not
significantly (p>0.05) different.

Peak time is the time at which the peak viscosity is attained in minutes and is also defined as
a measure of cooking time (Alimi et al., 2021). The lower the peak time, the better from an
energy conservation point of view. Peak time ranged from 5.37 to 6.10 min; with composite
flour with 20% level of wheat substitution and control (wheat flour) having the lowest and
highest values respectively.

The pasting temperature (PT) of starch or flour is the temperature at which a sudden rise in
viscosity is first noted with concurrent swelling. It gives an indication of the minimum
temperature and energy costs involved. The pasting temperature ranged between 70.13 ºC
and 79.95 ºC. The control (wheat flour) gave the least while the composite flour with 20%
level of wheat substitution had the highest pasting temperature. The pasting temperatures of
the control (wheat flour), and composite flour with 5% and 10% were not significantly
(p>0.05) different. The result indicated that there were significant differences (p<0.05)
among all the flours (wheat and composite flours) for all the pasting properties.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, on increasing the cowpea flour inclusion above 10%, the peak viscosity was
attained at a later temperature in the heating cycle (i.e. higher temperature) suggesting a

120
requirement for increased baking time (i.e. more energy would be expended) especially when
the composite wheat-cowpea flour is intended for baking purpose. The CWC flour with 5%
and 10% cowpea flour (CF) inclusion possesses the most acceptable pasting properties in
comparison with 100% wheat flour.

REFERENCES
Alimi, J.P., Ahemen, S. A., Ikeme A.I., Iluebbey, P.O. & Alimi, J.O. (2021). Physical,
proximate and pasting properties of flours from selected clones of low postharvest
physiological deterioration cassava. Research Journal of Chemical Sciences. Vol 11
No. 3, pp 24-32. Available online at: www.isca.in, www.isca.me
Alimi, J.P., Ahemen, S.A., Alimi, J.O., Ajisafe, S.S. & Oke, O.A. (2023). Sensory and
microstructural properties of cakes made with flour from low postharvest
physiologically deteriorated cassava. Journal of Food Industry. Vol 6 No. 1, 46-58.
doi:10.5296/jfi.v6i1.20682. Available on http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/jfi.v6i1.20682

Defloor, I., De Geest, C., Schellekens, M., Martens, A. & Delcour, J. A. (1994). Impact of
genotype and crop age on the breadmaking and physiochemical properties of flour
produced from cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) planted in the dry season. Journal
of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 66: 193-202.

Food and Agriculture Organization (2013). Consumption per capital. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org.

Kamel, B. S. & Ponte J. G. (1993). Emulsifers in baking. In: Advances in Baking

Technology, Kamel B. S. and Stauffer (Eds), Blackie Academics and professional.
Bishopbriggs, Glasgow, UK, pp 179-222.
Mensa-Wilmot, Y, Phillips R.D., Hargrove, J.L. (2001). Protein quality evaluation of
cowpea-based extrusion cooked cereal/legume weaning mixtures. Nutrition Research
21:849-857.

Shittu, T.A., Dixon, A., Awonorin, S.O., Sanni, L.O., Maxiya-Dixon, B. (2008). Bread from
composite cassava-wheat flour II: effect of cassava genotype and nitrogen fertilizer on
bread quality. Food Research International 41:569-578
Zheng, G. H., Fasina, O., Sosulski, F. W. & Tyler, R. T. (1998). Nitrogen solubility of cereals
and legumes subjected to micronization. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry,
46, 4150–4157.

121
 EFFECT OF COWPEA FLOUR INCLUSION ON THE RHEOLOGICAL
PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE WHEAT-COWPEA FLOUR

*Alimi, J. P.1, Shittu, T. A.2, Alimi, J.O.1, Awagu, E. F.1, Yepshak N. B.3,
1*
Durable Crop Research Department, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, P.M.B. 1489,
Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria.
2
Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria.
3
Department of Home and Rural Economics, Plateau State College of Agriculture Garkawa.
*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]; +2348030460903

ABSTRACT
Baking performances of flour for bread making purpose depend largely on its rheological
and functional properties. Functional properties of flour determine the purpose to which such
flour could be put to. This study was conducted to determine the effect of cowpea flour (CF)
inclusion on the rheological and functional properties of composite wheat-cowpea (CWC)
flour. WF was substituted at 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20%. The flours were analyzed for rheological
and functional properties. Analysis of variance was performed on data generated, significant
means were separated applying Duncan Multiple Range Test using Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS version 25.0). Water absorption index, dough development time,
dough stability, mixing tolerance index, degree of softening, dough strength, work done,
pressure, extensibility, extensibility ratio, gluten factor, moisture, protein and ash content
ranged from 57.70-58.80%, 2.00-6.00, 12.00-13.50 min, 30.00-60.00 BU, 60.00-75.00 BU,
31.70-48.90 mm2, 207.00-320.00 kJ, 89.00-110.00 mmH2, 57.00-75.00 mm, 1.37-1.72, 16.80-
19.30 G, 12.40-13.35 %, 11.00-12.70 % and 0.74-0.78 %, respectively. The gelation
capacity, swelling power, water absorption capacity and solubility index ranged from 5.45-
6.70 %, 10.43-11.57 %, 193.60-264.40, respectively. Farinogram quality indices increased
with increasing substitution level of WF. Quality bread could be made from CWC flour in
terms of baking qualities.

Keywords: Composite flour, functional properties, rheological properties, Gluten factor,

fluffiness

INTRODUCTION
Rheology is the science of the deformation and flow of matter. It is the study of the manner in
which materials respond to applied stress or strain. The rheological properties of food
materials measured or tested by rheometers like rapid visco anlyser, farinograph and
alveograph provides empirical information that correlates well with actual results on
product’s quality. Rheological characteristics such as elasticity, viscosity, and extensibility
are important for the milling and baking industry in the prediction of the processing
parameters of dough and the quality of the end products (Mirsaeedghazi et al., 2008; Janet
and John, 2018). The baking performances of flour for bread making purpose depend largely
on its rheological and functional properties. Functional properties of flour determine the
purpose to which such flour could be put to.

122
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is a high-protein, starchy legume that can easily be processed
into flour and blended with wheat flour. In addition to being a good source of B-vitamins,
cowpea contains substantial quantities of lysine and when blended with cereals, produces
mixtures with complementary amino acid profiles and improves nutritional quality (Mensa-
Wilmot et al., 2001). Nigeria produced 2,500,000 metric tons of cowpea (FAO, 2013).
Interestingly, replacement of wheat flour with HQCF and flours from other food crops such
as cowpea, potato etc. had been found beneficial both in terms of functional properties and
nutritional composition (Alimi et al., 2023). This study was conducted to determine the effect
of cowpea flour inclusion on the rheological and functional properties of composite wheat-
cowpea (CWC) flour.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials
The wheat flour used for this study was provided by Honeywell Flour Mills, Lagos while the
cowpea was procured at Bodija market and processed into beans flour at the Nigerian Stored
Products Research Institute, Ibadan.
Composite flour preparation
Wheat and cowpea flour were blended together in ratio 100WF:0CF; 95WF:5CF;
90WF:10CF; 85WF:15CF and 80WF:20CF. The proportion of these flours were weighed and
mixed together thoroughly before taken for analysis.
Rheological properties
Composite dough rheological studies (Farinograph and Alveograph)
The Farinograph and Alveograph analysis was conducted on the composite wheat-cowpea
flour samples using Brabender Farinograph and Chopin Alveograph, respectively (Alimi et
al., 2016).
Functional properties
The water absorption index and water solubility index of wheat flour and composite wheat-
cowpea flour samples were measured by the methods described by Kadan et al. (2003);
Swelling power and solubility were determined as described by Oladele and Aina (2007).
Gelation properties of the samples were determined by employing the method described by
Adebowale et al. (2005).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The rheological properties of composite wheat-cowpea (CWC) flours are presented in Table
1. Farinograph indices of CWC indicated that substituting wheat with cowpea flour increased
the water absorption capacity; the water absorption increased from 57.7 to 58.8 %. This trend
of increased water absorption capacity is similar to what was reported by Hafiz et al. (2011)
in which water absorption capacity increased as the level of substitution of WF with CF
increased in. In effect, wheat-cowpea flour requires more water addition to develop dough of
desired consistency when compared with wheat flour. Therefore, at the baker’s end for
example, inclusion of cowpea flour in wheat for bread making purpose would increase the
water absorption of flour which consequently would result into higher yield as noted by Puhr
and D`appolonia (1992) that flour with high water absorption capacity could result in high
yield of product.

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The dough development time ranged from 2.0 to 6.0 min. It is noteworthy that at 15% level
of replacement of wheat with cowpea, the increase of 3.5 minutes observed may imply that at
over 10% cowpea inclusion, dough development may be delayed and this will not delight the
baker. Dough stability time is an indication of the strength of the dough. Equally important is
the fact that the stability time increased as the level of substitution increased. Dough stability
did not differ significantly by the addition of cowpea at all level of substitution. This agrees
with the findings of Hallen et al. (2004) that inclusion of cowpea flour into wheat flour for
dough development improves dough stability. Mixing tolerance index (MTI) is used by
bakers to determine the extent of softening dough will experience over a period of mixing.
The values obtained for the mixing tolerance index were 40.0, 30.0, 55.0, 60.0 and 50.0 BU
for 5, 10, 15, 20%, and 0% level of wheat substitution, respectively; the shorter or lower the
value is, the better. Pliability and smoothness of the dough is greater (at lower MTI) at 5%
and 10% cowpea inclusion.
Dough degree of softening is an indicator of how soft the dough becomes after 12 minutes of
mixing. As the level of substitution increased the degree of softening increased. The 15% and
20% composite flour gave highest degree of softening and very high dough stability could
cause resistance to pan flow, hence affecting the desired dough volume. On the baker’s end,
5% and 10% substituted flours would be satisfactory to them because pan flow will not be
affected which in turn will give satisfactory loaf volume. The high degree of softening makes
kneading operation effective and faster, this will delight the baker in that it enhances dough
handling.

The alveograph is important dough testing instrument used to evaluate the quality of wheat
flours for bread and biscuit and cookie making (Janssen et al., 1996). The Peak height (P)
indicated the resistance that the dough offered to deformation and it is related the tensile
strength or stability that the dough exhibited during the proofing stage of bread making
(Mepba et al., 2007). Valorimeter score is a total quality factor (Charlotte et al., 2004) of the
dough. Indices of interest are gluten factor, the elasticity ratio and the strength of dough.
Increased level of cowpea inclusion increased the elasticity ratio. The extensibility which
indicates the stretchability of the dough was reduced accordingly. The gluten factor,
workdone, pressure and dough strength decreased at increasing level of substitution. It is
apparent from the result that the control (wheat dough) had the greatest strength followed by
flour with 5% cowpea inclusion. The values obtained is an indication that quality bread could
be made from the composite wheat-cowpea flours and higher quality bread in terms of
tenderness and looseness from composite flour with 5% and 10% cowpea inclusion. As
shown in Table 1, wheat flour substituted with cowpea contained more protein (11.0–12.7%)
and more ash (0.74–0.78 %) than the 100% wheat bread control.

The functional properties of flour are those that directly determine their end uses (Alimi et
al., 2021). The functional properties of the composite wheat-cowpea flour are presented in
Table 2. The gelation capacity, swelling power, water absorption capacity and solubility
index ranged from 5.45-6.70 %, 10.43-11.57 %, 193.60-264.40 and 5.80-9.80. It is
noteworthy that the

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Table 1: Rheological properties and some proximate composition of composite wheat-cowpea flour
Quality index 5% 10% 15% 20% Control

W. abs. (%) 57.80±0.99a 57.70±1.84a 58.80±4.38a 58.10±1.41a 58.50±1.70a

D. d. tim (min) 2.50±0.28a 2.50±0.00a 6.00±0.01b 6.00±0.01b 2.00±0.42a

D. Stab (min) 12.00±0.14a 12.50±0.12a 13.00±0.99a 13.50±0.97a 12.00±0.99a

Mix t. ind (BU) 40.00±0.28a 30.00±0.97b 55.00±0.99d 60.00±1.98e 50.00±0.98c

D. of sof. (BU) 50.00±1.97a 60.00±0.01b 75.00±0.98c 75.00±1.98c 60.00±0.14b

D. str. (mm2) 45.70±0.13c 42.00±0.28b 32.60±0.71a 31.70±0.98a 48.90±0.01d

Workdone (kJ) 299.00±0.57d 275.00±0.42c 213.00±0.14b 207.00±0.01a 320.00±1.70e

Pressure (mmH2) 103.00±0.28b 100.00±0.98b 98.00±4.38b 89.00±1.41a 110.00±1.70c

Extensib. (mm) 71.00±0.01c 71.00±0.28c 57.00±0.02a 63.00±0.42b 75.00±0.02d

Extens. Ratio 1.37±0.14a 1.41±0.98a 1.72±0.57a 1.41±0.01a 1.55±0.01b

Gluten f. (G) 18.80±0.14ab 18.80±1.69ab 16.80±0.01a 17.70±0.01ab 19.30±0.14b

Moisture content (%) 13.05 ± 0.07b 12.60 ± 0.14a 12.40 ± 0.00a 12.55 ± 0.07a 13.35 ± 0.07c

Protein (%) 11.35 ± 0.07a 12.20 ± 0.14b 12.40 ± 0.00bc 12.70 ± 0.00c 11.00 ± 0.28a

Ash content (DMB) 0.75 ± 0.01ab 0.76 ± 0.01abc 0.77 ± 0.00bc 0.78 ± 0.01c 0.74 ± 0.01a

Mean values followed by different superscript letter across a row are significantly different (p≤0.05)

125
ability of the flours to form gel as measured by the gelation capacity increased with increasing level
of substitution of wheat with cowpea flour. Lower gelation capacity implies that less flour is
required to make food gels of same consistency which has a favorable economic impact.W. abs.:
Water absorption index; D. d. tim: Dough development time; D. stab: Dough stability; Mix t. Ind:
Mixing tolerance index; Deg. of sof.: Degree of softening; D. str.: Dough strength; Extensib,:
Extensibility; Extens. Ratio: Extensibility ratio; Gluten f.: Gluten factor

Table 2: Functional properties of wheat-cowpea flour at different substitution level

S. L. (%) G. Cap. (%) S. P. (%) W.A.I. W.S.I.

Control 5.45 ± 0.84a 10.43 ± 0.64a 193.60 ± 0.57a 7.20 ± 0.00ab

5 6.43 ± 0.21ab 11.07 ± 0.57a 194.80 ± 1.13a 5.80 ± 1.98a

10 6.20 ± 0.03ab 11.57 ± 0.42a 264.40 ± 8.60 ± 1.41ab

16.40c
15 6.57 ± 0.41ab 11.12 ± 0.66a 229.60 ± 9.80 ± 1.41b
18.10b
20 6.70 ± 0.28b 10.97 ± 0.55a 210.00 ± 8.40 ± 0.00ab
0.00ab
Mean values followed by different alphabet within a column are significantly different (p≤0.05).
S.L.: Substitution level; G. Cap: Gelation capacity; S. P.: Swelling power; W.A.I.:
Water absorption index; W. S. I.: Water solubility index.
The swelling power of granules reflects the extent of the associative forces within the granules
(Elevina and Zurima, 1997). The swelling power fairly increased at the increasing level of cowpea
inclusion due to a high degree of association between starch granules (Adebowale et al., 2005). The
water absorption index also increased with increasing level of substitution. This could also be
attributed to the structure of the cowpea protein and its quality present in cowpea. The water
solubility index also increased fairly at the increasing level of cowpea inclusion making mixing and
even dispersal of the ingredients effective. It has been established that the composition and nature
of macromolecules (protein, fat, and carbohydrates) in food materials often affect their functionality
(Hung and Morita, 2003).
CONCLUSION
Farinogram quality indices increased with increasing substitution level of wheat flour. The result
obtained indicated that quality bread could be made from the composite wheat-cowpea flours in
terms of baking qualities. Increase in wheat substitution level resulted into increase in the swelling
power, water absorption index and water solubility index.

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 PHYSICAL, MICROSTRUCTURAL PROPERTIES AND SHELF STABILITY OF
COMPOSITE WHEAT-COWPEA BREAD

*Alimi, J. P.1, Shittu, T. A.2, Alimi, J. O.1, Awagu, E. F.1, Ahola D. O.3,
1*
Durable Crop Research Department, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, P.M.B. 1489, Ilorin,
Kwara State, Nigeria.
2
Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria.
3
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Benue State University.
*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]; +2348030460903

ABSTRACT
Shelf stability of a newly developed food product determines its commercial success while the
physical properties influence consumer preference. This study was conducted to determine the
physical, microstructural properties and shelf stability of composite wheat-cowpea (CWC) bread.
Cowpea was blended with wheat flour (WF) at 5, 10, 15, and 20% substitution levels; and the
composite flours were used for baking test. Baked CWC loaves of bread were analyzed for physical,
microbiological properties and shelf stability. Analysis of variance was performed on the data
generated while significant means were separated by applying Duncan Multiple Range Test using
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 25.0). Softness index, crumb density, solid
density and crumb porosity ranged from 16.40-34.80 mm, 0.28-0.33 gcm-3, 0.83-1.47 gcm-3 and
0.66-0.78, respectively. Mean microbial count during storage ranged from 1.0 to 3.0×103, 6.50 to
24×103, 33.0 to 55.0×103, and 42.0 to 57.0 ×103 cfu/ml at day 1, 3, 5 and 7, respectively. The total
number of crumb cells (TNC and NSC) increased at increasing levels of substitution of WF with
CF, reducing the air spaces and consequently affecting the crumb texture (fluffiness) of the CWC
bread. Bread made with WF was more shelf stable than the ones made with CWC flour.

INTRODUCTION
Bread is one of the most widely consumed food products in the world. It has a relatively low cost
and gives some of the nutrients missing in the majority of carbohydrate foods (Alimi et al., 2021).
Bread is mainly produced from wheat flour since it was introduced as food in the nation. Yeast-
raised bread is highly favoured worldwide because of its desirable sensory attributes. Quality
attributes such as large loaf volume and fine, even crumb texture require the formation of a well
developed, elastic dough structure. This is made possible by the quantity and quality of the wheat
flour proteins, gliadins and glutenins, collectively known as gluten (Shukla, 2001). The concept of
blending wheat flour with non-wheat, high-protein flour has been employed in situations where
wheat flour may be in short supply or where nutritional quality requires enhancement as reported by
Sadowska et al. (1999).
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is a high-protein, starchy legume that can easily be processed into
flour and blended with wheat flour. In addition to being a good source of B-vitamins, cowpea
contains substantial quantities of lysine and when blended with cereals, produces mixtures with
complementary amino acid profiles and improves nutritional quality (Mensa-Wilmot et al., 2001).
Nigeria produced 2,500,000 metric tons of cowpea (FAO, 2013).

Dependence on the importation of wheat by countries in regions of the world where soil and
climatic conditions are less favourable for the production of wheat is inevitable and this is critical
issue when considering economic and national development of such a country. In view of the

128
aforementioned point, flours produced from cassava, cowpea etc. had been researched into and
prospected for application at domestic and industrial levels in replacing wheat flour up to 30% with
the view to reducing the over-dependence on wheat importation for use as food and industrial
application to the barest minimum (Shittu et al., 2008; Alimi et al., 2016; Alimi et al., 2021).
Interestingly, the replacement of wheat flour with HQCF and flours from other food crops such as
cowpea, potato etc. had been found beneficial both in terms of functional properties and nutritional
composition. The Federal Government of Nigeria supported the use of HQCF to replace wheat flour
to 10% for baking purposes and equally stipulate that flour mills should adhere to the 10%
substitution injunction (Alimi et al., 2016). This study was conducted to determine the physical,
microstructural properties and shelf stability of composite wheat-cowpea (CWC) bread.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials
The baking ingredients used in this study include wheat flour (Honeywell Flour Mills, Lagos), and
beans flour from Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Ibadan. Other materials used include
granulated sugar (Dangote Nigeria Plc., Lagos, Nigeria), Fermipan baking yeast (DSM bakery
ingredient, Dordrecht-Holland), salt, Simas margarine (PT Intiboga Sejahtera, Jakarta, Indonesia)
and Edlen Dough Conditioner (EDC 2000; Edlen International Inc., GA, USA).

Bread baking
The straight dough method described by Shittu et al. (2008) and Alimi et al. (2021) for composite
cassava wheat bread was used in dough preparation and bread baking. The dough recipe and
formulation used for the baking experiment is presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Dough recipe and formulation (composition) used for the baking experiment
Ingredients 0(100% 5% 10% 15% 20%
Wheat)
Wheat flour (g) 300 285 270 255 240
Cowpea flour (g) - 15 30 45 60
Salt (g) 6.0 (2.0) 6.0 (2.0) 6.0 (2.0) 6.0 (2.0) 6.0 (2.0)
Sugar (g) 18.0 (6.0) 18.0 (6.0) 18.0 (6.0) 18.0 (6.0) 18.0 (6.0)
Yeast (g) 15.0 (5.0) 15.0 (5.0) 15.0 (5.0) 15.0 (5.0) 15.0 (5.0)
Fat (g) 9.0 (3.0) 9.0 (3.0) 9.0 (3.0) 9.0 (3.0) 9.0 (3.0)
EDC (g) 0.9 (0.3) 0.9 (0.3) 0.9 (0.3) 0.9 (0.3) 0.9 (0.3)
Water (g) 165.0 165.0 165.0 165.0 165.0
Adapted from Shittu et al., 2008. % values are based on the total flour weight (300g). Values in
parenthesis denote the percentage of ingredient.
Assessment of shelf stability
Freshly produced samples were allowed to cool for three hours. Each loaf was put in polythene bag
(nylon 6) and placed on a stainless steel shelf free from insects and rodents and at room temperature
(27±3 ºC). The textural analysis was carried out to determine both the fresh crumb softness and
reduction in crumb softness (hardness) of stored bread samples ((Tessi et al., 2002; Shittu et al.,
2008). The total bacteria and fungi counts of the fresh loaves and stored bread samples were
determined using the pour-plate procedure as described by ICMSF (1988).

129
Statistical analysis
The pertinent physical and microbiological data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance
(ANOVA) using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 25.0 (SPSS Inc. USA) and
significant means were separated by using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The physical properties of composite wheat-cowpea bread are presented in Table 2. The bread
samples were significantly (p<0.05) different in terms of softness index, which ranged from 16.40
to 34.80 mm, bread sample substituted at 20% level was the least soft while the bread sample with
the highest softness was bread substituted at 10% level. The bread sample baked with 100% wheat
flour and that which was substituted at 5% level with cowpea flour were not significantly (p>0.05)
different in terms of fluffiness. There was no significant (p>0.05) difference in the crumb density of
the bread samples, the range of mean value for crumb density was 0.28 to 0.33 gcm-3; the least
dense bread sample was the bread sample baked with wheat flour substituted at 5% level with CF
while the bread sample with highest crumb density was the sample baked with 100% WF. The same
trend was also observed for solid density, the range of mean value was 0.83 to 1.47gcm-3, with the
bread sample substituted at 5% level having the least while the highest was recorded in the bread
sample baked with 100% WF. The bread samples varied in their crumb porosity having values
ranging from 0.66 to 0.78 with the bread sample substituted at 20% being the least porous while the
bread sample baked with 100% wheat flour had the highest crumb porosity. It was observed that as
the level of substitution increased, the crumb porosity of the bread samples decreased and this could
be attributed to the fact that as the level of substitution increases the gluten content of the resulting
composite flour reduced due to dilution effect. The aforementioned observation is corroborated by
the fact that the solid density of the bread crumb in the composite bread increased as the level of
substitution increased. Knowledge of the structure and properties of crumbs is necessary to
optimize its quality and consequently its

Table 2: Physical properties of the composite wheat-cowpea bread

Sub. Softness Crumb Solid Crumb

Lev. Index Density Density Porosity

(%) (mm) (gcm-3) (gcm-3)

0 31.75±2.72c 0.33±0.02a 1.47±0.02b 0.78±0.19b

5 32.30±2.85c 0.28±0.01a 0.83±0.14a 0.67±0.08a

10 34.80±1.05d 0.30±0.01a 1.07±0.02ab 0.71±0.02ab

15 28.80±1.46b 0.31±0.04a 1.12±0.00ab 0.73±0.01ab

20 16.40±1.72a 0.31±0.01a 0.92±0.01a 0.66±0.12a

Results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Mean values followed by different alphabet
within a column are significantly different (p≤0.05); Sub. Lev.: Substitution level

130
acceptability. The actual crumb cell distribution in the composite bread and wheat bread is depicted
in Figure 1. There was no significant (p>0.05) difference in the crumb structure of most of the
bread samples except that at 10% substitution level, there was an observable increase in the total
cell count (TNC) than the control (i.e. bread baked with 100% wheat flour) sample. It was observed
that at increasing substitution levels, the total number of crumb cells (small and big) also increased.
This increase in the number of crumb cells is possibly associated with the increase in the crumb and
solid density and reduced crumb porosity of the composite bread samples when compared with the
bread baked with 100% wheat flour.

The results of the total viable count in the stored wheat-cowpea bread samples are presented in
Table 3. At day 0, the variability in the total viable count of all bread samples was infinitesimally
small except in the bread sample substituted at 15% level. The mean count over the storage period
however varied significantly between 1.0 to 3.0×103, 6.50 to 24×103, 33.0 to 55.0×103, and 42.0 to
57.0 ×103 cfu/ml at day 1, 3, 5 and 7, respectively. Total count increased progressively with an
increase in storage days but the rate of increase in the wheat substituted bread was higher than the
control (wheat bread). At day three, there was significant (p<0.05) difference in the mould count of
the bread samples; wheat-cowpea bread of 15% cowpea inclusion had the least count up to day 3
while wheat-cowpea bread at 20% level of wheat substitution had the least count at day 5. Wheat-
cowpea bread of 20% cowpea inclusion had the highest count at the end of the storage period (day
7). The highest count in CWC bread substituted at 15% level could be explained from bread crumb
structure (i.e. microstructural) standpoint.

131
Table 3: Means (and standard deviations) mould count of CWC bread
Sub. level Day 1 (×103) Day 3 (×103) Day 5 (×103) Day 7 (×103)
(%) cfu/ml) (cfu/ml) (cfu/ml) (cfu/ml)
0 1.5 ± 0.14b 7.00 ± 0.00a 34.00 ± 0.00ab 42.00 ± 0.00a

5 1.00 ± 0.00a 24.50 ± 0.71d 35.00 ± 0.00b 50.00 ± 0.00b

10 1.00 ± 0.00a 15.50 ± 0.71c 50.50 ± 0.71d 52.50 ± 0.71c

15 3.00 ± 0.14c 6.50 ± 0.71a 46.50 ± 0.71c 54.00 ± 0.00d

20 1.00 ± 0.00a 11.00 ± 0.00b 33.50 ± 0.71a 57.00 ± 0.00e

Mean values followed by different alphabet within a column are significantly different (p≤0.05)
Sub. Level: Substitution level
Microstructurally, the relatively high porosity in the crumb structure of the bread sample baked
with 100% WF in comparison to the composite bread samples allowed migration of moisture from
within the bread crumb to the crust surface, though reduced the available moisture within the bread
crumb but could accelerate firming (staling) process. In effect, firming is accelerated in 100%
wheat bread, while the moisture retention in the crumb structure of the composite bread though has
a tendency to reduce staling process but encouraged the growth of spoilage microorganisms.

The graphical representation of the softness index of the bread samples over the storage period is
presented in Figure 2. The softness index of fresh crumbs ranged between 16.40 mm and 34.80 mm
in 20% and 10% levels of wheat substitution with cowpea flour, respectively. The result indicated
that at fresh state; there was no significant difference (p>0.05) in the softness index of bread baked
with 100% wheat flour, 5% and 10% cowpea inclusion with 31.75, 32.30 and 34.80 mm,
respectively, which were significantly (p<0.05) softer than those of 15% and 20% substitution with
28.80 and 16.40 mm, respectively. As shown in Figures 2, the softness index during storage varied
significantly (p<0.05) in the control (wheat bread), 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% cowpea inclusion as
23.20-31.75, 23.05-32.30, 25.00-34.80, 15.15-28.80 and 7.25-16.40 mm, respectively. In both
breads baked with 100% WF and composite bread samples there was an observable reduction in
softness progressively during storage and was more pronounced in bread with 15% and 20%
cowpea inclusion.

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 Figure 2: Softness index of the bread samples over storage period

CONCLUSION
In terms of crumb cell distribution, the total number of crumb cells (TNC and NSC) and small cells
increased at increasing levels of substitution of wheat flour with cowpea flour, reducing the air
spaces and consequently affecting the crumb texture (fluffiness) of the composite wheat-cowpea
bread relatively. Bread made with wheat flour was more shelf stable than the ones made with
composite wheat-cowpea (CWC) flour.

REFERENCES
Alimi, J.P., Ahemen, S. A., Ikeme A.I., Iluebbey, P.O. & Alimi, J.O. (2021). Physical, proximate
and pasting properties of flours from selected clones of low postharvest physiological
deterioration cassava. Research Journal of Chemical Sciences. Vol 11 No. 3, pp 24-32.
Available online at: www.isca.me

Alimi, J.P., Shittu, T.A., Oyelakin, M.O., Olagbaju, A.R., Sanu, F. T., Alimi, J. O., Abel, O. O.,
Ogundele, B. A., Ibitoye O., Ala, B. O. and Ishola, D. T. (2016). Effect of cowpea flour
inclusion on the storage characteristics of composite wheat-cowpea bread. Journal of
Agricultural and Crop Research, Vol. 4(4), Pp 49-59. Retrievable at
http://sciencewebpublishing.net/jacr/archive/2016/June/pdf/Alimi%20et%20al.pdf

Food and Agriculture Organization (2013). Consumption per capital. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org.

ICMSF (1988). Microorganisms in Foods 1; Their Significance and Methods of Enumeration

Represents a Major Step in Establishing a Common Understanding of, and Developing

133
 Standard Methods for, Important Foodborne Microorganisms, second edn. University of
Toronto Press, Toronto.

Mensa-Wilmot, Y., Phillips, R.D., Hargrove, J.L. (2001). Protein quality evaluation of cowpea-
based extrusion cooked cereal/legume weaning mixtures. Nutr. Res. 21:849-857.

Sadowska, J., Fornal, J., Vidal-Valverde, C., Frias, J. (1999). Natural fermentation of lentils:
Functional properties and potential in bread making of fermented lentil flour. Nahrung.
43(6):396-401.

Shittu, T.A., Dixon, A., Awonorin, S.O., Sanni, L.O., Maxiya-Dixon, B. (2008). Bread from
composite cassava-wheat flour II: effect of cassava genotype and nitrogen fertilizer on bread
quality. Food Res. Int. 41:569-578

Shukla, T.P. (2001). Chemistry of dough development. Cereal Foods World, 46(7):337-339.

Tessi, M .A., Aríngoli, E. E., Pirovani, M. E., Vincenzini, A. Z., Sabbag, N. G., Costa, S.
C., García, C. C., Zannier, M. S., Silva, E. R. and Moguilevsky, M. A. (2002).
Microbiological quality and safety of ready-to-eat cooked food from a centralized school
kitchen in Argentina. Journal of Food Protection. Vol. 65 No.4 pp 636-642 (7).

134
PHYSICAL AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE WHEAT-COWPEA BREAD

*Alimi, J. P.1, Shittu, T. A.2, Alimi, J.O.1, Awagu, E. F.1, Ahola D. O.3,
1*
Durable Crop Research Department, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, P.M.B. 1489, Ilorin,
Kwara State, Nigeria.
2
Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria.
3
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Benue State University.
*Corresponding Author email: [email protected]; +2348030460903

ABSTRACT
Pertinent information generated on quality characteristics such as the physical and sensory
properties of baked food products (bread, cake etc.) determines consumer acceptability preference
for food product. This study assessed the physical and sensorial properties of composite wheat-
cowpea (CWC) bread. Cowpea was blended with wheat flour (WF) at 5, 10, 15, and 20%
substitution levels; and the composite flours were used for baking tests. The baked CWC loaves of
bread were analyzed for physical and sensory properties. Analysis of variance was performed on
the data generated while significant means were separated applying Duncan Multiple Range Test
using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 25.0). The sensory mean scores for
appearance (5.87-8.40), crust colour (5.83-7.67), taste (5.77-8.67), aroma (5.67-8.07), texture
(5.67-7.67) and overall acceptability (5.93-8.30). The loaf moisture content, oven spring, loaf
volume, loaf weight and specific loaf volume had range of values 26.70-30.90 %, -0.25-2.12 cm,
750-1050 cm3, 247.50-260.50 g and 3.03-4.12 cm3/g, respectively. Cowpea flour can replace 15%
of wheat flour in bread without adversely affecting baking performance or acceptable eating
(sensory) quality.

Keywords: Consumer acceptability, microstructural properties, baking performance, Oven spring

INTRODUCTION
Bread is one of the most widely consumed food products in the world. It has relatively low cost and
gives some of the nutrients missing in the majority of carbohydrate foods (Alimi et al., 2016).
Bread is mainly produced from wheat flour since it was introduced as food in the nation. Yeast-
raised bread is highly favoured worldwide because of its desirable sensory attributes. Quality
attributes such as large loaf volume and fine, even crumb texture require the formation of a well
developed, elastic dough structure. This is made possible by the quantity and quality of the wheat
flour proteins, gliadins and glutenins, collectively known as gluten (Shukla, 2001). The concept of
blending wheat flour with non-wheat, high-protein flour has been employed in situations where
wheat flour may be in short supply or where nutritional quality requires enhancement as reported by
Sadowska et al. (1999). Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is a high-protein, starchy legume that can
easily be processed into flour and blended with wheat flour. In addition to being a good source of
B-vitamins, cowpea contains substantial quantities of lysine and when blended with cereals,
produces mixtures with complementary amino acid profiles and improves nutritional quality
(Mensa-Wilmot et al., 2001). Nigeria produced 2,500,000 metric tons of cowpea (FAO, 2013).
Dependence on the importation of wheat by countries in regions of the world where soil and
climatic conditions are less favourable for the production of wheat is inevitable and this is a critical

135
issue when considering the economic and national development of such a country. In view of the
aforementioned point, flours produced from cassava, cowpea etc. had been researched into and
prospected for application at domestic and industrial level in replacing wheat flour up to 30% with
the view to reducing the over-dependence on wheat importation for use as food and industrial
application to the barest minimum (Shittu et al., 2008; Alimi et al., 2016; Alimi et al., 2021).
Interestingly, the replacement of wheat flour with HQCF and flours from other food crops such as
cowpea, potato etc. had been found beneficial both in terms of functional properties and nutritional
composition. The Federal Government of Nigeria supported the use of HQCF to replace wheat flour
to 10% for baking purposes and equally stipulate that flour mills should adhere to the 10%
substitution injunction (Alimi et al., 2016). This study was conducted to assess the physical and
sensorial properties of composite wheat-cowpea (CWC) bread.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials
The baking ingredients used in this study include wheat flour (Honeywell Flour Mills, Lagos), and
beans flour from Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Ibadan. Other materials used include
granulated sugar (Dangote Nigeria Plc., Lagos, Nigeria), Fermipan baking yeast (DSM bakery
ingredient, Dordrecht-Holland), salt, Simas margarine (PT Intiboga Sejahtera, Jakarta, Indonesia)
and Edlen Dough Conditioner (EDC 2000; Edlen International Inc., GA, USA).

Bread baking
The straight dough method described in Ahemen et al. (2021) for composite cassava wheat bread
was used in dough preparation. The two flours (wheat and cowpea flour) were blended together in
percentages of 95:5; 90:10; 85:15; 80:20, respectively.

Sensory evaluation of CWC bread

The sensory evaluation of the composite wheat-cowpea bread was carried out as described by
Ahemen et al. (2021) using a 30-man sensory panel.

Microstructural and physical properties of CWC bread

The microstructural properties of the composite wheat-cowpea breads were determined as described
by Shittu et al. (2008) and Ahemen et al. (2021). The physical properties of CWC bread samples
were determined as described by Ahemen et al. (2021).

Statistical analysis
The pertinent physical and sensory attributes data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance
(ANOVA) using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 25.0 (SPSS Inc. USA) and
significant means were separated by using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sensory properties of the composite wheat-cowpea (CWC) breads

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The physical properties of the composite wheat-cowpea (CWC) bread are presented in Table 1. In
terms of the appearance of the bread samples, the mean score ranged from 5.87 to 8.40 in composite
bread with 20% wheat substitution and 100 % wheat bread, respectively. The bread sample baked
with 100% wheat flour was significantly (p<0.05) different from the composite bread in terms of
appearance, composite bread substituted at 15 % and 20 % were not different from each other;
composite bread substituted at 5% level was the most preferred in terms of appearance. The mean
scores for composite bread texture ranged from 5.67 to 8.09 in composite bread with 20% wheat
substitution and 100 % wheat bread, respectively. Bread baked with 100% wheat flour was not
significantly (p>0.05) different from 5% composite bread in terms of texture. Amongst the
composite breads, the most preferred in terms of texture was the one substituted at 5% level. The
mean score for bread crust colour ranged from 5.83 to 7.67 in composite bread with 20% wheat
substitution and 100 % wheat bread, respectively. The bread sample baked with 100% wheat flour
was not significantly (p>0.05) from 5% composite bread in terms of crust colour; Bread baked with
wheat flour substituted with cowpea flour (CF) at 5% level was the most preferred amongst the
composite bread in terms of crust colour. In terms of taste, the mean score ranged from 5.77 to 7.80,
composite bread with 20% wheat substitution having the least while the highest was recorded in
100 % wheat bread. Interestingly, there was no significant (p>0.05) difference in all the bread
samples in terms of taste. In terms of flavour perceived by the assessors, the variability was
minimal, the mean score ranged from 5.63 to 7.67 in the bread sample substituted at 20 % level and
the bread sample baked with 100 % wheat flour, respectively. The bread sample baked with 100 %
wheat flour was not significantly (p>0.05) different from 5% composite bread, also bread sample
baked with

Table 1: Means (and standard deviations; n= 50) of sensory properties of CWC bread
Sub. L. App Texture Crust Taste Flavor Overall

(%) Color accept.

0 8.40±0.97d 8.09±0.74c 7.67±0.99c 7.80±1.16a 7.67±1.06c 8.30±1.12d

5 7.73±0.58c 7.53±1.04c 7.43±0.85c 7.23±1.01a 7.33±0.96c 7.63±0.77c

10 6.50±0.73b 6.50±1.04b 6.60±0.89b 8.67±1.29a 6.60±1.10b 6.83±0.65b

15 5.93±1.14a 6.13±1.46ab 6.13±0.90ab 6.20±1.17a 6.07±0.97b 6.40±0.81b

20 5.87±1.41a 5.67±1.52a 5.83±1.44a 5.77±1.28a 5.63±1.38a 5.93±1.14a

Results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Mean values followed by different alphabet
within a column are significantly different (p≤0.05).

Sub. L.: Substitution level; 0: Bread baked with 100 % refined wheat flour; App: Appearance;
Overall accept: Overall acceptability

Table 2: Physical properties of the composite wheat-cowpea bread

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Sub. Loaf Oven Loaf Loaf Specific Loaf
Lev.
Moisture Spring Volume Weight Volume
(%)
(%) (cm) (cm3) (g) (cm3/g)

0 29.10±0.71a 2.12±0.41d 1050±0.00a 254.83±3.97bc 4.12±0.07e

5 26.70±0.99a 0.62±0.74c 1000±0.00a 253.53±4.23b 3.95±0.07d

10 30.90±3.54a -0.25±0.27a 920±0.00a 260.50±7.20c 3.53±0.10c

15 26.90±4.38a 0.20±0.48ab 800±0.00a 251.17±3.97ab 3.19±0.05b

20 30.20±1.70a 0.22±0.98bc 750±0.00a 247.50±3.56a 3.03±0.04a

Results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Mean values followed by different alphabet
within a column are significantly different (p≤0.05)
Sub. Lev.: Substitution level; 0: Bread baked with 100 % refined wheat flour wheat flour
substituted at 10 % and 15 % were not significantly (p>0.05) different from each other. The overall
acceptability depicts the preference of the consumer for a particular food product. The bread sample
baked with 100 % wheat flour was significantly (p<0.05) different from the composite bread, but
bread samples baked with wheat flour substituted at 10 % and 15 % with CF were not significantly
(p>0.05) different from each other.
The order of preference for the bread samples by the assessors was: 100% wheat bread>5%
bread>10% bread> 15% bread>20% bread. All the composite breads were acceptable as adjudged
by the assessor but the most preferred was the one baked with wheat flour substituted at 5% level
with cowpea flour (CF).

Physical properties of the composite wheat-cowpea (CWC) breads

The physical properties of the bread samples are presented in Table 2. The bread samples were not
significantly (p<0.05) different in terms of bread moisture. The mean score for bread moisture
ranged from 26.70 to 30.90 %, with the bread sample baked with wheat flour substituted at 5 %
having the least moisture while the highest was recorded in the bread sample substituted at 10%.
The range of value for bread moisture recorded in the study was comparatively lower than what was
reported by Alimi et al. (2021) when wheat flour was substituted with high quality cassava flour
(HQCF) at 10 %. Oven spring, which takes place in the early period of baking (i.e. a loaf put in the
oven that is fully proofed expands up to 30% of the original size in the first ten minutes of baking),
is a measure of dough strength or stability. It is the difference in the height of the dough before
baking and baked bread. The bread samples were significantly (p<0.05) different in terms of oven
spring. The mean score for oven spring ranged from -0.20 to 2.12 cm, with the bread sample baked
with wheat flour substituted at 15% level with CF having the least while the highest was recorded
in the bread sample baked with 100 % wheat flour. The range of value for oven spring recorded in
the study was slightly lower than what was reported by Alimi et al. (2021) when wheat flour was
substituted with high quality cassava flour (HQCF) at 10 %. It was observed that the oven spring

138
was decreasing at increasing substitution level. There was no significant (p>0.05) difference in the
loaf volume of the bread samples.
The mean value for the loaf volume was 750-1000 cm3, the lowest value was recorded in the bread
sample prepared by substituting wheat flour with CF at 20% level while the highest was bread
sample produced with 100% wheat flour. The same trend was observed for specific loaf volume,
the specific loaf volume decreased with increasing level of substitution; the mean value ranged
from 3.03 to 4.12 cm3/g. The loaf weight varied and ranged between 247.50 and 260.50 in bread
sample baked with wheat flour substituted at 20% and 10% levels, respectively, it did not follow a
specific trend.

CONCLUSION
The order of preference for the bread samples by the assessors was: 100% wheat bread>5%
bread>10% bread> 15% bread>20% bread. All the composite breads were acceptable as adjudged
by the assessor but the most preferred was the one baked with wheat flour substituted at 5% level
with cowpea flour (CF). Cowpea flour can replace 15% of wheat flour in bread without adversely
affecting baking performance or acceptable eating (sensory) quality.

REFERENCES
Ahemen, S.A., Alimi, J.P., Alimi, J.O., & Iluebbey, P.O. (2021). Physical and microstructural
properties of composite cassava-wheat bread produced from blend of wheat and low
postharvest physiological deterioration cassava flours. American Journal of Food Science
and Technology, 9(4): 142-148. doi: 10.12691/ajfst-9-4-5.

Alimi, J.P., Shittu, T.A., Oyelakin, M.O., Olagbaju, A.R., Sanu, F. T., Alimi, J. O., Abel, O. O.,
Ogundele, B. A., Ibitoye O., Ala, B. O. and Ishola, D. T. (2016). Effect of cowpea flour
inclusion on the storage characteristics of composite wheat-cowpea bread. Journal of
Agricultural and Crop Research, Vol. 4(4), Pp 49-59. Retrievable at
http://sciencewebpublishing.net/jacr/archive/2016/June/pdf/Alimi%20et%20al.pdf

Food and Agriculture Organization (2013). Consumption per capital. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org.

Mensa-Wilmot, Y., Phillips, R.D., Hargrove, J.L. (2001). Protein quality evaluation of cowpea-
based extrusion cooked cereal/legume weaning mixtures. Nutrition Research, 21:849-857.

Sadowska, J., Fornal, J., Vidal-Valverde, C., Frias, J. (1999). Natural fermentation of lentils:
Functional properties and potential in bread making of fermented lentil flour. Nahrung.
43(6):396-401.

Shittu, T.A., Dixon, A., Awonorin, S.O., Sanni, L.O., Maxiya-Dixon, B. (2008). Bread from
composite cassava-wheat flour II: effect of cassava genotype and nitrogen fertilizer on bread
quality. Food Research International, 41:569-578

Shukla, T.P. (2001). Chemistry of dough development. Cereal Foods World, 46(7):337-339.

139
 ANTHROPOGENIC GADOLINIUM, A POTENTIAL FOOD CONTAMINANT OF
EMERGING CONCERN: A REVIEW

Asebioge O. O*. and 2Alokun-Adesanya O. A.

1
Agricultural Technology Department, Ekiti State Polytechnic, Isan Ekiti, Nigeria.
2
Food Technology Department, Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro, Ogun State, Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author: [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents (GBCAs) is currently the only heavy metal suitable for
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans due to its paramagnetic or retention properties.
Anthropogenic gadolinium found its way to our environments through urine of patients that
underwent MRI scans. This review work was carried out as an open eye to the activities of
anthropogenic gadolinium in food chain as a potential food contaminant of emerging concern. It
focused on literature that has to do with Gadolinium-based contract agent used in MRI scans,
potential toxicity effects on plants and human when consumed or administered in the hospital, the
level of concentration in our environment and the evidence in food chain. Some researchers have
detected gadolinium in tap water and in Cola soft drinks bought in restaurants of well-known fast-
food franchise in German cities. This was attributed to contaminated water (mostly underground)
used in food processing as a result of urine of patients administered with GBCAs released to our
environment. Recently, some health issues were detected when it was discovered that Gdanth
accumulation in human tissues could be followed by kidney failure and Nephrogenic Systemic
Fibrosis (NSF) leading to sudden death.
Keywords: Food contaminant, Food chain, Anthropogenic gadolinium, Magnetic Resonance
Imaging, Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents

INTRODUCTION
The use of heavy metals is intimately connected to human history. After discovering metals, human
began using them in industrial and agricultural activities. However, information about metals does
not describe only their benefits but also their negative influence on the environment. Nowadays,
industrial activities and agriculture generates a wide variety of chemical species containing lead,
mercury, and cadmium, which are in general associated with environmental pollution because of
their toxicity and bioaccumulation properties (Kulaksiz et al., 2011). Metals are also used in
medicine as ingredients in several compound for treatments, conservation of vaccines, or contrast
medium. An example of such is gadolinium (Gd).

The concentration of Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents contamination in food chain is otherwise

known as anthropogenic gadolinium. Gadolinium metal in chelated form is used as a contrasting
agent in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and after excretion from the human body with urine, it
passes through wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) almost unaffected into the aquatic system
and food chain (Glauszka et.al, 2016). Gadolinium occurring in different ecosystem can have an
influence on living organisms and even on human health. However, research data in this field are
limited, and only a limited number of investigations on the toxic properties of Gd have been
conducted.

140
The most important and commercial utilization of Gadolinium based contrast agent are typically is
in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and this is leading to widespread contamination of
freshwater, drinking water system which invariably constitute some degree of concerns in food
chain (Ebrahimi et al., 2019)

To date, no organized monitoring schedule for Gd complexes has resulted in a comprehensive

understanding of their toxicity and regulation in the body and the environment. Hence, this review
introduces anthropogenic gadolinium as an overlooked emerging concern in food chain that poses a
threat to human and ecological health. The main objectives of this review will cover the
applications in MRI scans, level in the environment, concentration of GBCAs in food chain, its
potential toxicology, measures to halt the increase of anthropogenic concentration in food chain and
future research directions to fill the gaps in our understanding.

Gadolinium-Based Constract Agents usage in Magnetic Resonance Imaging Scans

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a versatile radiological tool for generating detailed images
that can be used to assist in the diagnosis of a variety of diseases affecting the brain, spinal cord,
heart, blood vessels, bones and joints. It can also be used to check the health condition of organs
such as breasts, kidneys, ovaries, liver, pancreas and the prostate. Gadolinium-Based Contrast
Agents (GBCAs) are administered in MRI to increase the contrast of these images and allow
radiologist to more accurately identify neoplastic, inflammatory and functional abnormalities
(Bellin et al, 2006)

Most GBCAs are recommended at a dose of 0.1mmol/kg of body weight, although higher doses of
0.2-0.3mmol/kg of body weight may be required for certain applications (e.g., Central Nervous
System).

GBCAs are administered in 33-50% of all MRI examinations, either intravenously or by intra-
muscular injection (Idee et al.,) 2008). GBCAs are eliminated unmetabolized, mostly by passive
glomerular filtration in the kidney. The resident time of GBCAs within the body depends on the
type of complex administered and the renal function ability of the patient.

GBCAs are generally considered to be safe and adverse effects are rarely observed (Kandal et al;
2016). However, in 2016 first links were established between Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis (NSF)
and GBCAs (Grobner, et al., 2006). Concerns have since increased, especially as Gd deposit have
been reported in brains, bones, skin, and other tissues following GBCAs administration., even in
healthy patients (kanda et al., 2016)

Because of those toxic ability, Gd ions used as contrast agent are introduced into the human body in
the form of a stable and hydrophilic complex to facilitate their rapid and complete excretion without
undergoing metabolism. The bonding of Gd ions with chelating compounds decrease the toxicity of
the element (Normann et al., 2009)

141
Figure 1: Gadolinium loaded nanoparticles in theranostic magnetic resources imaging

Level of Anthropogenic Gadolinium in our Environment

The degree of environmental contamination caused by different anthropogenic pollutant is

increasing. In 1999, more than 1,000kg of Gdanth were emitted to surface water in the area of
Germany (Helmers et.al., 2000) which is approximately 5% of the total amount of Gd used
worldwide for medical applications. After use, the stable and hydrophilic (without affinity to
particular surface) Gd chelates may be released with other contaminants like antibodies,
inflammatory and estrogens mainly from medical facilities to municipal sewage systems (Telgmann
et al 2013). In WWTPs, Gd complexes are not efficiently removed, so they can enter into the
environment. That’s why strong positive Gd anomalies (anthropogenic) in the REE pattern have
been reported in surface water of densely populated and industrialized cities of the world with a
developed medical system. Moreover, the determined anthropogenic gadolinium in surface water
and drinking water indicated that components from the contrast agents are not being removed
during waste water treatment and tap water production processes.

Without efficient sewage treatment processes and tap water purification stages, remarkable
anthropogenic Gd can be discharged into surface water resources, transported to groundwater
through natural and induced bank filtration, and subsequently transferred to tap water (Bau et al;
2011). Gd complexes will not absorb, co precipitate, or undergo ion exchange processes with
organic and inorganic particulate matters, which are corresponded with the characteristics being
crucial for their use as MRI diagnostic agents. Positive Gd anomaly distribution patterns of
groundwater show that processes, such as bank filtration (natural or induced), do not prevent the
migration of anthropogenic gadolinium into underground aquifers. Recently, attempts have been
made to apply the anthropogenic gadolinium content in groundwater, river waters, and seawaters
for hydrological studies (Johannesson et al; 2017)

142
A simplified diagram demonstrating various probable pathways that excreted gadolinium chelates can enter our
food chain. To date, anthropogenic Gd has been detected in hospital sewage, WWTP effluent, surface water,
groundwater, and tap water.
Source: Geoscience 2019
Evidence of Anthropogenic Gadolinium in Food Chain

A research group led Michael Bau, a Professor of Geoscience at Jacob University, Bremen in
Germany detected gadolinium in tap water and in cola soft drinks bought in restaurants of well-
known fast-food franchise in many cities in Germany. Gadolinium, which is widely used as a
contrast agent in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), appears not to impose any health risk at low
concentration observed (Tedeschi et al., 2018). Gadolinium enters rivers and lakes, which has
become a worldwide phenomenon as shown in numerous studies. River transport some of the
gadolinium contrast agents to the sea. But as river water also feed the groundwater from which
drinking water is sourced, the anthropogenic (man-made) gadolinium compounds can also be found
in tap water. (Bau et.al, 2006). The question of whether the contrast agent enters the human food
chain was addressed when in addition to tap water, cola soft drinks bought at outlets were analyzed
for their rare earth element content (Gleick et.al, 2010) And the results are beyond any doubt, all
soft drinks displayed high amount of gadolinium due to the presence of the contrast agent. Although
the water used in the production process is claimed to be treated and cleaned, the purification
procedure apparently does not remove the gadolinium contrast agent.

143
Source: Geoscience 2019
Human Health Risks of Anthropogenic gadolinium

Gadolinium-Based constrast agents are considered safe for a longer period. However, potential
gadolinium toxicity has been a health concern due to the Gd3+ ionic radius which is roughly equal to
Ca2+. This enables the ion to block the Calcium ion channel of cells (Padreira et al., 2018).
Additionally, Gd3+ regularly bind with a higher affinity and compete with Ca2+ in physiological
process (Sherry et al., 2009). Human beings would not survive 0.1mmol/kg free Gd (e.g., GdCl2 )
being injected into circulation (Thomsen, H.S 2019). Some severe health concern of anthropogenic
gadolinium in human tissue include Kidney failure, nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF) and
anaphylactic shock and result in death eventually.

CONCLUSION
Many research work and publications were presented in this review. It was indicated that stable
MRI contrast agents have been negligibly removed from wastewater, and discharged into surface
water, resulting in the detection of Gdanth in river water, seawater, groundwater, and tap water.
Moreover, the number of MRI scans is on the increasing rate worldwide, leading to greater
Gdanth concentrations in water resources in the future. Part of the administered Gd complexes have
been incorporated in the brain, bone, and kidneys of patients, and even trace amounts of them can
encourage potentially fatal health problems, such as NSF. Although paramagnetic Gd chelates have
been detected as a microcontaminant in water resources since the mid-1990s, their uptake and
bioaccumulation by different biota have not been thoroughly investigated and, as a result, no
permissible limit has been introduced by authorities to screen safe food and water. It is probable
that every individual takes up minute daily amounts of Gd through the consumption of
contaminated drinking water and ingredients (meat, seafood, and vegetables) that is considerably
higher than the natural doses. Consequently, it is important to monitor Gd species in the
environment regularly and promote life-long observations to assess their ecotoxicity and adverse

144
health effects on human. Cooperation between medical scientists, Food scientists, processors and
environmental experts is highly important to achieve further progress.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Few recommendations would be considered to reduce the toxicity of anthropogenic gadolinium in

our water and food chain. They are:

i. Purification process using expensive reverse osmosis in drinking water production could
be required as this is the only efficient way to fully remove the concentration of
anthropogenic gadolinium.
ii. Another method to reduce anthropogenic gadolinium in the food chain and its health risk
would be to collect urine from patients for at least 24 hours following the administration
of GBCAs. This would require collection of urine not only in the hospitals but also in
the patient homes.
iii. Adsorption systems with activated carbon were also proposed to treat patients’ urine.

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Schellnhuber, H. J. (2016). Stratigraphic and Earth System approaches to defining the
Anthropocene. Earth's Future, 4(8), 324-345.
Thomsen, H.S (2017): Are the increasing amounts of gadolinium in surface and tap water dangerous? Acta
Radiol., 58, 259–263.

Kulaksız, S. & Bau, M. (2011): Rare earth elements in the Rhine River, Germany: First case of
anthropogenic lanthanum as a dissolved microcontaminant in the hydrosphere. Environ. Int. 2011,
37, 973–979.
Bau, M.; Knappe, A.; Dulski, P. Anthropogenic gadolinium as a micropollutant in river waters in
Pennsylvania and in Lake Erie, northeastern United States. Chemie der erde-Geochemistry 2006, 66,
143–152.
Pedreira, R.M.; Pahnke, K.; Böning, P.; Hatje, V. Tracking hospital effluent-derived gadolinium in Atlantic
coastal waters off Brazil. Water Res. 2018, 145, 62–72.

Sherry, A.D.; Caravan, P.; Lenkinski, R.E. Primer on gadolinium chemistry. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging Off.
J. Int. Soc. Magn. Reson. Med. 2009, 30, 1240–1248.

Ergün, I.; Keven, K.; Uruc, I.; Ekmekci, Y.; Canbakan, B.; Erden, I.; Karatan, O. The safety of gadolinium in
patients with stage 3 and 4 renal failures. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2005, 21, 697–700.

Marckmann, P.; Skov, L.; Rossen, K.; Heaf, J.G.; Thomsen, H.S. Case-control study of gadodiamide-related
nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2007, 22, 3174–3178

Thakral, C.; Alhariri, J.; Abraham, J.L. Long-term retention of gadolinium in tissues from nephrogenic
systemic fibrosis patient after multiple gadolinium-enhanced MRI scans: Case report and
implications. Contrast Media Mol. Imaging 2007, 2, 199–205

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anthropogenic lanthanum as a dissolved microcontaminant in the hydrosphere. Environment
International, 37(5), 973-979.
Kulaksız, S., & Bau, M. (2013). Anthropogenic dissolved and colloid/nanoparticle-bound
samarium, lanthanum and gadolinium in the Rhine River and the impending destruction of
the natural rare earth element distribution in rivers. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters, 362, 43-50.
Kanal, E. (2016). Gadolinium based contrast agents (GBCA): Safety overview after 3 decades of
clinical experience. Magnetic resonance imaging, 34(10), 1341-1345.
Birka, M., Wehe, C. A., Hachmöller, O., Sperling, M., & Karst, U. (2016). Tracing gadolinium-
based contrast agents from surface water to drinking water by means of speciation
analysis. Journal of Chromatography A, 1440, 105-111
Braun, M., Zavanyi, G., Laczovics, A., Berényi, E., & Szabó, S. (2018). Can aquatic macrophytes
be biofilters for gadolinium based contrasting agents? Water research, 135, 104-111.
Brücher, E., Tircsó, G., Baranyai, Z., Kovács, Z., & Sherry, A. D. (2013). Stability and toxicity of
contrast agents. The chemistry of contrast agents in medical magnetic resonance imaging, 2.
Caravan, P., Comuzzi, C., Crooks, W., McMurry, T. J., Choppin, G. R., & Woulfe, S. R. (2001).
Thermodynamic stability and kinetic inertness of MS-325, a new blood pool agent for
magnetic resonance imaging. Inorganic chemistry, 40(9), 2170-2176.
Caravan, P., Ellison, J. J., McMurry, T. J., & Lauffer, R. B. (1999). Gadolinium (III) chelates as
MRI contrast agents: structure, dynamics, and applications. Chemical reviews, 99(9), 2293-
2352.
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lanthanum as a dissolved microcontaminant in the hydrosphere. Environ. Int. 2011, 37, 973–979
Bau, M.; Knappe, A.; Dulski, P. Anthropogenic gadolinium as a micropollutant in river waters in
Pennsylvania and in Lake Erie, northeastern United States. Chemie der erde-Geochemistry 2006, 66,
143–152.

146
 PROXIMATE AND ANTIDIABETIC PROPERTIES OF OPTIMIZED PUMPKIN
(Curcubita. pepo) PULP, SEED AND STARCH RESIDUE COMPOSITE FLOUR

Adetunji, R. O, Ifesan, B.O.T. and Awolu, O. O.

Federal University of Technology, Akure
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The pumpkin composite flour was optimized using optimal mixture design of response surface
methodology and analyzed for the proximate composition. The independent variables are pumpkin
pulp flour (60- 85%), pumpkin seed (5-25%) and pumpkin starch residue (5-15%). Run 12, 15 and
16 were selected for the best crude protein and total ash and were used for further analysis
(antidiabetic properties) while the control was 100% wheat flour. From the result, crude protein
and total ash ranged from 9.62-15.79% and 4.78-6.33% respectively. The chosen optimum blends
were run 12 (60% pumpkin pulp flour, 25% pumpkin seed and 15% pumpkin starch residue), run
15 (74% pumpkin pulp flour, 21% pumpkin seed and 5% Pumpkin starch residue) and run 16 (73%
pumpkin pulp flour, 16.5% pumpkin seed and 10.5%. pumpkin starch residue). The antidiabetic
properties of the pumpkin composite flour which include; glycemic index (50.64-54.45) α-amylase
inhibition (54.71-62.79%) and α- glucosidase inhibition (65.13-69.54%) were better than the wheat
flour.

Keywords: pumpkin, composite, proximate, antidiabetic

INTRODUCTION
The demand for locally sourced, ready to eat products with good health benefits are on the high side
(Bamigbola et al., 2016). Pumpkin is a commonly grown vegetable plant used for food and
medicine globally (Adebayo et al., 2013). Pumpkin are rich source of beta-carotene, fibre and other
bioactive compounds (Nakazibwe et al., 2020). Pumpkin seed have been reported to have many
health benefit (Ifesan et al, 2020).
Optimal mixture design of response surface methodology had been used to optimize some
nutritional properties of composite flour (Awolu, 2017: Bamigbola et al., 2016).
The study aim to substitute the use of flour for pumpkin based composite flour and to evaluate the
antidiabetic properties.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Pumpkin (Curcubita pepo) was cultivated and harvested on a farmland in Ijero-Ekiti, Ekiti-State.
Nigeria. All reagent used were of analytical grade.
Preparation of pumpkin pulp flour and seed
Pumpkin fruit were cut into two half, the rind were separated manually using a knife while the seed
was scooped out, washed and dried. The pumpkin pulp were cut into about 1.0-1.5mm, dried in a
laboratory oven at 40 0C, milled and sieved into a fine powder using 200µm mesh sieve. The seed
was dehulled, milled and were kept at room temperature for subsequent analyses (Adubufour et al.,
2018).

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Preparation of pumpkin starch residue
Raw pumpkin pulp were washed, milled and filtered. The residue was air dried at 27±2 oC and kept
for further analysis (Fedha, 2008).
Proximate composition
The proximate composition (moisture, crude protein, total ash, crude fat and crude fiber) of the
composite flour were determined by the methods of AOAC, (2012).
Antidiabetic Properties
The antidiabetic potentials that is: α-amylase inhibition (Oyedemi et al., 2017)); α-glucosidase
inhibition (Pistia-Brueggeman and Hollingsworth 2001) and glycemic index (Brouns et al., 2005).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The result of the crude protein and total ash of the optimized pumpkin composite flour are
presented on Table 1. The protein content (9.58 - 15.79%) of the selected optimized pumpkin
composite flour was similar to 11.80% reported by Bemfeito et al. (2020). Variation in findings
may be attributed to difference in species of pumpkin, processing method and flour particle size
(Azeem et al., 2021). However, high content of crude protein obtained in the selected optimized
pumpkin composite flour are beneficial.
Table 1: Crude protein and total ash (%) of pumpkin composite flour using optimal mixture
design

Runs A B C Protein Ash

1 85.00 5.00 10.00 11.85 6.13

2 60.90 24.57 14.52 15.79 5.34

3 68.50 25.00 6.50 12.67 5.97

4 66.43 21.77 11.80 11.60 6.10

5 81.11 13.89 5.00 9.62 6.21

6 81.11 13.89 5.00 9.62 6.21

7 80.00 5.00 14.99 13.93 4.78

8 85.00 5.00 10.00 11.85 6.13

9 68.67 16.33 15.00 12.15 5.80

10 68.50 25.00 6.50 12.67 5.97

11 75.06 9.04 15.00 13.40 6.33

12 60.91 24.57 14.52 15.79 5.34

13 78.41 11.35 10.24 13.75 5.42

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14 80.00 5.00 14.99 13.93 4.78

15 74.22 20.78 5.00 9.58 6.17

16 73.36 16.17 10.48 13.10 6.07

A= Pumpkin Pulp, B= Pumpkin seed; C= Pumpkin starch residue, CHO: Carbohydrate

Protein provides amino acids which are body building blocks that help to promote growth,
development and repairs worn out tissues (McGivern, 2021). The model terms linear component
AB, AC, BC, ABC, AB(A-B), AC(A-C), BC(B-C) were significant (p<0.05). The R2 and adjusted
R2 values were 0.9997 and 0.9992 respectively. The final equations for the effect of variables on
protein are shown in equation 1 and the 3D plot on Fig 1.
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛 = −0.12A + 9.994B + 701.20C + 19.32AB − 1329.91AC −
335.01BC+1326.40ABC+32.12AB (A-B) +753.64AC+730.49BC (B-C)
Eqn. 1

Design-Expert® Software
Component Coding: Actual
protein
Design points above predicted value
Design points below predicted value
15.79
18
9.58
16
X1 = A: pumpkin pulp flour
X2 = B: pumpkin seed flour 14
X3 = C: pumpkin shaft flour
12
protein

10

A (90.000)
B (5.000)
C (35.000)

C (5.000)
A (60.000)

B (35.000)

Fig 1: 3D plot of variables on protein of pumpkin composite flour.

The ash content of the composite flour ranged between 4.78 and 6.21%. Ash content is an
indication of the mineral content readily available in a food substance (Adebowale et al., 2012).
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicates that the model which was special quartic is significant
(p<0.05). The equation showed that ABC2 has the highest positive effect on ash (+238.45) while
AB2C has the lowest effect on ash (-67.28). The R2 and the adjusted R2 values were 0.83 and 0.684
respectively. A non-significant lack of fit was obtained and the 3D plot showed that pumpkin pulp,
pumpkin seed and chaff are constant throughout which means all the variables had positive effect
on the ash content of the pumpkin pulp flour (Awolu, 2017). The final equation showing the ash
content of the flour blends are shown in equation 2 and the 3D plot on Fig 2.
Ash content = +6.36A + 7.09B − 10.56C − 2.06AB + 18.47AC + 17.12BC − 47.28A2BC
− 67.28AB2C + 238.45ABC2 Eqn. 2

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 Design-Expert® Software
Component Coding: Actual
ash
Design points above predicted value
Design points below predicted value
6.33
6.5
4.78

X1 = A: pumpkin pulp flour 6

X2 = B: pumpkin seed flour
X3 = C: pumpkin shaft flour
5.5

ash
5

4.5

A (90.000)
B (5.000)
C (35.000)

C (5.000)
A (60.000)

B (35.000)

Fig. 2: The 3D plot of variables on ash content of pumpkin composite flour

The anti-diabetic properties of the pumpkin composite flour are presented in Table 2. The glycemic
index of the pumpkin composite flour reduced with increase in pumpkin starch residue.

Table 2: Antidiabetic properties of properties of pumpkin composite flour

Sample Glycemic index α- Amylase Inhibition (%) α- Glucosidase Inhibition (%)

Control 61.52±0.19a 41.54±0.38d 38.92±0.82d

Run 12 50.64±0.79d 62.79±0.21a 69.54±0.38a

Run 15 54.45±6.41b 54.71±0.63c 65.13±0.21c

Run 16 52.11±2.65c 58.10±0.35b 68.54±0.31b

Mean ± SD. Values with the same superscript along the same column are not significantly different
(p≥0.05)
Keys: Run 12: 60% Pumpkin pulp flour+ 25% pumpkin seed + 15% pumpkin starch residue;
Run 15: 74% Pumpkin pulp flour + 21% pumpkin seed + 5% pumpkin starch residue;
Run 16: 73% Pumpkin pulp flour+16.5% pumpkin seed + 10.5% pumpkin starch residue.

There were significant differences in the glycemic index of the pumpkin composite flour. The
sample run 15 had the highest glycemic index (54.45%) while run 12 had the lowest glycemic index
(50.64%). The increase in the glycemic index of run 15 and run 16 in this study was as a result of
increase in the pumpkin pulp flour and decrease in pumpkin seed. This result agrees with the report
of Malkanthi et al. (2018) that 5% substitution with pumpkin seed flour may increase the glycemic
index of pumpkin seed blended biscuits. Glycemic index is a scale (number from 0 to 100%) that
rank the number of carbohydrate in food which represents the relative rise in the blood glucose

150
level two hours after consuming that food (Wolever, 2003). It is classified as high glycemic index
food if the glycemic index is greater than 70%; medium if the glycemic index ranged between 56 –
69% and low if it is less than 55% (Wolever, 2003). The glycemic index of pumpkin composite
flour are within (≤55%) low glycemic index food while the wheat flour was within the medium
glycemic food. This implies that pumpkin composite flour samples will be gradually digested and
as such the carbohydrate will be slowly broken down into glucose. Thus, there will be slow release
of glucose into the blood stream and will not result into hyperglycemia or rise in blood glucose
level (Oluwajuyitan et al., 2021).
There were significant (p≤0.05) differences in the α-amylase inhibitions of the pumpkin composite
flour. The pumpkin composite flour run 12 had the highest inhibition (62.79%) while run 15 had the
lowest α-amylase inhibition (54.71%) with reduction in pumpkin starch residue and pumpkin seed.
The increase in the α-amylase inhibitions of run 12 and run 16 in this study was as a result of
increase in the pumpkin starch residue and pumpkin seed in the composite flour. The α-amylase are
carbohydrate hydrolyzing enzyme which helps to digest the carbohydrates and increase the
postprandial glucose level in diabetic patients (Hasaninezhad et al., 2020). The result showed
significant (p≤0.05) differences in the α-glucosidase inhibition of the pumpkin composite flour
compared to the wheat flour (control) that has lower tendency of inhibiting the carbohydrate
hydrolyzing enzymes.. The percentage α-glucosidase inhibition increased with increase in pumpkin
starch residue and pumpkin seed. The composite flour run 12 had the highest value (69.54%) while
run 15 had the lowest α-glucosidase inhibition (65.13%). Inhibiting the activity of these enzymes
can control postprandial hyperglycemia, and reduce the risk of developing diabetes (Oluwajuyitan
et al., 2021).

CONCLUSION
The optimised pumpkin composite flour had the potential of inhibiting the carbohydrate
hydrolysing enzymes and has a low glycemic index. The pumpkin composite flour will be useful as
a food material in food processing industries.

REFERENCES

Adebayo R., Faombi, and Oyekanmi M. (2013): Proximate, Mineral and Anti-Nutritient Evaluation
of Pumpkin pulp (cucurbita pepo). Journal of Applied Chemistry. 4.25-28.

Adebowale A. A., Adegoke M. T., Sanni S. A., Adegunwa M.O. and Fetuga G. O. (2012):
Functional Propertied and Biscuit making potential of Sorghum-Wheat flour composite.
America Journal of Food Technology. 7(6).372-379.

Adubofour. J., Anomah, J.W., and Amoah, I. (2018): Anti-nutritional factors and mineral
composition of pumpkin pulp and functional properties of pumpkin-wheat composite flour
for bread preparation. International Journal of Innovative Food Science and Technology.
1(1).1-9.

Awolu O. O., (2017): Optimization of the functional charcteristics, pasting nd rheological

properties of pearl millet-based composite flour. Heliyon. 3(2).e00240

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national Inter. Washington, USA . (18 ed, 3rd review)

Azeem, M.,Mu, T.H. and Zhang M. (2021): influence of particle size distribution on Nutritional
composition, microstructural and antioxidant properties of orange and purple-fleshed sweet
potato flour. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 45(4).e15283.

Bamigbola, Y.A., Awolu, O.O. and Oluwalana, I.B. (2016): The effect of plantain and tigernut
flours substitution on the antioxidant, physicochemical and pasting properties of wheat-
based composite flours. Cogent Food & Agriculture. 2(1).1245060.

Bemfeito. C. M., Carneiro, J. D. D. S., Carvalho, E. E. N, Pereira, R. C. and Boas, E. V.B.V.

(2020): Nutritional and Functional Potential of pumpkin pulp and pequi (Caryocar
brasiliense camb.) peel flours. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 57(10).3920-3925.

Brouns F, I. Bjorck, K. N. Frayn, A. L. Gibbs, V. Lang, G. Slama, T. M. S. Wolever (2005):

Glycaemic index methodology. Nutrition Research Reviews. 18 (1).145-171.

Fedha M.(2014): Physicochemical characterisation and food application of pumpkin (cucurbita

spp) fruits and seed kernel flour. A thesis sbmitted in Jomo Kenyatta University of
Agriculture and Technology.

Hasaninezhad, F., Tavaf, z., Panahi, F., Nourisefat, M., Khalafi-Nezhad, a. and Youseffi, R. (2020):
The assessment of antidiabetic properties of novel synthetic curcumin analogues:alpha-
amylase and alpha-glucosidase as the target enzymes. Journal of Diabeties and Metabolic
Disorders. 19(2).1505-1515.

Ifesan, B. O. T., Femi-Ajayi. O., Adeloye J. B. and Ifesan, B. T. (2020). Quality assessment and
consumer acceptability of cookies from blends of wheat flour and pumpkin (Cucurbita Spp)
seed flour. Himalayan Journal of Applied Medical Sciences and Research. 1(1).1-7.

Malkanthi, H. H. A., Umadevi, S. H. and Jamuna, K. V. (2018): Glycemic response and antioxidant
activity of pumpkin seed powder (Cucurbita maxima) blended biscuits. Journal of
Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 7(4).1877-1882.

McGivern, S., Boutouil, H., Al-Kharusi, G., Little, S., Dunne, N. J and Levingstone, T. J. (2021).
Translation application of 3D bioprinting for cartillage tissue engineering. Bioengineering,
8(10).144-151.

Nakazibwe, I., Olet, E. A and Kagoro-Rungunda, G. (2020): Nutritional physico-chemical

composition of pumpkin pulp for value addition: Case of selected cultivars grown in
Uganda. African Journal of Food Science. 14(8).233-243.

Oluwajuyitan, T. D., Ijarotimi, O. S. and Fagbemi, T. N. (2021): Plantain based dough meal,
nutritional property, antoioxidant activity and dyslipidemia ameliorating potential in high
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Oyedemi, S. O., Oyedemi, B. O., Ijeh, I.I., Ohanyerem, P. E., Coopoosamy, R. M. and Aiyegoro, O.
A. (2017): Alpha- amylase inhibition and antioxidant capacity of some antidiabetic plants
used by traditional healers in southeastern Nigeria, The Scientific World Journal. 1-11.
Doi:10.1155/2017/3592491.

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glycosidase inhibitors. Tetrahedron, 57(42).8773–8778.

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 FUNCTIONAL AND PASTING PROPERTIES OF FLOUR BLENDS FROM SWEET
POTATO FLOUR AND CASSAVA STARCH

*Kajihausa, O. E.1, Opara, C. N.2, Adeosun, T. A.1, Sulaimon, O. P.1 and Odejimi, S. K.1
1Department of Food Science and Technology
Federal University of Agriculture, P. M. B 2240, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria
2Department of Microbiology
Federal University Otuoke, Bayelsa State, Nigeria
*Corresponding author: [email protected], Tel: +2348037019310

ABSTRACT
This study was carried out to investigate the functional and pasting properties of sweet potato-
cassava starch flour blends. The sweet potato was converted into flour and combined with different
proportions of cassava starch in the following ratio: 100:0%, 90:10%, 80:20%, 70:30%, 60:40%,
and 0:100%, respectively. Functional and pasting properties of the blends were determined using
standard laboratory procedures. The data obtained was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA)
and means were separated by Duncan’s multiple range test using SPSS 21.0. The inclusion of
cassava starch decreased the functional properties of the composite blends. However, dispersibility
was found to increase with the addition of cassava starch. Pasting properties of the sweet potato
flour were significantly (p<0.05) affected. The study concluded that blending cassava starch with
sweet potato flour had a significant effect on the functional and pasting properties of the blends.

Keywords: Cassava, sweet potato, starch, pasting properties, functional properties

INTRODUCTION
Flour is the main ingredient in the production of many foods and is a staple in many countries (Mu
et al., 2017). Sweet potato flour could play a pivotal role in the preparation of various food items,
which can boost consumers’ nutritional and health status (Ngoma et al., 2019). Recently, the use of
sweet potato flour as an ingredient for functional foods has garnered significant interest. However,
if the flour is to be integrated into other food items, it will require high-quality sweet potato flour
(Ngoma et al., 2019). Many factors can influence the quality of sweet potato flour and the
acceptability of developed products.
The use of sweet potato flour is highly dependent on its physicochemical and functional properties
which are highly influenced by the processing methods used. Thus, it is important to understand the
effects of those parameters on the flour properties (Fetuga et al., 2014) to encourage the use of
sweet potato flour in the various formulations for the production of food products (Ngoma et al.,
2019). Processing of sweet potato into flour offers some great facilities such as facilitating storage
and transport; reducing bulkiness and losses due to the high perishability of fresh sweet potato,
increasing shelf life, and improving nutritive value due to the fact that as a great part of the water
content is removed, the carbohydrates, proteins, fat, and minerals are concentrated in the tissues of
dried food products.
Starches from different plant sources exhibit different varieties of characteristic functional
properties such as specific viscosity, low properties, swelling and resistance to swelling, and gel
texture, etc. The functional properties of starch are dependent on the variety, environment, and

154
extraction process and can also be altered by subsequent enzymatic or chemical modification
(Stephen, 2008). Therefore, this study was conducted to determine functional and pasting properties
of sweet potato flour–cassava starch blends with a view to providing information that will improve
the utilization of these starches in food and non-food application

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fresh roots of sweet potato were harvested from an experimental farm of the DUFARM of Federal
University of Agriculture, Abeokuta. The cassava starch was bought from Psaltry International
Company, Ado - Awaye, Iseyin, Oyo state. Equipment used and the processing was done at Food
Science and Technology Laboratory, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta.

Blends preparation
The sweet potato flour was prepared using the method described by Fetuga et al, (2014). The sweet
potato flour and cassava starch were mixed together in the following proportion, 100%:0%;
90%:10%; 80%:20%; 70%:30%, and 60%:40% respectively. The blends were thoroughly mixed
manually, packaged in polyethylene bags, and stored at ambient temperature.

Determination of Functional and Pasting Properties of sweet potato flour and cassava starch
blends
The swelling power was determined according to the method described by Kaur et. al. (2011) while
the water absorption capacity was determined by using the procedure of Sathe et. al. (1982). The
Least gelation concentration and dispersibility were determined according to the methods described
by kajihausa et al. (2020) and Adegunwa et al. (2017), respectively. The method of Wang and
Kinsella (1976) as described by Kajihausa et al. (2020) was used for bulk density while wettability
was determined by Onwuka (2018). The pasting properties were evaluated using Rapid Visco
Analyser (RVA 4500; Perten Instruments, Sweden).

Statistical Analysis
All data obtained were subjected to One-Way Statistical Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using
SPSS (version 17, 2010). Means were separated using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Functional Properties of Flour Blends from Sweet Potato Flour and Cassava Starch
The results of the functional properties of the sweet potato-cassava starch flour (SPCSF) blends are
presented in Table 1. There were significant (p<0.5) differences in all the functional properties
investigated. The mean value of the oil absorption capacity (OAC) of the SPCSF blend sample
ranged between 2.04 and 2.36 g/ml. The lowest OAC (2.04 g/ml) was obtained from a sample with
100% cassava starch. The inclusion of cassava starch decreased the capacity of the flour blends to
absorb oil. The OAC suggests that sweet potato flour may contain more hydrophobic proteins than
cassava starch (Lawal and Adebowale, 2012). The water absorption capacity (WAC) of the SPCSF
blends ranged between 2.62 and 2.93 g/ml, with blends containing 60% sweet potato and 40%
cassava starch having the least value. As the inclusion of cassava starch increases, WAC decreased.
Adebowale et al. (2005) reported that the observed variation in the WAC of different foods/flours
can be due to different concentrations of protein, their conformational characteristics, and their

155
degree of interaction with water. Bulk density is a functional property of flours, granules, powders,
fine particles, and other divided solids of foods (or food ingredients) (Kajihausa et al., 2020). The
bulk density of the flour blends ranged from 0.67 to 0.82 g/ml. An inconsistency trend was
observed, however at 30% inclusion of cassava starch, an increase was observed.

The gelation property of the flour blends decreased with an increase in cassava starch addition.
Variations in gelling properties have been associated with the relative ratio of different constituents
such as proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates are directly related to their texture and its viscoelasticity
(Ojo et al., 2017). The gel point, or onset of gelation, is accompanied by a rapid increase in
viscosity. The swelling capacity is the measure of the starch’s ability to absorb water and swell, and
also reflects the extent of associative forces in the starch granules. It is an indication of the non-
covalent bonding between the molecules of starch granules and also one of the factors of the α-
amylose and amylopectin ratios (Adegunwa et al., 2017). The swelling capacity (index) of flour is
influenced by the particle size, species variety, and method of processing or unit operations
(Kajihausa et al., 2020). Swelling power was seen to decrease as the inclusion of cassava starch
increased. Also, a significant difference in the dispersibility of the flour blends, which ranged from
52.50 to 90.25 % was observed. The values increased as the level of cassava starch in the blends
increased. High dispersibility indicates a low tendency of the flour to form lumps during mixing,
resulting in smooth dough or pastes, which is ideal for various food products (Adegunwa et. al.,
2017). The wettability of the flour blends was seen to decrease with an increase in the addition of
cassava starch. A significant difference was observed (p<0.05) among all the flour blends.

Pasting Properties of Blends from Sweet Potato Flour and Cassava Starch
The pasting properties are important as it is used in predicting the pasting behaviour and ability of
the flour samples. Table 2 presents the mean values obtained for pasting properties. Peak viscosity
(PV) indicates the water-holding capacity of the starch or mixture. The PV decreases as the addition
of cassava starch increases however, a higher PV value was seen in 100% cassava starch. There was
no significant difference (p>0.05) between samples containing 30 and 40 % inclusion of cassava
starch. The higher the PV the higher the swelling index, while low PV is indicative of higher
solubility as a result of starch degradation or dextrinization, this is also in line with the work of
Shittu et al. (2001). The trough values or holding strength of composite flour is the minimum
viscosity after the peak, making the starch granules of the flour undisrupted when the flour paste is
subjected to a holding period of constant temperature, time and shear stress (Imoisi et al., 2020).
The holding strength of SPCSF blends ranged from 1378 to 2482 RVU, the holding strength was
highest in 100% cassava starch. A decrease was observed as cassava starch inclusion increased.
High trough values may represent low cooking losses and superior eating quality (Asaam et al.,
2018).
Breakdown viscosity is indicative of paste stability (Akanbi et al., 2009). There were significant
differences (p<0.05) among the six flour samples. The breakdown viscosity decreased with
increasing levels of cassava starch substitution. Low breakdown viscosity is often associated with
low hydration and swelling power and high resistance. Setback, final viscosity, peak time, and
pasting temperature decrease with an increase in the inclusion of cassava starch. Significant
differences (p<0.05) were observed among all the SPCSF blends for the setback, peak time, and
temperature.

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 Table 1: Functional properties of flour blends from sweet potato flour and cassava starch

Sample OAC (g/ml) WAC (g/ml) Bulk density (%) Least gelation (%) Swelling power Dispersibility (%) Wettability (sec)
SP100:CS0 2.36 ± 0.03c 2.93 ± 0.00d 0.67 ± 0.00a 11.00 ± 1.41b 4.30 ± 0.01c 52.50 ± 0.71a 115.28 ± 0.09f
SP90:CS10 2.14 ± 0.02b 2.78± 0.01c 0.67 ± 0.01a 8.00 ± 0.00ab 4.27 ± 0.01c 58.25 ± 0.35b 85.71 ± 0.36d
b b a ab
SP80:CS20 2.12 ± 0.01 2.73 ± 0.02 0.67 ± 0.00 9.00 ± 1.41 4.05 ± 0.03c 62.00 ± 0.00c 102.00 ± 0.00e
SP70:CS30 2.10 ± 0.00b 2.69± 0.00b 0.82 ± 0.01b 9.00 ±1.41ab 3.67 ± 0.06b 64.60 ± 0.57d 66.29 ± 0.23c
b a a a
SP60:CS40 2.15± 0.02 2.62 ± 0.02 0.67 ± 0.01 7.00 ± 1.41 3.42 ± 0.22b 69.25 ± 1.06e 52.66 ± 0.05b
a b a ab
SP0:CS100 2.04 ± 0.02 2.73 ± 0.03 0.67 ± 0.00 8.00 ±0.00 2.67 ± 0.14a 90.25 ± 1.06f 43.41 ± 0.06a
* Values are expressed as Mean ± SD of duplicates.
Mean values with the same superscript letters within the same column do not differ significantly (p ≤ 0.05)

Table 2: Pasting properties of flour blends from sweet potato flour and cassava starch
Pasting
Sample Peak viscosity Trough Breakdown Final viscosity Set back Peak time temperature
SP100:CS0 2131.50 ± 20.51c 1866.50 ± 27.58c 265.00 ± 7.07ab 2879.00 ± 5.66d 1012.50 ± 33.23c 5.50 ± 0.71b 82.50 ± 0.71d
b b
SP90:CS10 1912.50 ± 129.40 1683.50 ±146.37 229.00 ± 16.97a 257.00 ± 115.97c 894.50 ± 30.41c 5.74 ± 0.37b 81.28 ± 0.39d
SP80:CS20 1826.50 ± 2.12ab 1522.50± 0.71a 304.00 ± 2.83ab 2194.00 ± 28.28b 671.50 ± 27.58b 5.00 ± 0.00b 78.50 ± 0.71c
a a
SP70:CS30 1745.50± 43.13 1421.00± 15.56 324.50 ± 27.58ab 1915.50 ± 75.66a 494.50 ± 60.10ab 5.00 ±0.00b 76.50 ± 0.71b
SP60:CS40 1713.50 ± 2.12a 1378.00 ± 12.73a 335.50 ± 10.61b 1824.50 ± 13.44a 446.5 ± 26.16a 5.00 ± 0.00b 76.00 ± 0.00b
d
SP0:CS100 6000.50 ± 54.45 2482.50 ± 34.65d 3518.00 ± 89.10c 3465.50 ± 200.11e 981 ± 162.64c 4.00 ± 0.00a 73.00 ± 1.41a
* Values are expressed as Mean ± SD of duplicates.
Mean values with the same superscript letters within the same column do not differ significantly (p ≤ 0.05

157
The final viscosity of flour indicates the ability of the flour to form a viscous paste or gel after
cooking and as well as the resistance of the paste to shear stress during stirring. The increase in
final viscosity might be due to the aggregation of amylose molecules (Imoisi et al., 2020) which is
indicative of quick retrogradation. The setback value is the tendency of starch to associate and
retrograde on cooling. Peroni et al. (2006) indicated that the flour with low setback value may have
low values of amylase which have high molecular weight. The lower the retrogradation, the higher
the setback value, during the cooling of the products made from the flour (Imoisi et al., 2020). Peak
time is the time to the nearest half-minute from the first edition of the water to the development of
the dough’s consistency (minimum mobility), immediately before the indication of weakening. The
pasting temperature is the temperature at which the viscosity starts to rise (Adebowale et al., 2005).
A higher pasting temperature indicates high water-binding capacity, higher gelatinization tendency
and lower swelling property of starch-based flour due high to the degree of associative forces
between the starch granules (Imoisi et al., 2020).

CONCLUSION
The substitution of sweet potato flour with cassava starch significantly affected the functional and
pasting properties of the composite flour blends. However, the results obtained indicated that sweet
potato-cassava starch flour blends could have potential use in the food industry.

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 EVALUATION OF THE MINERAL AND VITAMIN ANALYSIS OF LOCAL SNACK
(AADUN) MADE FROM MAIZE AND SOYBEAN FLOUR

Akinyele, A. A.1, *Akinyele, A. A.2, Abata, G. D.1, Oyinloye, O. D.l, Mosimabale, M. M.1 and
Bello, H, B.2
1Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Federal Polytechnic, Ede Osun State, Nigeria
2Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Federal Polytechnic, Ayede, Oyo State, Nigeria
*Corresponding Author email Address: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Aadun is a popular local snack in Southwestern Nigeria, it is usually made from dried maize
(Zea mays) and is characteristically yellowish in colour, with ease of disintegration in the mouth,
fine texture and good taste. This study was carried out to evaluate mineral and vitamin analysis
of the local snack (Aadun) made from different proportions of maize and soybean flour.
Composites of 80% to 90% Yellow and White Maize, and 10% to 20% of soybean flour combined
with other ingredients such as grounded pepper, common salt and palm oil were separately
processed into Aadun and used for this study. Findings revealed that the mean values for vitamin
A, B1, B2 and B6 ranged between 4088.80 and 3915.66, 0.29 and 0.22, 0.60 and 0.71 and 0.41
and 0.49 respectively. Findings further revealed mineral composition of the Aadun with the
sodium content ranging between 41.13 and 38.77. Results revealed that the samples had calcium
values with mean ranging between 18.39 and 15.12. Potassium results obtained showed that the
samples had the mean ranging between 91.21 and 80.68. The results obtained from this study
indicates that aadun is a good repository of vitamins and minerals needed for proper body
functioning and is hereby recommended.

Keywords: Aadun, Vitamins, Minerals, Maize, Soybeans

INTRODUCTION
Food items eaten between main meals are called snacks. Puff puff, kuli kuli, robo, akara bite, and
kokoro are just a few of the indigenous Nigerian snacks that people eat. One of the well-known
regional foods enjoyed in the six states that make up South-Western Nigeria—Lagos, Oyo,
Ogun, Osun, Ondo, and Ekiti is Aadun (Otunola et al., 2012; Fasasi and Alokun, 2013). It is a
maize-based product that is produced using a variety of unit operations, including drying,
cleaning, roasting/frying, milling, mixing, dough formation, rolling and cutting and packaging.
(Fasasi and Alokun, 2013; Adegunwa et al., 2015; Oranusi and Dahunsi, 2015).

Aadun is a common local snack in southwest Nigeria. It is frequently yellowish in color due to
the use of palm oil during preparation, easily disintegrates in the mouth, has a fine texture, and
tastes nice. Aadun is a rich source of energy and minerals, although it is low in protein. It is
frequently offered as an appetizer at social events like weddings and naming ceremonies.
(Adedokun, 2016). Based on the kind of additional material that is added to the fundamental
ingredients, there are various types of aadun. Aadun elewa, which contains some roasted bean

160
grains embedded. Aadun oloboro is essentially roasted maize meal blended with palm oil.
Additionally, "aadun ologede," another well-liked kind, is created by blending plain aadun with
blended cooked ripe plantain. (Adedokun, 2016).

One of the main staple foods in African nations is maize (Zea mays), especially in Nigeria,
where it is used as a raw material to make a variety of local snacks, including, aadun, donkua,
and kokoro, as well as fermented maize porridge (ogi) and maize flour (tuwo) (Idowu &
Adedokun, 2015). When compared to legumes, maize has a low protein content of only 9.2%,
making it a food crop high in carbohydrates (around 75%). While lacking lysine and tryptophan,
it is extremely abundant in methionine and cysteine. (Sobukola, et al., 2018). In 2016, Adedokun
suggested that the amino acids missing from maize may be added to the diet by combining the
maize with other sources of those amino acids such as soybeans. Because it is simple to make as
a ready-to-eat food in the form of meal, flour, and as a snack by boiling or roasting raw corn,
maize is well-liked in Nigeria. Aadun, a highly favored maize product in Nigeria, is consumed as
a snack by people of all ages, especially in the Southwestern region of the nation, either on its
own or in combination with other food items. (Okoruwa, 2015).

Maize and its products are increasingly used in both food and non-food systems because to their
high functionality. (Abiose and Ikujenlola, 2014). In West Africa, maize is processed in a variety
of ways, yielding a wide range of goods (Nsto et al., 2016). The general aim of the study was to
evaluate mineral and vitamin content of local snack (Aadun) made from maize and soybean.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Procurement of Materials

The materials (yellow and white maize), soybeans and other ingredients were purchased at Oja-
Timi market in Ede, Osun state.

Preparation of maize flour (yellow and white)

10kg of yellow and white maize was sorted to remove stones, shaft and other debris. This was
then roasted for about 10-15 minutes until it turned golden brown. The maize was winnowed to
remove dirts and burnt maize and processed as follows:

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 Maize Grains

Sorting and cleaning

Roasting

Milling

Sieving

Mixing

Molding

White Maize Flour

Figure 1: Flowchart for the production of White Maize Flour

Preparation of Soybean flour

Soybeans were sorted and cleaned to remove stones and other debris, it was then roasted for 15-
20 minutes until it turned golden brown, it was left to cool and dehulled by rubbing between
palms and then winnowed to remove shafts and seed coats. It was then milled to flour (soybean
flour).

Soybean

Sorting and cleaning

Roasting

Milling

Sieving

Mixing

Molding

Soybean flour
Figure 2: Flowchart for the production of Soybean flour

162
Preparation of Different Types of Aadun Samples
Aadun fortified with soybeans were prepared with different formulation ratios as listed below;
XT - 100% yellow maize (control)
XY - 100% white maize (control)
XA - 80% of yellow maize, 20%of soybeans
XB - 90%of yellow maize, 10%of soybeans
XC - 80% of white maize, 20% of soybeans.
XD - 90%of white maize. 10% of soybeans
Determination of Vitamins and Minerals

Determination of Mineral Element was carried out using (AOAC, 2005)

Statistical Analysis

All data was analyzed by using SPSS version 23.0. Data were analyzed using one-way analysis
of variance (ANOVA), the Duncan’s New Multiple Range Test was used to compare means at
95% confidence interval.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

VITAMINS COMPOSITION
Table 1
Sample Vit. A Vit.E Vit. B1 Vit. B2 Vit. B6
(ug/100g) (ug/100g) (ug/100g) (ug/100g) (ug/100g)
XT 4065.39 ± 0.03b 0.06 ± 0.00a 0.23 ± 0.02b 0.60 ±0.00c 0.44 ± 0.00c

XB 3974.22 ± 0.02d 0.06 ± 0.00a 0.24±0.00b 0.65±0.00a 0.42±0.00d

XA 3957.89±0.02e 0.06±0.00a 0.25±0.00b 0.63±0.00b 0.41±0.00e

XY 4088.80±0.02a 0.07±0.00a 0.26±0.02a 0.71±0.00a 0.49±0.00a

XD 4049.74±0.01c 0.06±0.00a 0.29±0.00a 0.67±0.05a 0.47±0.00b

XC 3915.66±0.02f 0.06±0.00a 0.22±0.00c 0.62±0.02b 0.40±0.00f

163
Note: XT: 100% of yellow maize (control), XY: 100% of white maize (control), XA: 80% of
yellow Maize 20 % of Soybeans, XB: 90% of yellow maize 10% of Soybeans, XC: 80% of white
maize 20% of Soybeans, XD: 90% of white Maize 10 % of Soybeans
Note: superscript with the same alphabet is not significantly different.
Table 1 revealed the vitamins composition for vitamins A, E, B1, B2 and B6. The results
revealed that sample XT (ug/100g), XB (ug/100g), XA (ug/100g), XY (ug/100g), XD (ug/100g)
and XC (ug/100g) had the mean values of 4065.39, 3974.22, 3957.89, 4088.80, 4049.74, 3915.66
for vitamin A respectively. Also sample XT, XB, XA, XY, XD and XC had the values of 0.06,
0.06, 0.06, 0.07, 0.06 and 0.06 for vitamin E content respectively. Furthermore, the results
revealed that for vitamin B1: Sample XT, XB, XA, XY, XD and XC had the mean values of
0.23, 0.24, 0.25, 0.26, 0.29 and 0.22.
For vitamin B2, the results revealed that samples XT, XB, XA, XY, XD and XC had the mean
values of: 0.60, 0.65, 0.63, 0.71, 0.67 and 0.62 respectively. Moreover, for vitamin B6, it was
shown that samples XT, XB, XA, XY, XD and XC had the mean values of: 0.44, 0.42, 0.41,
0.49, 0.47 and 0.44 respectively.
MINERAL COMPOSITION

Table 2

Sample Na (mg/100g) Ca (mg/100g) K (mg/100g)

XT 41.08 ± 0.01a 18.39 ± 0.02a 91.21 ± 0.02a

XB 40.32 ± 0.02c 16.05 ± 0.02c 82.16 ± 0.02c

XA 39.24 ± 0.02d 15.67 ± 0.01e 81.97 ± 0.01d

XY 40.86 ± 0.02b 15.87 ± 0.01d 81.70 ± 0.02e

XD 41.13 ± 0.01a 17.92 ± 0.01b 90.67 ± 0.02b

XC 38.77 ± 0.01e 15.12 ± 0.02f 80.68 ± 0.01f

Note: superscript with the same alphabet are not significantly different.

The results of the table 2 above revealed the mineral composition of the aadun in which samples
XT, XB, XA, XY, XD and XC had the sodium content of: 41.08, 40.32, 39.24, 40.86, 41.13,
38.77 respectively. The table revealed that samples XT, XB, XA, XY, XD and XC had the mean
of: 18.39, 16.05, 15.67, 15.87, 17.92 and 15.12 for calcium respectively. While for potassium it
shows that samples XT, XB, XA, XY, XD and XC had the mean of: 91.21, 82.16, 81.97, 81.70,
90.67, 80.68 for potassium respectively.

164
GENERAL DISCUSSION

A snack (Aadun) is a light meal or a portion often smaller than a regular meal generally taken as
in-between meal.
In, Osun state, Nigeria, both staple and non-staple foods are used to produce locally made
traditional snacks and it is primarily sold as a street snack.
Vitamins are categorized as micronutrients that our bodies require in minute or microscopic
amounts to function properly. According to Kubala 2022's findings, vitamin A is a fat-soluble
nutrient that is regarded as a standalone nutrient and has a crucial role in human bodies. It was
revealed that sample XT, XB, XA, XY, XD and XC had the mean of: 4065.39, 3974.22,
3957.89, 4088.80, 4049.74 and 3915.66 for vitamins respectively. The findings indicate that the
sample complies with the typical RDA suggested for vitamin A intake daily (Kubala, 2022).
Additionally, the findings were superior to those of Adepoju et al. (2018).
Vitamin E is known as an antioxidant that protects against diseases including cancer, heart
disease, diabetes, and cataracts and is essential for a robust immune system, healthy skin, and
eyes. From the results, it revealed that, sample XT, XB, XA, XY, XD and XC had the mean of:
0.06, 0.06, 0.06, 0.07, 0.06 and 0.06 respectively, these results had a low value than the RDA for
groups of age Morgan, 2022. But, also a similar result with Adepoju et al 2018.
Also, the results show that vitamin B1 (Thiamine) had the mean of: 0.23, 0.24, 0.25, 0.26, 0.29
0.22 for samples XT, XB, XA, XY, XD and XC respectively, these results revealed that all the
sample had a lower value than the RDA of 1.2mg daily for vitamin B1. But had a close range
with Adepoju et al 2018.
The results revealed sample to contain Vitamin B2 with XT, XB, XA, XY, XD, and XC having
the mean values of 0.60, 0.65, 0.63, 0.71, 0.67 and 0.62 respectively. The results show that all
the samples had a lower RDA value compared to 1.3mg and 1.1mg required daily by men and
women respectively. Also, the results were higher than Adepoju et al 2018.

For vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) is a water-soluble vitamin found naturally in many foods, it was
revealed from the results that sample XT, XB, XA, XY, XD, and XC had the mean values of
0.44, 0.42, 0.41, 0.49, 0.47, 0.40.

Minerals
Sodium is required by the human body in small amount to conduct nerve impulses, contract and
relax muscles and maintain proper balance of water and minerals. It is estimated that the human
body needs about 500mg of sodium daily for these vital functions such as nerve, muscle
functions fluid balance, blood volume. The results of the sample XT, XB, XA, XY, XD, and XC
had the sodium content of 41.08, 40.32, 39.24, 40.86, 41.13 and 38.77 respectively. It implies
that sample XD had the highest sodium content and XC had the lowest sodium content, it also
implies that sample XT and XC were not significantly different from each other. The sodium

165
content of Adepoju et al (2018) is higher compared to the values of sample above because of the
presence of crayfish and it is a good source of sodium.
Calcium is a mineral that is most frequently linked to strong bones and teeth, but it is also crucial
for muscular contraction, controlling heartbeat, and neuron function. The results of the sample
XT, XB, XA, XY, XD, and XC had the mean of 18.39, 16.05, 15.67, 15.87, 17.92 and 15.12 for
calcium respectively. It implies that all the samples were significantly different from each other
and that sample XT had the highest calcium content and XC had the lowest calcium content
among all the samples. The calcium content of Adepoju et al is higher compared to values above
because the protein content of the samples was high.
Potassium is also a mineral that helps more nutrients into cells and waste products out of cells.
A diet rich in potassium helps to offset some sodium's harmful effects on blood pressure.
The results of the samples XT, XB, XA, XY, XD, and XC had the mean of 91.21, 82.16, 81.97,
81.70, 90.67 and 80.68 for potassium respectively. It implies that all the samples were
significantly different from each other and that sample XT had the highest value for potassium
while sample XC had the lowest value for potassium content.
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43:237-240.

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 NIGERIA’S PLACE IN GLOBAL MARKET: A CRITICAL REVIEW ON RECENT
BANANA (Musa acuminata) EXPORTS

Raphael, D. O. and Ademoyegun. O. T.

National Horticultural Research Institute
P.M.B. 5432, Idi-Ishin, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Nigeria has underperformed in area of banana production and export despite the availability of
manpower and land. It was discovered that over-reliance on crude tools, failure to adopt modern
technologies, inadequate commitment of agro-applied stakeholders from public and private
sectors, inadequate awareness of farmers on the robustness of global demand for banana,
ignorance on necessary document acquisition and compliance with export safety guidelines and
poor logistics of harvested farm produce has significantly increased waste generated and reduce
export possibilities.

Keywords: Musa acuminata, banana export, farmer sensitization, banana and global market

INTRODUCTION
Banana (Musa acuminata), a widely consumed horticultural crop is grown in 135 countries with
estimated production capacity of 144 million metric tons annually. (Dadrasnia et al., 2020)
Cavendish banana is the most common type of Musa acuminata and also the most exported.
Other types include red banana, lady finger banana, matoke, red banana and Gros Michel banana.
Ogede paranta and omini are considered indigenous bananas also belonging to Musa acuminata.
Grown predominantly in tropical areas, they are propagated through the use of suckers and
produces its first fruit within 9 to 12 months after planting.

Figure 1: Bananas

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Current state of banana export in Nigeria
The Observatory of Economic Complexity (OEC) ranked Nigeria as the 112th highest exporter of
banana, generating only $38,800 from the global banana export market valued at $13.6 billion.
Nigeria was also ranked as 139th highest exporter of tropical fruit in the world with tropical
fruits as the country’s 432nd most exported commodity. (OEC, 2022)
Despite the availability of large workforce and a good percentage of its citizen actively involved
in agricultural practices, Nigeria’s impact in global market for bananas and other tropical fruits
can be said to be below expectations.
Russia has been the major buyer of Nigeria’s exported bananas and with ongoing Russia-Ukraine
war, it is expected that the war would substantially affect the ease of trade between the two
nations.

Figure 2: Countries Nigeria exported banana to in 2020

Figure 3: Countries Nigeria exported banana to in 2021

Source: (OEC, 2022)

However, with 67% of banana consumed in Europe coming from outside the European Union
(EU) and United State importing 4.8 million metric tons of banana (Evans et al., 2020), there is
no limit to the possibility of Nigeria taking its rightful place among global export leaders if
certain constrains are addressed.

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Health Benefits
Banana is rich in bioactive compounds such as catechin, gallic acid, tannins, carotenoids,
phytosterols and biogenic amines. It is also rich in potassium, magnesium, copper and
manganese. It possesses antioxidant properties; it helps regulate blood pressure and reduce
inflammation. Research has shown that banana peel is also rich in bioactive compounds
beneficial to human health and can be processed into primary or secondary raw material in food
processing. (Hikal et al., 2022; Singh et al., 2016)

Figure 4: Showing banana in various wet and dried exportable forms

Constrains of Banana export in Nigeria
Access to modern farm inputs and slow adoption of modern technologies
Vast majority of farmers in Nigeria practice small scale farming which for some could be
attributed not to their unwillingness to produce in large scale but rather due to lack of funds and
financial aids needed to purchase modern equipment. Obtaining and adopting modern
technologies in agriculture is capital intensive and without addressing this issue, creating
subsidies or leasing these technologies at cut-down prices, overall output would continue to
dwindle.

Approach of farmers to banana farming

170
Banana has long been seen by Nigerian farmers as a crop grown for local consumption only
rather than viewing it as a produce with potential for export. As such, farmers don’t see the need
to increase their production capacity of bananas or the need to channel more resource into its
production.
Poor logistics and storage facilities of farm produce
Banana is a delicate fruit that requires minimal handling and good storage condition to maintain
its quality. Lack of ideal storage conditions, poor road network and the use of un-ideal vehicles
for food transport has led to increased food loss and wastage. This reduces the amount of
bananas available for both local and foreign consumption.
Ignorance of most farmers on export guidelines
Record shows that a high number of Nigeria’s attempted export of food produce has been
rejected by importing countries due to reasons such as lack of adequate certifications and food
safety. European Union rejected 120food products from Nigeria between 2013 and 2016, some
of which were due to reasons such as choice of chemicals applied during farming, method of
food ripening and storage. This among many has created negative perception about Nigeria’s
agricultural produce.(Omojokun, 2013; Sokefun et al., 2018)
Way forward
Increased government commitment
For food security to be achieved the availability, accessibility, utilization and stability of
agricultural produce must be guaranteed.(Committee on World Food Security, 2017)

Source: FAOSTAT, (2023)

It was observed that 1.11% of Nigeria budget for 2023 was allocated to the agricultural sector.
With reduced farm produced recorded due to climate change and high cost of needed farm
supplies, increased food waste due to poor logistics and storage conditions, there is need for
greater investment in the agricultural sector as this not only helps to reduce cases of under

171
nourishment but helps alleviate poverty by creating more job opportunities, increased production
and revenue generation. (“NIGERIA: Budget 2023 Passed,” 2023)
To be able to compete in the global export market, there is a need to study front runners in
sectors relevant to achieving set goals.
The need for robust and accessible database
This can only be achieved through public and private partnership. This is because the complex
chain involving production, logistics and processing of agricultural produce for foreign and
domestic consumption cannot be possible without the involvement of multiple stakeholders who
rely on available data and favorable government policies to conduct transactions and determine
viability of possible investments (Baquero et al., 2023). This would also enable farmers establish
direct links with potential buyers thereby minimizing food waste by ensuring that the right
amount of agricultural produce are supplied to areas where they are needed in good
condition.(Richards et al., 2021)
Incorporation of modern technologies in Nigeria agriculture
Over-dependence on crude tools has limited the possibility of large scale farming among
populace, this is evident in the fact that the average farm size among Nigerians is 0.5 hectares.
With growing population and increased demand for steady food supply, there is a need to
embrace smart farming and adopt the use of modern farming equipments (Josephine, 2022). This
however hasn’t been actualized as current inflation, post COVID-19 effect and lack of financial
might needed to purchase modern equipment has ensured that the use of crude tools continue to
dominate. As such subsidization of this equipment’s, availability of flexible financial aid and
sensitization on the use and maintenance of this machines would greatly help to encourage large-
scale farming (Mgbenka et al., 2015).
There is the need to embrace and see technological advancement and innovations as key to
connecting with global market, revenue generation and improved food security.

Sensitization of farmers and other agro-applied stakeholders

To be able to establish our presence in the global market, there is need for farmers and agro-
allied stakeholders to be sensitized on required documents for export of farm produce and how to
obtain them, standards placed by import countries on the exporter, banned substances to avoid
during the process of cultivation and storage of farm produce, techniques for storage, packaging
and maintaining of product quality and how to process customer feedbacks.

Organizers can also help establish to establish contacts between farmers that desire to export
their produce with potential buyers.

CONCLUSION
It can be said that the observed constrains not only affects banana export but also a vast majority
of Nigeria’s agricultural produce which is evident in the nation’s poor standing in the global fruit

172
 market. With the nation’s population projected at 400 million by 2050, it can be predicted that if
greater commitment is not shown and efforts made in addressing the underlying constrains, there
would be steep decrease in food availability, greater food inflation and reduced revenue
generation as the nation would export less and be forced to depend on import of the populace
basic needs.

REFERENCES

Baquero, M., Cifrian, E., Viguri, J. R., & Andrés, A. (2023). Influence of the methodological
approaches adopted on the food waste generation ratios. Resources, Conservation and Recycling,
190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2023.106872
Committee on World Food Security. (2017). Global Strategic Framework for Food Security and
Nutrition (GSF). Food and Agriculture Organization.
Dadrasnia, A., Usman, M. M., Omar, R., Ismail, S., & Abdullah, R. (2020). Potential use of Bacillus
genus to control of bananas diseases: Approaches toward high yield production and sustainable
management. In Journal of King Saud University-Science (Vol. 32, Issue 4).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2020.03.011
Evans, E. A., Ballen, F. H., & Siddiq, M. (2020). Banana Production, Global Trade, Consumption
Trends, Postharvest Handling, and Processing. In Handbook of Banana Production, Postharvest
Science, Processing Technology, and Nutrition. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119528265.ch1
FAOSTAT. (2023). Per capita food supply variability in Nigeria.
https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#country/159
Hikal, W. M., Said-Al Ahl, H. A. H., Bratovcic, A., Tkachenko, K. G., Sharifi-Rad, J., Kačániová,
M., Elhourri, M., & Atanassova, M. (2022). Banana Peels: A Waste Treasure for Human Being.
In Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/7616452
Josephine Oguine, N. (2022). Comparative Analysis of China and Nigeria Agricultural Reforms in the
Advancement of Food Sustainability on a National Scale. BOHR International Journal of Civil
Engineering and Environmental Science, 1(2), 41–49. https://doi.org/10.54646/bijcees.005
Mgbenka, R. N., Mbah, E. N., & Ezeano, C. I. (2016). A review of smallholder farming in Nigeria:
Need for transformation. International Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural
Development Studies, 3(2), 43-54.
NIGERIA: Budget 2023 Passed. (2023). Africa Research Bulletin: Economic, Financial and
Technical Series, 59(12). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6346.2023.10929.x
OEC. (2022). OEC: Bananas in Nigeria. The Observatory of Economic Complexity.
https://oec.world/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/nga/all/20803/2020/

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Omojokun, J. (2013). Regulation and Enforcement of Legislation on Food Safety in Nigeria. In
Mycotoxin and Food Safety in Developing Countries. https://doi.org/10.5772/54423
Richards, C., Hurst, B., Messner, R., & O’Connor, G. (2021). The paradoxes of food waste reduction
in the horticultural supply chain. Industrial Marketing Management, 93.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2020.12.002
Singh, B., Singh, J. P., Kaur, A., & Singh, N. (2016). Bioactive compounds in banana and their
associated health benefits - A review. In Food Chemistry (Vol. 206).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.03.033
Sokefun, E., Ayepola, O. O., & Olasehinde, G. I. (2018). Mycotoxins: Food Production and
Exportation in Nigeria. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 210(1).
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174
 QUALITY OF NON-ALCOHOLIC ‘PITO’ (A MALTED BEVERAGE) FROM
SORGHUM AND MILLET

Akanbi O. R., Morenikeji O. E., *Olatunde G. O.

Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta
*Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to evaluate a non-alcoholic variant of 'pito' produced from blends of
malted sorghum (MS) and malted millet (MM). Five samples of non-alcoholic 'pito' drinks were
prepared from the blends in the ratio (MS:MM) of 100:0, 70:30, 50:50, 30:70, and 0:100. ‘Pito’
drink produced from 100% malted sorghum (MS100:MM0) served as the reference sample. The
physicochemical, mineral, sensory, and consumer acceptability of the samples were determined
using standard procedures. Data obtained were subjected to statistical analysis of variance and
significant difference between samples for each property was determined at p<0.05. The range
of pH, total titratable acidity, viscosity, total solids, total soluble solids, and specific gravity of
the 'pito' samples were 5.25-5.70, 0.0009-0.0036%, 17.40-54.60 cP, 88.65-170.20 g/L, 6.00-10.0
°Brix, and 0.52-0.55, respectively. The range of mineral content (mg/100 g) of the 'pito' samples
were 0.11-0.26, 121.21-250.34, 146.67-302.91, 10.32-21.34 for Zn, Mg, Ca, and Fe respectively.
The range of sensory properties and consumer acceptability were; appearance (6.02-6.67),
aroma (6.28-6.63), colour (5.93-6.53), flavour (6.12-6.73), mouthfeel (5.92-6.83), and overall
acceptability (6.13-7.05). There were significant differences among the samples in terms of the
physicochemical and mineral properties, as well as the sensory properties except in aroma.
Sample (MS250:MM250) was the most acceptable.

Keywords: ‘Pito’, beverage, quality, sorghum, millet

INTRODUCTION
'Pito' is a type of beer brewed in northern Ghana, sections of Nigeria, and other parts of West
Africa from fermented millet or sorghum. It was marketed in Nigerian rural areas but has turned
into a lucrative business in urban cities. 'Pito' varies in colour from golden yellow to dark brown,
and its flavour ranges from sweet to sour (Rashwan et al., 2021). Malting, mashing,
fermentation, and grain maturation are the typical methods for making 'Pito'. The malting process
causes substantial biochemical changes in sorghum and millet grains. The malting reduces the
phytate level of grain and improves iron (Onwurafor et al., 2020). The malts acquired are the
primary raw material utilized in the production of both alcoholic and non-alcoholic 'Pito'
beverages (Okonkwo and Ogbuneke, 2011).
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) is the world's fifth most important cereal crop and the
most important cereal food in Nigeria's northern states. In Nigeria, sorghum is known as guinea-
corn or ‘dawa’, and the country is the world's second largest producer (Ajeigbe et al., 2021).
Sorghum is high in antioxidants like flavonoids, phenolic acids, tannins, and is high in B

175
vitamins, and magnesium. Sorghum is used to make beverages, malt, sorghum meal, and
livestock feed, among other things.
Millets are cereals from the Poaceae grass family and are considered one of the oldest cultivated
crops (Hassan et al., 2021). Among the millet types, pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L. R. Br),
is the most significant and is used as a staple food in many Nigerian households. Millet is high in
B-vitamins and contains about 18% protein. Millet is used to manufacture 'Ogi' and 'Kunnu'
which are fermented food products. It has been employed in the production of malted beverages
such as 'Pito' and 'Burukutu'.
The most popular type of 'Pito' is the alcoholic variant, which is manufactured from sorghum or
maize and enjoyed by adults. The non-alcoholic variant of 'pito' has the potential to be more
acceptable to health-conscious consumers. Information about the physicochemical properties,
mineral content, and consumer acceptability of non-alcoholic 'pito' drinks from various blends of
sorghum and millet is not available in the literature. This study aims to evaluate the quality of
non-alcoholic 'pito' made from sorghum and millet.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Sorghum (red type), millet and sugar were purchased from Eleweran market in Abeokuta,
Nigeria. Food processing equipment in the Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal
University of Agriculture, Abeokuta were used for the study.

Production of malted millet and sorghum grits, blend formulation, and ‘Pito’
The method of Bolarinwa et al. (2015) was used to prepare malted sorghum and millet grits. The
sorghum grains (4.2 kg) and millet grains (4.3 kg) were sorted to remove dirt. The cleaned grains
were washed and steeped in water for 12 h so as to attain a 42-46% moisture level. The hydrated
grains were spread on a sterile moist jute bag and allowed to germinate for four days. Non-
germinated grains were discarded and the germinated seeds were dried at 60 ºC in a cabinet dryer
to a moisture content of 10-12%. The withered rootless grains were gently brushed off, and the
malted grains were dry milled and packaged in an air tight container until ready for use.
The milled malted sorghum (MS)and milled malted millet (MM) grits were blended in the
following proportions: (MS:MM) of 100:0, 70:30, 50:50, 30:70, and 0:100. Malted sorghum
(100%), served as reference. The blends were used for the production of the 'pito' (Samuel and
Atanda, 2020).
The 'pito' drink was made by mashing malted sorghum or malted millet grits. The malted grains
were ground to a fine coarse consistency using a milling machine, and then the grit combination
was diluted with 2 L of warm water to a watery consistency. The first steaming was done for 90
min and allowed to cool for 1-2 h. The slurry was sieved using a muslin bag to remove the shaft.
Next, the solution was heated for 30 min. During this process, sugar was added to sweeten the
solutions and give them the distinctive flavour of 'pito' drinks (Adebayo, 2017).

176
Determination of Physicochemical Properties and Mineral Composition of 'Pito'
pH of the 'pito' was measured using a pH meter (Jenway 3330, England). Total soluble solid
TSS) was measured using a hand refractometer. The total titratable acidity was determined as
described by (Sadler and Murphy, 2010). The 'pito' sample was titrated against NaOH (0.1N)
using phenolphthalein as indicator to a faint pink endpoint and total acidity expressed as percent
of citric acid equivalent. The total solid content of 'pito' was determined as described by Agu et
al. (2012). Pito (25 ml) was evaporated on a boiling water bath, dried in an oven at 100°C for 2-3
hour.
Dry weight × 100
%Total Solids =
weight of the sample
Viscosity was measured with a rheometer (Physica MCR 301, Anton Paar GmbH, Graz,
Austria). The temperature was kept constant at 25 ⁰C. The shear rate range was set at 2-100 s-1
and the test was performed in 3 replicates for all the samples. The specific gravity was
determined by using an electrical balance. 'Pito' (50 cm3) was weighed in density bottles and the
same volume of distilled water was weighed.
ρpito
Specific gravity =
ρwater
Where; ρpito is the density of the 'pito' and ρwater is the density of water (Fellows, 2005).
Minerals (Zn, Mg, Ca, Fe) were determined using an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
(AAS) as described by James (1995).

Data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance using SPSS version 16.0 and the
differences between significant mean values were evaluated at p<0.05 using Duncan
Multiple Range Test.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Physicochemical Properties of 'Pito' From Blends of Malted Sorghum and Malted Millet
The range of pH, total titratable acidity (TTA), viscosity, total solids, total soluble solids, and
specific gravity of the 'pito' samples were 5.25-5.70, 0.0009-0.0036%, 17.40-54.60 cP, 88.65-
170.20 g/L, 6.00-10.0 °Brix, and 0.52-0.55 (Table 1). The samples differed significantly
(p<0.05) in all the physicochemical properties. All the samples were slightly acidic. Titratable
acidity acts as a preservative and also imparts taste to the ‘pito’ drink.
The viscosity of the 'pito' drink samples varied from 17.40 to 54.60 Cp. The lowest value of
viscosity was recorded in sample MS150:MM350 and the highest value was in sample
MS250:MM250. 'Pito' from sample MS350:MM150 recorded a viscosity value close to the reference
sample. Viscosity determines the rheological flow property of the 'pito' drink. Viscosity is
important in the processing of food because it changes significantly during any process that
involves heating, cooling, homogenizing and concentration (Onwuka, 2005). The Total solids
(TS) of the 'pito' drink samples varied from 88.65 to 170.20 ºBrix. The lowest value of viscosity
was recorded in sample MS0:MM500 and the highest value was in sample MS250:MM250. The

177
observed higher values of the total solid could be attributed to the lack of efficient filtration as
well as formulation ratio of the ‘pito’ drink.

Table 1: Physicochemical properties of ‘Pito’ from blends of malted sorghum and malted
millet

Sample pH Total Viscosity Total Total Specific

ratio titrable solids soluble gravity
MS:MM acid solids
(%) (Cp) (g/L) (ºBrix)
(%)
100:0 5.60b 0.0009a 40.80c 88.65a 6.00 0.53b

70:30 5.70c 0.0036c 41.40c 126.40b 8.00 0.52a

50:50 5.30a 0.0036c 54.60d 170.20e 9.20 0.55d

30:70 5.60b 0.0027b 17.40a 132.90c 8.00 0.54c

0:100 5.25a 0.0036c 28.20b 135.70d 10.00 0.52a

MS – Malted Sorghum, MM – Malted Millet

Values are means of duplicate determinations
Mean values with different superscripts within a column are significantly
different (p<0.05)

The total solid content represents both the soluble and insoluble material in the ‘pito’ drink. The
TSS for the ‘pito’ samples were higher than that of the reference sample. This may be as a result
of the formulation components and ratio of the ‘pito’ samples. The total soluble solids in food
drinks represent the dissolved solids as sugar. The specific gravity of all the ‘pito’ samples
indicated that the ‘pito’ drink is not alcoholic

Mineral Composition of 'Pito' From Blends of Malted Sorghum and Malted Millet
The range of mineral content (mg/100 g) of the 'pito' samples were 0.11-0.26, 121.21-250.34,
146.67-302.91, 10.32-21.34 for Zn, Mg, Ca, and Fe respectively (Table 2). The reference sample
had the highest Zn and Fe contents, while 'pito' from 100% millet contained the highest Mg and
Ca contents; millet is known to be rich in magnesium.

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Table 2: Mineral composition of ‘Pito’ from blends of malted sorghum and malted millet
Values are means of duplicate determinations
Sample ratio Zinc Magnesium Calcium Iron
MS:MM

(%) (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g)

100:0 0.26±0.000e 137.43±0.002c 166.29±0.002c 21.34±0.001e
70:30 0.20±0.003b 135.23±0.004b 163.64±0.006b 16.35±0.001d

50:50 0.25±0.002d 121.21±0.002a 146.67±0.002a 10.32±0.002a

30:70 0.23±0.002c 138.23±0.000d 167.26±0.001d 14.23±0.003c

0:100 0.11±0.002a 250.34±0.007e 302.91±0.009e 12.56±0.002b

MS – Malted Sorghum, MM – Malted Millet

Mean values with different superscripts within a column are significantly
different (p<0.05)

Sensory scores and consumer acceptability of ‘Pito’ from blends of malted sorghum and
malted millet
The range of sensory properties and consumer acceptability of ‘pito’ were; appearance (6.02-
6.67), aroma (6.28-6.63), colour (5.93-6.53), flavour (6.12-6.73), mouthfeel (5.92-6.83), and
overall acceptability (6.13-7.05) (Table 3). There were significant differences among the samples
in all the sensory properties except aroma. The sample containing 100% millet (MS0:MM500) had
the highest scores for appearance (6.67) and aroma (6.63). Although ‘pito’ samples containing
50% and 100% of millet were not significantly different (p>0.05), the sample containing 50% of
millet (MS250:MM250) was the most acceptable.

Table 3: Sensory scores and consumer acceptability of ‘Pito’ from blends of malted sorghum
and malted Millet
Sample ratio Appear Aroma Colour Flavour Mouth- Sweetness Overall
MS:MM -ance Feel Accept-
ability
(%)

100:0 6.58ab 6.28a 6.53b 6.20ab 6.08ab 6.43bc 6.72bc

70:30 6.05a 6.23a 6.10ab 6.12a 5.95a 5.70a 6.13a

179
 50:50 6.58ab 6.33a 6.53b 6.73b 6.83c 6.77c 7.05c

30:70 6.02a 6.28a 5.93a 6.28ab 5.92a 6.00ab 6.23ab

0:100 6.67b 6.63a 6.47b 6.72b 6.58bc 6.78c 7.02c

Mean values with different superscripts within a column are significantly

different (p<0.05)

CONCLUSION
‘Pito’ produced from blends of malted sorghum and malted millet had significantly different
physicochemical properties, mineral composition and sensory properties except in aroma. ‘Pito’
produced from 50% and 100% malted millet had higher consumer acceptability than the
reference (100% sorghum).

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4th Edition, Springer Science and Business Media, LLC, New York, 2010, pp. 219 – 238.

Salako O. O., Adekoyeni A. A. and Hammed, T. B. (2016). Determination of metals content of Alcohol
and non- Alcoholic Canned Drinks consumed at idiroko Border Town Ogun state, Nigeria.
British J. Sci. & Techn., 12(6): 1 – 8.

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 VITAMIN AND TOTAL CAROTENOID CONTENT OF COMPOSITE FLOUR FROM
WHEAT, FERMENTED AFRICAN YAM BEAN AND ORANGE FLESH SWEET
POTATO FLOUR

*Okolie, P. I.1, 2, Olowookere, E. O.1, Okolie. E. C.3, Ojinnaka, M. C.4, Kalu, C. E.5, Olalekan, B.
T.1, Kalejaye, D. A.1, Oketoki, D. R.1and Adeshola, F. A.1
1
Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta,
Ogun State, Nigeria.
2
Biotechnology Centre, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria.
3
Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Bioresources, National Biotechnology
Development Agency, Lugbe, FCT-Abuja, Nigeria.
4
Department of Food Science and Technology, Michael Okpara University, Umudike, Abia
State, Nigeria.
5
Department of Food Technology, Akanu Ibiam Federal Polytechnic, Unwana Ebonyi State
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]; +2348036619696

ABSTRACT
This study investigated the vitamin composition and the total carotenoid content of composite
flour and produced from wheat, orange flesh sweet potato (OFSP) flour and fermented African
yam bean (FAYB) flour. The wheat: OFSP: FAYB were formulated into five different ratios
(100:0:0, 90:5:5, 85:5:10, 80:5:15, 0:50:50), using 100% wheat flour as the control. The
vitamin content, total carotenoid content of flour and cookies produced from each formulation
were determined using standard procedures. The results of the vitamin composition showed that
the flour composites compared favourably with the control samples, thus the vitamin A, Vitamin
B1, vitamin B2, vitamin C and total carotenoid ranged from 0.55-0.80 mg/100g, 0.20-0.23
mg/100g, 0.30-0.45 mg/100g, 0.70-1.80 mg/100g, 1.17-1.60 mg/100g, respectively. This
indicates that FAYB and OFSP flours could be used in the production of acceptable and quality
baked product and could also be used for substituting wheat flour.

Keywords: Composite flour, OFSP, African yam bean seeds, Enrichment

INTRODUCTION
Local raw materials substitution for wheat flour is increasing due to the growing market for
confectioneries (Noor and Komathi, 2009). Milligan et al. (1981) defined composite flour as a
mixture of flours, starches and other ingredients intended to replace wheat flour totally or
partially in bakery and pastry products. Wheat is the most popular cereal grain used for the
production of confectionary products, because of its high protein (gluten) which combines
strength and elasticity required in producing pastries and confectionaries for desirable texture
and flavour (Potter and Hotchkiss, 2006; Akhtar et al., 2008). Wheat flour is lacking in other
nutrients especially the micronutrients (Florence et al., 2014). The African yam bean (AYB)
Sphenostylis stenocarpa is a specie of plant in the Fabaceae. It is rich in fibre, minerals and other
micro nutrients which makes it exploration essential (Olapade and Oluwole, 2013; Inyang and
182
Ekop, 2015). Fermentation has been shown to alter the physical state of leguminous
seeds, enhancing digestibility and decreasing anti -nutritional elements (Harigan 1990).
Orange fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) is a special type of bio fortified sweet potato containing
high level of beta carotene than those with light colour flesh. It is rich in ß-carotene,
polyphenols, ascorbic acid, carbohydrates, dietary fibre and essential minerals (Van Han M
2000). Dietary inadequacies, both in terms of food quality and quantity are still major
issues in many African countries. The objective of this research is to determine the vitamin
and total carotenoid content of composite flour from wheat, fermented AYB flour and OFSP
flour.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Source of raw material
The AYB seeds were obtained from Ebonyi state. The OFSP tubers were obtained from Owode
Egba, Ogun state. The whole wheat flour, milk powder, egg, sugar, salt, margarine, baking
powder, Sodium bicarbonate were obtained from Kuto market Abeokuta.

Preparation of flour samples

The AYB seed was fermented following the modified method of Aloysius et al., (2014). The raw
seeds samples were sorted and cleaned. It was soaked in water in ratio (1:3 w/v) and allowed to
ferment by the micro flora inherent in the seed for 48 hours at room temperature (280C). The
fermented seeds were dehulled manually in 0.1% of Sodium metabisulfite solution and dried at
500C for 12 hours to about 96% dry matter. The dried seeds were milled to fine powder and
stored in airtight Ziplock bags.

The orange fleshed sweet potato flour was produced modifying the method of Harahap et al.,
(2019). The OFSP tubers were sorted, peeled, washed and sliced to thickness of about 2 mm
using a manual slicer to obtain orange fleshed sweet potato chips. The orange fleshed sweet
potato chips were dried using a cabinet drier at 500C for 12 hours. The dried chips were milled to
flour and sieved. The resulting flour was stored in an airtight Ziplock bags before use.
Composite flour preparation
The wheat flour, orange flesh sweet potato flour and African yam bean flour were blended
together in different proportions as shown in Table 1.

Determination of total carotenoids

The total carotenoid content of the composite flour and cookies was done following the method
of Lucia, (2020). About 15 g of the samples, plus 3 g of celite 454 (Tedia, Ohio, USA) was
weighed in a mortar on a digital balance (Bel Engineering, model MA0434/05). For the
carotenoid extraction, successive additions of 25 ml of acetone was obtained as a paste, which
was then transferred into a sintered funnel (5 μm) coupled to a 250 ml Buchner flask and filtered
under vacuum. This procedure was repeated three times or until the sample became colourless.
The extract obtained was transferred to a 500 ml separatory funnel containing 40 ml of
petroleum ether. The acetone was removed through the slow addition of ultrapure water (Milli-Q

183
- Millipore) to prevent emulsion formation. The aqueous phase was discarded. This procedure
was then repeated four times until no residual solvent remained. Then, the extract was transferred
through a funnel to a 50 ml volumetric flask containing 15 g of anhydrous sodium sulphate. The
volume was made up of petroleum ether, and the samples was read at 450 nm. The total
carotenoid content was calculated using the following formula:
Carotenoids content μg/g=A×VmL×104A1cm1%×Pg
where A = Absorbance;
V = Total extract volume;
P = sample weight; A1cm1% = 2592
(β-carotene Extinction Coefficient in petroleum ether).

Table 1: Composite flour preparation.

Treatment Wheat flour Fermented AYB flour OFSP flour

A 100 0 0

B 90 5 5

C 85 10 5

D 80 15 5

E 0 50 50

Determination of Vitamins
The vitamins to be checked for are vitamin A, vitamin B1, vitamin B2 and Vitamin C. The
method described (Achikanu et al, 2013; AOAC, 2010) was used in the determination of vitamin
A and Vitamin C content. The method used by Okwu and Josiah (2006) was used to determine
the content of vitamin B1 and B2 in the cookies.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Vitamin and Total Carotenoid content of composite flour from Wheat, OFSP and FAYB.
Vitamin is an organic substance essential for growth and tissue repair, as for wound healing and
maintenance of cartilage, healthy gum, bone and teeth. The result for vitamin composition of
flour is presented in Table 2. The vitamin A content of the flour samples varied from 0.09 to
1.42. There was a significant increase across the sample (p<0.05) as the concentration of OFSP
and AYB increased in the blend. The role of vitamin A in human is to improve vision, bone
growth, reproduction, cell division, and cell differentiation (David and Joseph 2018).

184
Thiamine is involved in energy release during carbohydrate and fat metabolism (Gropper and
Smith, 2009). The thiamine content varied from 0.08 to 0.25 while the riboflavin content varied
between 0.10 to 0.31. There was a significant increase across samples (p<0.05) as the
concentration of FAYB and OFSP increased in the blend. This increase was also recorded by
Faosat et al., (2020). The inclusion of OFSP flour in the blend is a value addition strategy that
improved the thiamine and riboflavin contents of the samples. Riboflavin helps in maintaining
healthy skin and digestive system (Duru et al., 2012). Vitamin C is known to protect the immune
system, improve prenatal health, eye, and skin status as well as regulate body processes (Igbabul
et al., 2014). The ascorbic acid content varied from 1.10 to 6.67. There was a significant
decrease across samples (p<0.05) as the FAYB and OFSP increased in the sample. The total
carotenoid of the sample varied from 0.16 to 0.48. There was a significant increase across
samples (p<0.05) as the concentration of OFSP increased in the flour blend.

CONCLUSION
The inclusion of the blends of OFSP and FAYB flour to wheat flour enhanced the Vitamin and
total carotenoid contents of the composite flour. The application of FAYB as a functional food
ingredient in food products may prevent the prevailing chronic diseases, and also inspire the food
industry to produce value-added products from it. Also, the use of OFSP flour to supplement
wheat flour could substantially reduce wheat flour importation and increase the value of OFSP.
The results of the study revealed that the blend of OFSP and FAYB had a significant increase in
the vitamin properties of the flour as well as the total carotenoid content. Hence, a combination
with wheat flour for confectionaries production would be nutritionally advantageous.

185
Table 2: Vitamin composition of composite flour produced from Wheat, OFSP, FAYB.

Samples Wheat OFSP FAYB Vitamin A Vitamin B1 Vitamin B2 Vitamin C Total Carotenoid
(%) (%) (%) (Mg/100g) (Mg/100g) (Mg/100g) (Mg/100g) (Mg/100g)
A 100 0 0 0.09±0.01a 0.17±0.00c 0.11±0.01a 6.67±0.29e 0.19±0.01a
B 0 100 0 0.75±0.03e 0.17±0.01c 0.18±0.01c 2.17±0.29ab 1.51±0.06d

C 0 0 100 0.37±0.00b 0.10±0.00b 0.12±0.01b 2.30±0.10b 0.19±0.01a

D 90 5 5 0.45±0.01c 0.08±0.00a 0.10±0.00a 1.90±0.05a 0.16±0.00a
E 85 10 5 0.47±0.02d 0.17±0.00c 0.21±0.00d 3.80±0.05c 0.32±0.00b
F 80 15 5 0.43±0.01c 0.25±0.00d 0.30±0.00e 5.55±0.05d 0.46±0.00c

G 0 50 50 1.42±0.01f 0.25±0.00d 0.31±0.00e 5.70±0.05d 0.48±0.00c

Values are harmonic means of triplicate ± standard deviation.

Mean values with different superscripts within the same column are significantly different.

OFSP means orange flesh sweet potato.

FAYB means fermented African yam bean.

186
REFERENCES

A.O.A.C. (2008). Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official Method of Analysis. 18th
Edition, Washington D.C, U.S.A.
Achikanu C. E., Eze-Steven C. E., Ude C. M. and Ugwu Okolie O. C. (2013). Determination of
the vitamin and mineral composition of common leafy vegetables in south eastern
Nigeria. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Science. ISSN: 2319-
7706 Volume 2 Number 11 pp.347-353.
Akhtar S., Anjum F., Rehman S., Sheikh M. and Farzena K. (2008). Effect of fortification on the
physico-chemical and microbiological stability of whole wheat flour. Food
Chemistry,112:156-163.
Aloysius N. M., Justina N., Philomena N., Obiakor-Okeke, and Chikwendu (2014). Effect of
fermentation on the nutrient and antinutrient composition of African Yam bean
(sphenostylis stenocarpa) seeds and pearl millet (pennisetum glaucum) grains. The
International Journal of Food Science and Technology. (ISSN 2321-919X.)
Chauhan A, Saxena D. C. and Singh S. (2016). Physical, textural and sensory characteristics of
wheat and amaranth four blend cookies. Cogent Food and Agriculture 2(1):1125773
Fausat L. K., Bolanle A. A., Beatrice I. O. and Ade-Omowaye I. O. (2018). Physicochemical
properties of novel cookies produced from orange-fleshed sweet potato cookies enriched
with sclerotium of edible mushroom (Pleurotus tuber regium). Journal of the Saudi
Society of Agricultural Sciences. Volume 19, Issue 2, February 2020, Pages 174-178
Florence A. B., Etoro-Obong E. A. and Victor E. N. (2020). Development and Quality
Characteristics of Cookies from Sprouted Sorghum, Pigeon Pea and Orange Fleshed
Sweet Potato Flour Blends. European Journal of Nutrition and Food Safety. 12(2): 11-21,
2020
Harashap E. S., Julianti E. and Sinaga H. (2019). Utilization of orange flesh sweet potato
flour, starch and residual flour in biscuit making. Earth Environ.
Sci. 454 012120DOI 10.1088/1755-1315/454/1/012120
Harrigan, W. F. and McCance M. E. (1990) Laboratory Methods in Food and Dairy
Microbiology. London: Academic Press. 3rd edition.
Haruna S. A., Adejumo B. A., Chukwu O. and Okolo C. A. (2017). Getting out of the
Nigerian “wheat trap” a multi-disciplinary approach. International Journal of
Engineering Reasearch and Technology (IJERT) Vol. 6 Issue 07, July - 2017.
Igbabul, B., Grace, N. and Julius, A. (2014). Quality Evaluation of Composite bread Produced
from Wheat, Maize and orange Fleshed Sweet Potatoes Flours. American Journal of Food
Science and Technology. (2)1:109-115.
Okwu, D. E. and Josiah C. (2006). Evaluation of the chemical composition of two Nigerian
medicinal plants. Department of Chemistry, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture,
Umudike, P.M.B. 7267 Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology,
2006; 4: 357-361
Potter N. and Hotchkiss J. (2006). Food science. 5th Edition. CBS Publishers and Distributors.
Daryangaji, New Delhi, India.

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 PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND APPLICATION OF MUCILAGE
EXTRACTED FROM JUTE MALLOW (Corchorus olitorius) AND WATERLEAF
(Talinum triangulare) IN PANCAKE PRODUCTION

Akinoso, R.1, *Ibrahim, K.O2., Ibrahim, R3. and Jegede, O.A.2

1
Department of Food Technology, University of Ibadan, Oyo State
2
Department of Home and Rural Economics, Federal College of Agriculture, Ibadan, Oyo State
3
Department of Agricultural and Bioenvironmental Engineering Technology, Federal
Polytechnic Auchi, Edo State.
*Corresponding author: [email protected], +2348062788163

ABSTRACT
This study was carried out to determine the physiochemical properties of Jute mallow and
Waterleaf mucilage and their application in pancake production. Extracted mucilage was
investigated for physicochemical properties using standard procedures. The result shows that
jute mallow and waterleaf mucilage were alkaline, with pH values of 6.19 and 8.75 respectively.
The total ash content of the jute mallow and waterleaf mucilage was 0.82% and 0.61%,
respectively. The result also revealed that Jute mallow and Waterleaf had a high moisture
content of 83.42% and 92.78% respectively. Jute mallow and waterleaf had solubility of 78.57%
and 61.83% respectively. The viscosity of jute mallow and water leaf mucilage was 41.62% and
29.76% respectively. The sensory scores of pancakes made with water-leaf mucilage (7.55) had
a close preference to the control in terms of colour. The result indicated that the score of
mouthfeel for pancake made with jute mallow mucilage (7.7) showed no significant difference to
the control (7.9). The result further revealed that sample W8C (8.45) had the highest value of
acceptability and showed a significant difference from the control (7.55). It was concluded that
the jute mallow and waterleaf mucilage can act as an emulsifier in confectioneries. Jute mallow
and waterleaf are good sources of minerals, and this is validated by the high total ash content of
the mucilage and also the high solubility.
Keywords: Extraction, emulsifier, mucilage, confectionaries

INTRODUCTION
Nigeria is endowed with many indigenous leafy vegetables which spread across the estimated
arable land area of 71.2 million hectares (Opabode and Adebooye, 2005). An estimated value of
6.9 million tonnes of fresh vegetables was produced in Nigeria in the year 2021, this represents
3.2% of the total in Africa (FAOSTAT, 2023). Vegetable products are fresh and edible portions
of herbaceous plants, which can be eaten raw or cooked (Dhellot et al., 2006). Leafy vegetables
are known to add taste and flavour, as well as substantial amounts of proteins, fibre, minerals and
vitamins to the diet (Off-Olua and Ehwunife, 2015).

188
Jute mallow (Corchorus olitorius L.) is one of the popular leafy vegetables eaten in Nigeria. It is
generally known as ewédú among the Yoruba people of the Southwest, ahuara in the Eastern
Igboland and malafiya or rama among the Hausas in the Northern part (Musa et al., 2010). Jute
mallow typically differs from most other common vegetables in having high mucilage content
(Jideani and Bello, 2009).
Talinum triangulare (waterleaf) is a mucilaginous, perennial vegetable growing to a height of
80-100 cm. It is popularly known as Waterleaf because of its high moisture content of almost
90.8g/100 gm of edible leaf. Waterleaf is one of the most important leafy vegetables in Nigeria.
Mucilage is a plant hydrocolloid which is a polymer of a monosaccharide or mixed
monosaccharide (Deogade et al., 2012). It is a common constituent of plants such as Okra,
psyllium, yellow mustard and jute mallow (Kaewmanee et al., 2014). Pancakes are thin circular
food often consumed as breakfast in Western culture; it is made from a batter containing flour,
milk, and egg and cooked on hot surfaces such as frying pan with vegetable oil or butter (Eames,
et al., 2016).
The increasing demand and high cost of eggs recently affect their availability for use. Thus, there
is a need to search for newer sources of natural bio-materials that are cost-effective and readily
available. Partial substitution of eggs with mucilage extracted from plant sources which are
mostly available and relatively cheap is encouraged. The use of mucilages in agro-food,
pharmaceutical and cosmetic sectors is enormous, mucilage from C. olitorius and T. triangulare
are used as source of fatty acids, oils and waxes.
This study is to extract mucilage from jute mallow and waterleaf, determine their
physicochemical properties and apply the mucilage in pancake production.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Freshly harvested Jute mallow and waterleaf were bought at Apata market in Ibadan, Nigeria

Extraction of mucilage
Mucilage was extracted from freshly harvested leaves following the method described by
Ahiakpa et al. (2014). The leaves were washed thoroughly to remove debris and 4 ml/l of
distilled water was added to 100 g leaves and the mixture was blended using an electric blender.
After the blending, the mixture was filtered using a muslin cloth to extract mucilage.

Physicochemical investigations
The physicochemical properties of the extracted mucilages were determined using standard
procedures described by Ayoola (2008).
Determination of pH
The pH was determined according to AOAC (1990) method. 10g of the mucilage was diluted in
100 ml of distilled water. The resulting solution was filtered on a Whatman paper. The pH was
measured using a HANNA pH meter, previously calibrated using pH4, pH7, and pH9 in the
filtrate obtained.

189
Determination of Viscosity of extracted mucilage
The mucilage extracted from jute mallow and waterleaf was poured into small plastic containers
and spindle 2 of NDJ-85 Viscometer was inserted into the containers. The viscometer was set at
60 rpm and as the spindle revolved in the mucilage, the resistance it encountered within the
measuring bowl was electronically conveyed to the measuring head and this generated results
which were plotted into the software interface. Viscosity was measured in mPa-s (milli-Pascal
per second). And 20 ml of the liquid extracts were pipetted into a 50 ml Viscometer pipette with
an Oval bulb. The time taken in seconds by the slurry to move past the oval bulb was measured
with a Digital stopwatch capable of reading to two places of decimal. The slower the time taken,
the greater the viscosity while the higher the time taken, the smaller the viscosity.
Volume above Oval Bulb
Viscosity = Time taken

Determination of solubility in liquid extract

Ten milliliters of each of the extracts were measured into a 100 ml beaker. Then, 50 ml of
deionized water was added to it and homogenized uniformly before transferring it to a water bath
set at 80°C. The homogenized mixture was heated to constant weight dryness for 75 min.
% Solubility was calculated using the formula: Weight of 10 ml extract – weight of dried residue
X 100
Determination of ash, dry matter and moisture content
The total ash, dry matter and moisture contents of the mucilage samples were analyzed using the
Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2010).

Preparation of Pancake
All purpose flour (114g) was sieved into a bowl followed by the addition of 30 g of granulated
sugar. Then, 14 g of powdered milk was added to it and 10 g of baking powder was added to the
mixture with 5 g of table salt and other dry ingredients, which was then mixed with a wooden
spatula. This was followed by the addition of 52 g mucilage extracted from Jute mallow and
Water-leaf and 25 ml of water. The resulting batter was mixed thoroughly to prevent the
formation of lumps in the mixture. About 30 ml of vegetable oil was poured into a frying pan
and heated and 50 ml of the batter was poured into the hot pan and fried on both sides until a
golden brown colour was observed.
Sensory Evaluation
Three pancake samples with egg, jute mallow and water leaf mucilage were presented to
panelists that are familiar with the consumption of pancakes to evaluate the following features
such as colour, taste, aroma, mouthfeel, appearance and overall acceptability using a 9point
hedonic scale.

Statistical Analysis

190
The data obtained were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 0.05 level of
probability using SAS v. 9.1 (SAS, 2002). All samples were analyzed in triplicates and mean
values were separated.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Physicochemical properties of egg, jute mallow and water leaf.
The physicochemical properties of egg, jute mallow, and waterleaf are presented in Table 1. pH is
a measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution, the pH of the control was 7.88, which tends
towards alkalinity. The pH of the mucilage samples ranged from 6.19 – 8.75. The result is in
adherence or relation to Deogade et al. (2012). The total ash content of a sample is a measure of
the amount of inorganic non-combustible material it contains. The total ash content of the jute
mallow and waterleaf mucilage was 0.82% and 0.61%, respectively. The values were lower than
the control and making JIB and A4D a good source of minerals which is in accordance with the
report of Kaewmanee (2014). Moisture content determines the storability or shelf life of a food
product. The use of mucilage extracted from the two vegetables shows a high moisture content of
83.42% and 92.78% respectively for JIB and A4D which when used for processing of food,
decreases the shelf life of the food product, hence, the concentration of the mucilage is
encouraged in order to ensure its relative availability, improve or increase the shelf life of the
food products. Solubility refers to the degree to which a substance dissolves in a solvent to make
a solution. The solubility of mucilage from Jute mallow and waterleaf ranged from 61.83% -
78.57%. This improves the stability of the emulsion. Similar results were also found by
Yemmireddy et al. (2013), who verified that the mucilage extracted from jute mallow had a
higher emulsifying agent than that extracted from Chia seed. The high solubility could be
attributed to the presence of highly soluble globular proteins (Aletor et al., 2002). Viscosity, a
measure of the resistance of a liquid to shear forces and flow, was found to be higher in the
mucilage extracted from jute mallow with smooth-edged leaves. The viscosity rate of jute
mallow and water leaf mucilage was 41.62% and 29.76% respectively. The physiochemical
properties evaluated showed that the mucilage extracted from jute mallow and water leaf can act
as an emulsifier in confectionaries.

Table 1: Physicochemical properties of egg, jute mallow and water leaf.

Sampl pH Total Ash Moisture Content Solubility (%) Viscosity(
e (%) (%) %)

W8C 7.88ab 2.78 a 68.71ab 84.28a 68.42a

J1B 6.19b 0.82ab 83.42a 78.57ab 41.62b

A4D 8.75 a 0.61b 92.78a 61.83a 29.76b
Mean with the same superscript in a column are not significantly different (p>0.05)
Legend:
W8C = pancake made with egg (Control)
J1B = pancake made with jute mallow mucilage

191
A4D = pancake made with water-leaf mucilage

Sensory score of pancakes made with water leaf, jute mallow mucilage and Egg
Table 2 shows the sensory score of pancakes made with waterleaf and jute mallow mucilage and
the control (Egg). Sample A4D (7.55) has a closer preference to the control in terms of colour. In
terms of taste sample J1B (7.65) has a closer preference to sample W8C 8.00. Also, sample A4D
(7.15) has a closer preference to sample W8C (8.30). The table also shows that sample J1B
(7.90) had the highest preference among the samples in terms of mouth-feel. The appearance of
sample A4D (7.65) has a closer preference to sample W8C (7.95). Sample W8C (8.45) has the
highest preference in terms of overall acceptability.

Table 2: Sensory score of pancakes made with water leaf & jute mallow mucilage and Egg
SAMPLES Mouth Overall
Colour Taste Aroma feel Appearance acceptability
b a b a
J1B 6.80 7.65 6.85 7.90 7.40b 7.55ab
A4D 7.55ab 7.60a 7.15ab 7.30a 7.65ab 7.60ab
W8C 8.50a 8.00a 8.30a 7.70a 7.95a 8.45a
Mean with the same superscript in a column are not significantly different (p>0.05)
Legend:
J1B = Pancake produced with jute mallow mucilage.
A4D= Pancake produced with waterleaf mucilage.
W8C= Pancake produced with egg, which is the control among the sample.

4.0 CONCLUSION
The findings of this study showed that waterleaf mucilage is highly preferred compared to jute
mallow because of its colour and taste. It was concluded that the ability of the jute mallow and
waterleaf mucilage to act as an emulsifier in pancake production is due to their alkalinity which
is compared to an egg. Jute mallow and waterleaf are good sources of minerals, and this is
validated by the high ash content, and also the high solubility could be attributed to the presence
of highly soluble globular proteins. The study shows that mucilage extracted from plant food
sources can be used in confectionaries. Hence, reducing post-harvest losses of local vegetables.
Individuals who do not consume eggs as a result of allergy reactions or due to food choices may
be opportune to consume confectionaries with mucilage used as an adjunct ingredient in
pancakes and other confections.

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Jideani, V. A., & Bello, B. M. (2009). Functional properties of okra protein products containing
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M. E. (2014). Characterisation of mucilages extracted from seven Italian cultivars of flax.
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 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND CONSUMER ACCEPTABILITY OF KUNU
PRODUCED FROM DIFFERENT UNDERUTILIZED CEREALS

*Zakariya, M.I., Babarinde, G. O. and Akande, E. A.

Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food and Consumer Sciences Ladoke Akintola
University of Technology, Ogbomoso
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Cereals are cultivated grasses, and their grains are used as food. Kunu-zaki is a traditional non-
alcoholic fermented beverage produced from cereals. The increase in the intake of unhealthy
beverages has called for studies on nutritious local beverages. Kunu is a traditional beverage
produced mainly from millet (Pennisetum spp) ginger (Zingiber officinale), clove (Eugenia
aromatica), and black pepper (Piper guineense). This study evaluated the quality of kunu
produced from underutilized cereals in order to increase their utilization and acceptability as a
healthy beverage. Kunu was produced from finger millet, acha (white and black), pearl millet
(gero) and maiwa. Each of the kunu zaki produced were analyzed for total titratable acid (TTA),
pH, crude protein, total ash, reducing sugar and non-reducing sugar. Sensory attributes of the
samples were also evaluated. The ranges of value obtained were 0.69-2.97 mg/L, 4.16-4.93,0.86-
2.63%, and 0.31-1.58%, 34.45-40.15% and 143-147% for TTA, pH, crude protein, total ash,
reducing sugar and non-reducing sugar, respectively. The overall acceptability of kunu samples
ranged between 5.37 and 7.14 in which kunu gero and finger millet had the highest acceptability.
This study has shown that acceptable kunu can be produced from locally grown underutilized
cereals.

Keywordsː “kunu”, underutilized cereals, beverages, sensory attributes

INTRODUCTION
Traditional cereal-based product enacts a significant part in the African diet, especially in cereal
growing region in Nigeria. In West Africa, particularly in Nigeria, cereals are utilized in various
ways. Maize products include; ogi, egbo and tuwo. Sorghum is utilized in the production of
kunu-zaki, burukutu, and pito; millet products include; kunu-zaki, fura, and waina. (Ukwuru et
al., 2018). Apart from the commonly consumed cereals, other minor cereals are highly nutritious
but underutilized. These include fonio popularly called acha, finger millet called tamba and pearl
millet referred to as gero are common in the northern part of Nigeria. Acha is used in the
production of gwote and couscous.
Finger millet, pearl millet, and hungry rice fall among the categories of underutilized crops in
Nigeria despite the report of their potential and research on them remains sparse. Major reason
for the underutilization includes urbanization in many developing countries in Africa which has
eliminated some cuisines from the household diet. Also, unrecognised nutritional value as
technology advances, more additives are introduced into processed food and consumers tend to

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lose sight of the nutritional value of traditional food made from underutilized indigenous plants.
Pearl millet contributes to rural food security and livelihood systems, as it provides good
nutritional supplies. However, underutilized cereals do not receive the scientific and political
support that a crop of such global importance and critical food security deserves.

Kunu is a traditional non-alcoholic fermented beverage produced from cereals and consumed in
the Northern part of Nigeria (Ukuwu et al., 2018). It is of high carbohydrate content, low
viscosity, sweet milky sour taste and creamy appearance consumed by adults as a thirst quencher
or as refreshment in some communities. Kunu is usually produced mainly from millet
(Pennisetum spp) normally flavoured with a combination of spices commonly called kanyan yaji
which include; ginger, (Zingiber officinale) clove (Eugenia aromatica), black pepper (Piper
guineense (Adebayo et al., 2010). It is gaining popularity across the country in which 21% of the
population takes it occasionally (Gaffa and Ayo, 2002). Kunu is one of the fermented cereal food
products whose consumption cuts across all age groups and social statuses due to its low cost and
satisfying attribute when compared to carbonated drinks (Sule et al., 2016).

A lot of underutilized cereals with high nutritional value are often neglected and relegated to the
background in the production of kunuzaki. This is mainly due to a lack of awareness of their
importance and nutritional value. Also, unhealthy beverages are consumed by people due to user
lack of awareness of some of the underutilized cereals. Therefore, this study aimed at
investigating the chemical properties and consumer acceptability of kunu zaki produced from
different underutilized cereals.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cereals and spices (clove, black pepper, ginger, and cinnamon) were obtained from Kano state.
Five hundred (500) grams of each of the above-mentioned cereals were soaked separately. Five
(5) grams of ginger, clove, cinnamon and 1g of black pepper, were added to the grains and
soaked for 48 h before wet milling and then sieved using a muslin cloth. The sediment slurry was
allowed to ferment for 24 h at ambient temperature. The supernatant was decanted and the slurry
was mixed with one litre of water and then divided into two equal parts. One part of the slurry
was boiled and the other was left uncooked in a slurry form. The uncooked slurry was mixed
with the boiled one. Water (500 ml) and sugar (200 g) were added to obtain the desired
consistency and sweetness.

Analyses

The kunu samples prepared were evaluated for pH, titratable acidity, reducing sugars, non-
reducing sugars, crude protein, and total ash according to the method of AOAC (2005). Sensory
attributes such as taste, colour, flavour and general acceptability were evaluated using 9-point
Hedonic scale. Data obtained were subjected to analysis and means separated at 5% level of
significance.

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RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The chemical composition of kunu zaki produced from Nigeria underutilised cereals is presented
in Table 1. The total titratable acid ranged from 0.69 mg/L to 2.97 mg/L with kunu produced
from whiteacha having the least total titratable acid value of 0.69 mg/L while kunumaiwa
showed the highest value of 2.97 mg/L The total titratable acid of maiwa kunu was significantly
higher at p < 0.05 than others. Total titratable acid is used to control the extent of fermentation
and acidity developed in the fermented sample. It also measures the amount of acid present in
food samples (Tyl and Sadier, 2017).
Kunu produced from gero and finger millet were not significantly different in TTA from one
another. The total titratable acid value of5.44g/L to 9.16 g/L of sorghum kunu reported by
Abiodun et al. (2017) is higher than the value reported in this study. Ogunbemi et al. (2017)
reported total titratable acid in maize as 1.30 g/L and sorghum as 1. 88 g/L kunu which are
higher than the values of 0.69 g/L in black achakunu and 0.90 g/L in black acha kunu obtained in
this study.
The pH of kunu zaki reported in this study ranged from 4.16 to 4.93 with maiwa kunu having the
least value and white acha kunu showing the highest value. The pH is the measure of the
activities of hydrogen ion and hydrogen ion concentration. It is also an index of the level of
acidity and alkalinity of a sample, and it has great effect on the storage period (Ojo et al., 2018).
There is variation in the pH value in all the kunu samples. pH is an index of acidity which has a
great effect on the storage period. The high pH of white 4.93 and black 4.73 acha kunu is an
indication that it is likely to be at high-risk of spoilage when compared with gero 4.18, maiwa
4.16 and finger millet 4.49 kunu. The pH value of 4.93 in white acha kunu documented in this
study agrees with the value of 4.90 reported by Ojo et al. (2018).

The crude protein content obtained for all the samples ranged from 0.86% - 2.63%, with kunu
zaki produced from white acha having the least value of 0.86% and maiwa kunu having the
highest protein content of 2.63%. The value reported by Bolarinwa et al. (2015), in millet kunu
1.13%, is lower than the value obtained in maiwa kunu in this study but higher than the value
obtained in the other samples. The crude protein value (0.25%) reported by Lombor and Yaaya
(2019) in millet kunu is lower than the value obtained in this study. The value of protein content
reported by Emurutu et al. (2017) in sorghum kunu is 0.83% agreeing with the value obtained in
gero kunu in this study. This shows that some underutilized cereals have relatively higher protein
content than the commonly consumed ones. The total ash content value of kunu zaki reported in
this study ranged between 0.31 and 1.58% with white acha kunu.The ash content of kunu
obtained in this study is higher than the value of kunu 0.01 to 0.13% reported by Akoma et al.
(2014).

The reducing sugar content of kunu in this study varies from 34.45 to 40.45%. Finger millet kunu
had the least value while white acha kunu had the highest value. Maiwa (40.15%) and white
acha kunu (40.45%) showed no significant difference at (p>0.05) in reducing sugars. Black acha
(37.05%), finger millet (34.45%) and gero (35.45%) kunu differed significantly at p ≤ 0.05 from

196
one another. Reducing sugar intake lowers the risk of developing overweight and obesity and in
turn in developing diabetes. The non-reducing sugar content value ranged from 142.6 to 147.5 %
where white acha kunu had the least value (113 %) and maiwa kunu indicated the highest value
of 147%.

Sensory Score of Kunu Produced from Different Underutilized Cereal

The result of the sensory score of kunu produced from different underutilized cereal is presented
in Table 2.The average mean value for taste ranged from 5.56 to 7.14 in which gero kunu had the
highest preference in terms of taste, followed by maiwa kunu at 7.14, black acha kunu at 6.25,
finger millet kunu at 5.56 and white acha kunu. Maiwa kunu was ranked highest in terms of
flavour at 7.71 and white and black acha kunu were rated the least at 6.25 by the panel. There
was no significant difference at p>0.05 in the flavour of all the samples except for gero kunu
which differed significantly at p<0.05. Gero kunu was rated highest in colour (7.14) while black
acha kunu had the least value of 5.56 in colour preference. For after taste, gero kunu was ranked
the highest in preference among the other samples and black acha kunu had the least value and
was less preferred. There was no significant difference in kunu produced from gero, maiwa, and
finger millet. Considering the overall acceptability, kunu produced from both gero (7.14) and
finger millet (7.14) had the highest mean value and are generally preferred followed by kunu
produced from maiwa, white acha, and black acha kunu. There is possibility that kunu produced
from these different underutilized cereals will be accepted if the populace is well informed about
the importance of the diet.

Table 1 Chemical Composition of kunu Produced from Different Underutilized cereals

Samples TTA(mg/L) pH Crude Total ash Reducing Non- reducing

protein (%) sugar (%) sugar (%)
(%)

GKZ 2.31±0.09b 4.18± 0.00a 0.87 ± 0.00a 0.84± 0.01a 35.45± 0.07a 145 ± 0.14b

MKZ 2.97±0.19c 4.16± 0.00a 2.63 ± 0.08b 1.58±0.17b 40.15± 0.07c 145± 0.12b

WAKZ 0.69±0.03a 4.93± 0.00b 0.86± 0.00a 0.31± 0.01a 40.15± 0.07c 114±0.14a

BAKZ 0.90±0.00a 4.73± 0.00c 0.87 ± 0.00a 0.74± 0.04a 37.05± 0.07b 142± 0.19b

TKZ 2.27±0.31b 4.49± 0.00a 0.87± 0.00a 1.06± 0.25b 34.45± 0.07a 146± 0.34c

Means with the same superscripts show there no significant difference at p<0.05.

GK = Kunu zaki from gero; MKZ= Kunu zaki from maiwa; WAKZ= Kunu zaki from white
acha; BAKZ = Kunu zaki from black acha; TKZ = Kunu zaki from tamber

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Table 2 Sensory score of Kunu Produced from Different Underutilized Cereals

Samples Taste Flavour Colour Aftertaste Overall

acceptability
GK 7.14± 0.34c 7.14± 0.01b 7.14± 0.44c 6.42 ± 0.03b 7.14 ± 0.40c

MK 7.14 ± 0.12c 7.71 ± 0.82c 6.25 ± 0.23b 5.55 ± 0.05a 6.37 ± 0.43b

WAK 5.56 ± 0.24a 6.25 ± 0.49a 6.25 ± 0.27b 6.25 ± 0.05b 6.25 ± 0.33b

BAK 6.25 ± 0.06b 6.25 ± 0.32a 5.55 ± 0.08a 5.55 ± 0.24a 5.37 ± 0.37a

FMK 5.55 ± 0.45a 6.37 ± 0.15a 6.25 ± 0.13b 6.25 ± 0.92b 7.14 ± 0.42a

Means with the same superscripts showed no significant difference at p<0.05.

GK = Kunu from gero, MK= Kunu from maiwa, WAK= Kunu from white acha BAK = Kunu
from black acha FMK = Kunu from finger millet

CONCLUSION
This study shows that nutritious kunu can be produced from underutilized cereals. Maiwa and
finger millet kunu had higher crude protein and total ash. Gero and finger millet kunu had higher
sensory properties. Production of beverage from these underutilized cereals will promote its
consumption, acceptability and increase the utilization of these cereals. This cereal-based
fermented food will be an excellent functional food and can reduce the health problems
associated with consumption of empty calorie drink such as carbonated and high-sugar soft
drinks.
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Abiodun, O. A., Dauda, A.O., Adebisi, T.T. & Alonge, C.D. (2017) ː Physicochemical, microbial
and sensory properties of kunu zaki beverage sweetened with black velvet tamarind
(Dialium guineense). Journal of Food Science and Technology 1. 46-56.

Adebayo, G. B., Otunola, G. A., & Ajao, T. A. (2010) ː Physicochemical, microbiological and
sensory characteristics of kunu prepared from millet, maize and guinea corn and stored at
selected temperature. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology 1. 41-46.

AOAC, (2005). Official Methods of Analysis, 25th edition, Association of Official Analytical
Chemists, Washington DC

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Akoma, O. Daniel, A.A., Ajewole, A.E. & Nwodo, P.G. (2014) ː Quality characteristics of kunun
zaki (A Nigerian fermented cereal beverage) Sold within Bida metropolis. Journal of
Agricultural Science 9. 298-303.
Bolarinwa I.F. Sulaimam A. O. Musbaudeen A. H. & Maruf O. O. (2015) ː Production and
quality evaluation of kunu zaki. (Nigeria fermented cereal beverages) from millet and
vigna racemosa blends. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research. 1. 347-352
Emurotu J.E., Adege A.A. & Adama, M.A. (2017): Assessment of the quality of locally made
burukutu and kunu (Sorghum based alcoholic and non –alcoholic) beverage in Anyigba,
Kogi State, Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Science 6.1-7.

Gaffa, T. & Ayo, J.A. (2002) ː Innovation in traditional kunu zaki production process Pakistan
Journal of Nutrition 5. 202-205.

Lombor T.T., & Yaaya A.A. (2019): Cissus populnea flour addition and proximate composition,
functional and sedimentation properties of millet kunu. 1.1–6 Nutrition Health Food
Science.

Norman, N.P. & Joseph, H.H. (2007) Food Science (Fifth Edition) Publisher and Pvt, Ltd, new
Deihi Satish Kumar Jain and Produced by V.K. Jain, India. 1-591.

Ogungbemi, K., Alejo, A.O., Ilesanmil, F.F., Ishola, A. A., Afolabi, M. O. Oyelakin, K. O.,
Zaka, & C. N., Ajanwachuku. (2017)ː Sensory, shelf life and nutritional evaluation of
Kunu, Nigeria non-alcoholic beverage produced from different grains. 9.20-25
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Ojo Olabimpe Iyabo, Oyarukua Mojisola O., & Jegede Rufus Olufemi., (2018) ː Trace minerals
physicochemical and phytochemical composition of locally prepared beverages (Kunu
and Sobo) Commonly Consumed by Tertiary Institution Students in Ekiti State, Nigeria.
International Journal of Chemistry 2.1916-9701.

Sule, I.O., Saliu, B.K., Zakariyah, R.E. & Adegbenro, I.O. (2016)ː Microbiological quality
assessment of Kunu Solid within Ilorin Metropolis, Nigeria. Journal of Biological and
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 EVALUATION OF SYNERGISTIC EFFECT OF ROSELLE (Hibiscus sabdariffa)
HERBAL TEA INFUSED WITH GINGER (Zingiber officinale) AND SCENT LEAVES
(Ocimum gratissimum)

*Olatunji O.A. and Ademoyegun O. T.

Product Development Programme,
National Horticultural Research Institute PMB 5432, Jericho, Idi-Ishin, Ibadan.
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Natural antioxidants are plants that provide excellent bioactive micronutrients that improve
health and reduce the chance of developing chronic illnesses. Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa),
ginger (Zingiber officinale), and the scent plant (Ocimum gratissimum) are a few examples of
natural antioxidants. In this report, the synergistic effect of the bioactive compounds in herbal
tea infusions formulated from these plants was investigated. The herbal teas were formulated as
100% roselle (RC), 50% roselle + 25% ginger + 25% scent leaves (RGS), 75% roselle + 25%
ginger (RG), and 75% roselle + 25% scent leaves (RS). In comparison to RC, RG, RGS, and RS
all displayed different and greater radical scavenging potential. RGS samples, however, had the
highest values of 79.65 ± 2.56 percent inhibition and 74.65 ± 2.05 percent inhibition for 2,2-
diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and nitrous oxide assays, respectively. Additionally, RGS had
the lowest EC50 of 0.215 mg/mL and 0.083 mg/mL for DPPH and nitrous oxide assays,
respectively. Tea made from 50% roselle, 25% ginger, and 25% scent leaves was the most
preferred.

Keywords: antioxidants, synergistic effect, infusion, herbal tea, roselle

INTRODUCTION
It is commonly recognized that medicinal plants provide excellent bioactive micronutrients that
improve health, are affordable, and have a wide range of bioavailability (Alinde et al., 2014;
Afzal and Afzal, 2016). These plants and many other natural materials that are used for their role
in the diet, for their pharmacological characteristics, and for their diverse therapeutic purposes
have been the subject of a variety of studies (Irondi et al., 2012; Anwar et al., 2018). Current
advancements in food processing are still targeted at creating products that will satisfy potential
consumers' unique dietary and health needs (Sloan, 2020).

Tea, one of the most significant functional foods and primarily made from the leaves of the
Camellia sinensis plant, has long been a subject of wide pharmacological studies due to its
ability to act as a natural antioxidant (Yang et al., 2004; Saklar, 2015; Cong-Hau et al., 2021).
Basically, antioxidants scavenge free radicals created by cellular activities in the body and
therefore lower the chance of developing a variety of chronic illnesses such as diabetes, cancer,
and cardiovascular diseases, in addition to strengthening the immune system, increasing mental
clarity, lowering the risk of depression, and lowering the risk of dementia in old age (Dasgupta

200
and Klein, 2014; Nahak et al., 2015). Toxicological research on the use of synthetic antioxidants
has revealed some of their detrimental effects. Efforts are therefore targeted at exploring the
plant kingdom’s rich depot of natural antioxidants, especially by combining the bioactive
components of different plants. This is to achieve maximum antioxidant activity in humans and
to further serve as the basis for novel natural antioxidant formulations (Shahidi, 2007;
Ramalakshmiet al., 2008; Irondi et al., 2012). In this regard, a large variety of plant species'
roots, leaves, flowers, and other components have been combined and infused in water to obtain
herbal teas with antioxidant properties similar to those obtained from the Camellia sinensis plant
(Poswalet al., 2019; Brimson, 2021).

Roselle, Hibiscus sabdariffa, is a versatile plant widely cultivated in the tropics for its food and
medicinal purposes (Ansari, 2013; Singh et al., 2017). In addition to its rich composition of
riboflavin, ascorbic acid, niacin, and iron, the red calyces of roselle contain antioxidants
including flavonoids, hibiscetine, and sabdaretine, which have been reported to possess potent
anti-inflammatory and anti-viral properties (Ari, 2015; Ibrahim and Khalaf, 2015; Islam, 2016).
However, in spite of the beneficial effect of the plant, prior research has shown that the
processing factors (drying and brewing time) also significantly impact the antioxidant activity
and polyphenol content of the infusion, which will subsequently reduce the tea's health benefits
and quality (Gaseka et al., 2020)

Ginger, Zingiber officinale Rosc., is a unique plant possessing a combination of many attributes
and properties (Caiger, 2006). In addition to its nutritional benefits, ginger has been used
medicinally for a very long time in various parts of the world due to its antioxidant properties
(Azal et al., 2001; Sang et al., 2020). This is largely attributed to its rich composition of the
phenolic compounds gingerol, shogaols and paradols (Nollet, 2018; Roudsari et al., 2021).
Studies have shown that ginger can be employed in combination with herbal tea blends, pure
compounds, and other plant extracts to increase its therapeutic efficacy even at extended
processing and preparation conditions without a reduction in its antioxidant potential (Shobana
and Naidu, 2000, Makanjuola, 2015; OngeriOchora, 2023).

Ocimum gratissimum, popularly known as scent leaf due to its minty, fragrant flavors, is an herb
widely known for both its culinary and medicinal purposes (Okoduwa et al. 2017). Reports have
shown that the therapeutic potential of this herb is basically due to its biologically active
compounds, eugenol, thymol, methyl cinnamate, and geraniol (Dubey et al., 2000; Orafidiya et
al., 2001; Matasyoh et al., 2007).

Studies have shown that a blend of plant materials will produce extracts with increased
antioxidant activity and thus eliminate the negative effects associated with high doses of
individual plants (Jain et al., 2011; Malongane et al., 2017). The objective of this study is
therefore to develop an herbal tea blend of roselle with ginger and scent leaves, analyze the

201
nutritional composition of the product, and increase the innovation that leads to improving its
health benefits.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study was carried out at the Biochemistry Laboratory of the National Horticultural Research
Institute, Ibadan. Dry calyces of roselle (H. sabdariffa), fresh ginger rhizomes (Z. officinale), and
scent leaves (Ocimum gratissimum) were collected at the Institute, and the raw materials were
manually sorted to get rid of unhealthy fruits and rhizomes. The samples were cleaned to remove
dirt and unwanted materials and washed thoroughly with potable water. The samples were all
air-dried at room temperature (32 ± 2°C) for 12 h.

Preparation of roselle, ginger, and scent leaves powder

Shade-dried roselle calyces, ginger, and scent leaves were separately milled with a Rico Grinder
Mixer (Model MG 1701, India) until a smooth powder was obtained. The powders were sieved
with a mesh size of 200μm. The resulting powders were stored in a Ziploc bag in the laboratory
at room temperature (32 ± 2°C) until used.

Preparation of roselle (H. sabdariffa) herbal tea

After milling and sieving, five variations of roselle herbal tea samples were prepared by
weighing 2g of each variant into the tea bags. Details of the various sample formulations are
presented in Table 1. All samples were packaged in tea bags and stored at ambient temperatures.
Infusions of tea samples were prepared using approximately 100 mL of boiled water (100°C)\ for
a tea bag of each sample. It was allowed to extract for 3 min and cool for 10 min before analysis.

Table 1: Formulation for roselle herbal tea in percentage (weight to weight) ratio
Herbal Tea Bag Samples Sample Code Roselle Ginger Scent Leaves

Roselle only (Control) RC 100 0 0

Roselle: Ginger : Scent Leaves RGS 50 25 25

Roselle:Ginger RG 75 25 0

Roselle:Scent RS 75 0 25

Determination of total phenolic content, vitamin C and anthocyanin

The total phenolic content of the samples was determined with the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent using
a modified method described by Patil et al. (2015) and using gallic acid as the standard. The
vitamin C content of the samples was determined using the method of Ikanone et al. (2014) with

202
modifications. Anthocyanin was determined using the method described by Klopotek et al.
(2005) with modifications.

Antioxidant assay
Antioxidant activities were determined using a modified DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl)
radical scavenging assay described by Patil et al. (2015) and a modified nitrous oxide scavenging
assay described by Mahmud et al. (2017).

Sensory Evaluation
The roselle tea samples were subjected to sensory evaluation by a trained 25-member panel in
order to assess the extent to which individuals preferred the tea's colour, taste, aroma, and overall
acceptability. Each tea bag (2g) was infused in 100 mL of hot, boiling (100°C) water for 3 min.
No sugar was added, and the samples were coded appropriately. Approximately 40 mL of each
herbal tea infusion was served randomly, and the panelists were given predetermined
questionnaires to record their sensory observations using a 5-point hedonic scale, where 1 =
dislike extremely, 2 = dislike moderately, 3 = neither like nor dislike, 4 = like moderately, and 5
= like very much.

Statistical Analysis
Data from vitamin C, total phenolic, anthocyanin, antioxidants, and sensory analyses were
analyzed using descriptive statistics. Analysis of variance was carried out with aDuncan’s New
Multiple Range Test in SPSS Statistics at a P < 0.05 significant level.

Figure 1a: Packaging of tea samples

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Total phenolic content, vitamin C and anthocyanin

203
Figure 1 shows the antioxidant composition of the infused tea, with each formulation having a
distinct concentration of the components. The total phenolic content of the formulations was
significantly different (p <0.05) in the order RGS > RS >RG > RC. Similar to this, the samples'
anthocyanin levels differed significantly (p < 0.05), but in the following order: RC > RGS > RS
> RG. The vitamin C content also varies significantly among the samples in the order RGS > RC
> RS > RG. These results show that these plants worked in synergy, even though RC turned out
to be a higher source of anthocyanin than all other sources. This is in line with reports that
roselle is rich in anthocyanin (Ari, 2015; Ibrahim and Khalaf, 2015; Islam, 2016; Mariod et al.,
2021).

Figure 2: Phenolic, anthocyanin and vitamin C content of roselle herbal teas formulations

Antioxidant Activity
The results showed the potential of all four ratios of the hot infusion tea on two antioxidant
assays: DPPH and nitrous oxide scavenging activities. The two techniques used were selected in
order to completely assess the samples' antioxidant capability. This is due to the fact that natural
antioxidants have multiple functions and hence require more than one assay to fully establish
their activity (Wong et al., 2006). Table 2 showed the ability of the infused tea extract to
scavenge the free radicals posed by the stable radicals of DPPH and nitrous oxide. RG, RGS, and
RS all showed distinct and higher scavenging potential than the control sample, RC. This shows
that the mixed tea extracts possess comparatively higher antioxidant activity than the roselle tea
extract alone, which is similar to the total phenolic and anthocyanin content in Figure 2.
Similarly, the lowest EC50 obtained for both antioxidant activity determinations were from RGS
samples, with values of 0.215 mg/mL and 0.083 mg/mL for the DPPH and nitrous oxide assays,
respectively. EC50, which expresses the quantity of antioxidant required to reduce the radical
concentration by 50%, is inversely related to a compound's ability to act as an antioxidant. The

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level of a compound's antioxidant activity increases with decreasing EC50 (Villanoet al., 2007).
Based on this, it can be inferred that the antioxidant activity of these infused tea extracts can be
attributed to the high phenolic and anthocyanin content of roselle herbal tea formulations, which
further demonstrates the correlation between a sample's total amount of phenolic compounds and
its antioxidant activity (Manach et al., 2005; Mariod et al., 2021).

Table 2: Antioxidant activity of roselle herbal tea formulations

Samples % inhibition EC 50 % inhibition Nitrous EC 50
names DPPH (mg/mL) Oxide (mg/mL)

RC 64.98 ± 2.31c 0.264 65.64 ± 1.95b 0.094

RGS 79.65 ± 2.56a 0.215 74.65 ± 2.05a 0.083

RG 74.14 ± 2.72b 0.231 61.89 ± 2.14c 0.100

RS 78.53 ± 2.18a 0.218 59.53 ± 1.88c 0.104

Mean values with different superscript in a column are significantly different at P < 0.05

Sensory Evaluation
Sensory evaluation, an important criterion in the development of new products, is carried out to
ensure that the product meets consumer requirements in terms of organoleptic quality (Civilleet
al., 2012). According to Meilgaard et al. (2006), sensory evaluation emphasizes both the
objective evaluation of a product's sensory qualities (product understanding) and the subjective
reactions of people to physical products (consumer understanding). In this study, sample RGS
had the highest average values of 4.85 ± 0.25, 4.5 ± 0.25, and 4.7 ± 0.30 for taste, aroma, and
overall acceptability, respectively (Table 3). Sample RC, with an average value of 4.5 ± 0.2 had
the highest score for color. These results are similar to those reported by Suseno et al. (2022).
The preference for the color in RC (roselle alone) is, however, due to the high presence of
anthocyanin in the roselle calyces, thereby making it a good colorant (Ismail et al., 2008). In this
study, taste and aroma were the most important sensory descriptors that influenced the overall
acceptability of the formulated antioxidant teas. This also shows that the enrichment of roselle
with ginger and scent leaf (RGS) improved the taste, aroma, and overall quality of the product.

Table 3: Effect of different formulations on the sensory score of roselle herbal tea
Sample Name Aroma Taste Color Overall acceptability

RC 4.1 ± 0.20b 4.66 ± 0.31bc 4.5 ± 0.2a 4.43 ± 0.25b

RGS 4.5 ± 0.25a 4.85 ± 0.25a 4.2 ± 0.22b 4.7 ± 0.30a

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RG 4.2 ± 0.21b 4.74 ± 0.22b 3.71 ± 0.19d 4.50 ± 0.23b

RS 78.53 ± 2.18a 4.50 ± 0.25d 4.0 ± 0.22c 4.0 ± 0.20c

Mean values with different superscript in a column are significantly different at P < 0.05

CONCLUSION
The combination of dried roselle calyces, ginger rhizomes and scent leaves in the ratio 50:25:25
percent produced the best formulation of the herbal tea. This can be attributed to the plants'
inherent proportions of different phenolics as well as their complementing biological functions
and synergistic interactions with one another. This is also partially substantiated by the
potentiation of the free radical inhibitory properties and antioxidant potential of the infusions.
The present study thus lends credence to the fact that the addition of such herbal additives to the
diet plan will reduce oxidative stress to a great extent.

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 EFFECT OF PRETREATMENT METHODS ON THE PROXIMATE COMPOSITION
AND ANTINUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES OF YOGHURT FROM AFRICAN YAM
BEAN (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) SEED

Oketoki, R. D.1, Ayege, A. F.1, *Okolie, P. I.1, 2, Olowookere, E. D.1, Olalekan, B. T.1 and
Kalejaye, D. A.1
1
Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta,
Ogun State, Nigeria.
2
Biotechnology Centre, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria.
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]; +2348036619696

ABSTRACT
This study investigated the effect of fermentation and malting on the proximate composition and
antinutritional properties of yogurts produced from African Yam Bean milk and compared them
to yogurts made from untreated AYB milk and their dairy counterpart. Four yoghurt samples
were produced, UAYBY (Untreated African Yam Bean Yoghurt), FAYBY (Fermented African
Yam Bean Yoghurt), MAYBY (Malted African Yam Bean Yoghurt) made from the flours of
respective untreated and malted AYB seeds and the control, CMY (Cow Milk Yoghurt) made
from cow milk.Malting and fermentation resulted in significant (p< 0.05) increase in moisture
content, crude protein (21.32 and 29.02g/100g solids for flour; 31.30 and 38.91g/100g solids for
yoghurt), total ash (3.47and 8.00g/100g solids for flour; 0.80 and 1.30g/100g solids for yoghurt
) and mineral contents of AYB samples respectively and reduced the values for crude fat and
total carbohydrate content (0.30 and 50.80g/100g). Malting and fermentation also significantly
(p< 0.05) decreased anti-nutritional properties, with the lowest values recorded in MAYBY (0.03
mg/ml) for oxalate, (0.11 mg/ml) for phytate and saponin, (0.02 TUI/g) for Trypsin inhibitor). It
could be concluded that malting and fermentation significantly improved the nutritional
properties of the AYB yoghurt and application of malting and fermentation could be adopted
during large scale production of yoghurt for AYB seeds.

Keywords: African Yam Bean; Yoghurt; Malting; Fermentation;

INTRODUCTION
Yoghurt is a fermented dairy product made from cow milk from which the lactose component is
broken down into lactic acid by the operations of Streptococcus subsp. thermophilus and
Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. Bulgaricus in a process called lactic acid fermentation (Sanful,
2009). According to Magee (2020), yoghurt contains all the nutrients available in cow milk and
possesses therapeutic qualities such as the treatment of gastrointestinal diseases (Adolfsson,
2004; Saint-Eve et al., 2006).
As a result of the underdevelopment of the dairy industry in Nigeria and reliance on imported
milk powder, local researchers are attempting to acquire non-traditional or imitation milk from
indigenous plant seeds and nuts as yoghurt substitutes for example, milk from African yam bean
seeds has been used to make yoghurt (Makanjuola, 2012).
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In Nigeria, Gabon, Ethiopia, Zaire, and the Central African Republic, the African yam bean
(AYB) seed is an underutilized legume (Ojewola et al., 2006). The African Yam Bean (AYB)
seed containshigher levels of methionine and lysine than soybeanswith a percent crude protein
range of 21-29 DM basis (Dry Matter) and 3270 kcal/kg metabolizable energy (Amakoromo,
2012),and also prebiotics, which are diet for probiotics that help the growth of yoghurt starters,
which in turn raises the incubation temperature, resulting in improved viscosity, thicker gel,
hardness, and adhesiveness of the yogurt, as well as lower brix and pH of the final product
(Temitayoet al., 2016; Aderinola and Yetunde, 2014).Consumers find all of these attributes
appealing and hence, are in high demand.
However, AYB seed has similar unfavorable characteristics to soybean seed, such as a beany
flavor, antinutritional components, and a difficult-to-cook flaw butmilk extracts from AYB could
be a safe food source with suitable pretreatment processes like fermentation and malting.
Some antinutritional factorswhich reduce the digestibility and availability of proteins and
minerals in AYB seeds are heat sensitive, they can be inactivated with minimal impact on
nutritional quality using heat-generating processing methods involved in malting (Sam,2019)
while those that are water soluble can be reduced by leaching away of their compounds during
steeping in fermentation (Milkesa, 2021).Much attention has not been given to the effect of
fermentation and malting on the quality of AYB yoghurt, hence, this study focuses on the effect
of malting on the nutritional, physicochemical and sensory acceptability of yoghurt from African
yam bean seed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials
Fresh cow milk was sourced from cow rearers along Alabata road, Abeokuta, Nigeria.
Commercially available yoghurt starter was purchased from local stores at Ojota, Lagos, Nigeria.
The AYB seeds were purchased from a local market in Afikpo, Ebonyi state, Nigeria and the
bean seeds were transported to the Food Processing Laboratory, Federal University of
Agriculture, Abeokuta. Equipment used was gotten from the Food Processing Laboratory,
Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta. All reagents used were of analytical grade.
Preparation of the African Yam Bean seed samples
The AYB seeds purchased were sorted, cleaned, and separated from chaffs, stones and dirt to
improve the purity of the samples. The seeds were divided into four portions: Untreated AYB
seeds, fermented AYB seeds and malted AYB seeds for analysis only, Untreated AYB seeds and
malted AYB seeds for yoghurt production respectively.
Fermentation and Malting of African Yam Bean seeds
The AYB seeds for fermentation were immersed in water for 24 hours as described by
Amakoromo et al., (2012), while the method of Henry-Unaeze and Okoye (2022) was used in
malting of the AYB seed. The seeds were immersed in water for 24 hours, decanted, sprayed on
a jute bag and then allowed to germinate for three days, no treatment was carried out on the
untreated AYB seeds. All seeds were dried using a cabinet dryer (LEEC limited, Private Rcl. No
7, Colwick Nottingham) at a temperature of about 50˚C for 12 hours to stop further growth (for
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the germinated seeds). After drying, the roots and shoots of the malted seeds were discarded and
all the seeds are milled into flour.
Extraction of milk from untreated and malted African Yam Bean seeds
Untreated and malted AYB seed milk samples were prepared from untreated and malted AYB
flour samples respectively, modifying the method of (Amakoromo et al., 2012). The 26.96g of
untreated AYB flour and 53.92g of malted AYB flour were reconstituted with 100ml of distilled
water each for 3min to avoid pregelatinization. The slurry formed was filtered through the
doubled layers of muslin cloth and coarse particles were separated by allowing the filtrate to
settle for 10 minutes.
Production of yoghurt from untreated and malted African Yam Bean seed milk
The production of yoghurt applies to both untreated and malted African yam bean seed milk
filtrates. The milk filtrates were heated in a water bath and stirred simultaneously to 95 ℃ for 20
minutes, cooled to 45 ℃ and inoculated with starter cultures (0.20g in ntreated AYB milk and
0.30g in malted AYB milk). The milk extracts were incubated at 45 ℃ for 12 hours. The yoghurt
produced was stored till further use.
Determination of proximate composition of flour and yoghurt samples
Proximate analyses on the flour and yoghurt samples were determined using the methods of
AOAC (2012). The total lipid content of the yoghurt sample was determined using Babcock
method (Carpenter, 2010); Crude protein and crude fibre was determined by Kjeldahl method
described by AOAC (2000);
Determination of anti-nutritional components
Trypsin activity of the flour samples were determined by the method used by Hardstand et al.
(1980); The tannin content of the flour samples was determined using the Folin Denis
Colometric method and the content of the yoghurt samples was determined as described by
Kamaeshwaran et al. (2014); Oxalate was determined using methods described by Day and
Underwood (1986); The Spectrophotometric method of Brunner (1984) was used for
determining the saponin content; The phytate content was determined using the simple HPLC
method as proposed by Kwanyuen and Burton. (2005).
Statistical analysis
The data obtained from proximate, minerals and antinutritional analyses was subjected to
analysis of variance (ANOVA) using and the mean values was determined and separated using
Duncan multiple range test (SPSS 25 version). Significance different between samples was
tested at p<0.05.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Proximate Composition of the flour and yoghurt samples
Table 1 shows the effect of malting and fermentation on the proximate composition of the
African yam bean seed samples as the moisture content of flour samples varied from 5.67 - 8.67
g/100g while for the yoghurt samples, varied from 78.11 – 88.20g/100g. The increase in
moisture content of the yoghurt samples is as a result of the addition of water during the
production of yogurt. The crude protein content of flour samples ranged from 19.92-29.02g/100g

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and9.96 - 31.30g/100g for the yoghurt samples. There was a significant increase (p< 0.05) in the
crude protein content of the pretreated flour samples and also in all AYB yoghurt samples after
lactic acid fermentation even higher than that of cow milk, hence, they could prove good
alternatives to animal source of milk for yoghurt production.
Unlike protein, there was a reduction in the crude fat content of the pretreated flour samples and
further decrease in all AYB yoghurt samples respectively, however, no significant difference
(p>0.05) was observed between yoghurt samples CMY and MAYBY which could indicate,
MAYBY could be perfect vegetable milk yoghurt alternatives for sample CMY to help control
the cholesterol level of the blood and prevent oxidative rancidity (Usman and Bolade, 2020).
There was a significant difference (p< 0.05) between the total carbohydrate levels of the flour
samples ranging from 65.05- 51.41g/100g while that of yoghurt samples ranged from 4.10 -
63g/100g. The fermented flour sample has higher contents of carbohydrate compared to the
untreated and malted flour samples and this could be due to the breakdown of sugar during the
fermentation process of the yam bean. The increase was also replicated in the fermented yoghurt
sample.

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Table I: Proximate composition of flour, Cow Milk and yoghurt samples produced from Cow milk, Untreated and Malted AYB seeds.

SAMPLES Moisture Total ash Crude protein Crude fat Crude fibre Total
content (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g) carbohydrate
(g/100g) (g/100g)

UAYBY 78.11 ± 0.40d 1.12 ± 0.03a 29.30 ± 0.20d 1.22 ± 0.03b 2.10 ± 0.12c 60.50 ± 0.60c

CMY 88.20 ± 0.03f 0.74 ± 0.01a 9.96 ± 0,05a 0.60 ± 0.01a 0.60 ± 0.03a 4.10 ± 0.03a

FAYBY 83.70 ± 0.02e 0.80 ± 0.01a 31.30 ± 0.03e 1.30 ± 0.03b 1.52 ± 0.03b 63.00 ± 0.21d

MAYBY 78.70 ± 0.03d 1.30 ± 0.01a 38.91 ± 0.07f 0.30 ± 0.10a 1.90 ± 0.10c 50.80 ± 0.40b

UAYBF 5.67 ± 0.30a 3.30 ± 0.30b 19.92 ± 0.04b 5.33 ± 0.58d 2.77 ± 0.20e 63.01 ± 0.60d

FAYBF 6.67 ± 0.60b 3.47 ± 0.06b 21.32 ± 0.02c 1.93 ± 0.20c 1.61 ± 0.10b 65.10 ± 0.32e

MAYBF 8.67 ± 0.60c 8.00 ± 0.87c 29.02 ± 0.65d 1.00 ± 0.04b 2.30 ± 0.10d 51.41 ± 1.50b
Mean values with different superscript within the column are significantly different (p≤0.05)

Legend: UAYBF: Untreated African Yam Bean Flour; UAYBY: Untreated African Yam Bean Yogurt;

CMY: Cow Milk Yogurt; MAYBY: Malted African Yam Bean Yogurt

MAYBF: Malted African Yam Bean Flour

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Antinutritional properties of the flour and yoghurt samples
The anti-nutritional components in yoghurt samples are presented in Table II. There was
significant decrease in all the components for the pretreated flour samples and further reduction
in the yoghurt samples. The oxalate content of flour samples ranged from 0.10 – 1mg/ml and
0.03-1.15 mg/ml for yoghurt samples with MAYBF and MAYBY having the lowest values of
both flour and yoghurt samples. The reduction of oxalate in MAYBF, FAYBF and especially,
MAYBY, FAYBY would be as a result of soaking and leaching during steeping. The phytate
content decreased significantly from 1.10 to 0.13 mg/ml values in the flour samples and while
the content in the yoghurt samples decreased from 1.03 to 0.11-mg/ml. The decrease in phytic
acid could be attributed the increase in phytase activity during germination as reported by Nwosu
(2013). However, the result for trypsin inhibitor and tannin contents from Table 2 shows no
significant difference(p>0.05) between the values obtained for the pretreated flour and yoghurt
samples.

CONCLUSION
The effect of malting and fermentation on the nutritional quality of African yam bean seed
showed that it has a high nutritional value and with the reduction of the anti-nutritional factors
which had made the African Yam Beans unfavorable for consumption, while increasing the
enzyme activities and conserving mineral content of the legume.
Hence, the result of this study shows that the use of pretreatment method as a means of
improving quality of plant based AYB milk yogurts without supplementation could be achieved
and could meet up to recent consumer demands.

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Table 2: Antinutritional content of flour, Cow Milk and yoghurt samples produced from Cow milk, Untreated and Malted AYB seeds.
SAMPLES OXALATE PHYTATE SAPONIN TRYPSIN INHIBITOR TANNIN
(mg/ml) (mg/ml) (mg/ml) (TUI/g) (mg/ml)

UAYBY 0.15 ± 0.01e 1.03 ± 0.02a 0.30 ± 0.02b 1.30 ± 0.04c 0.20 ± 0.10d

FAYBY 0.06 ± 0.00c 0.20 ± 0.01a, b 0.11 ± 0.01a 1.03 ± 0.02a 0.10 ± 0.00b, c

MAYBY 0.03 ± 0.01a 0.11 ± 0.01a 0.11 ± 0.02a 1.03 ± 0.01b 0.02 ± 0.01a

UAYBF 0.19 ± 0.31f 1.10 ± 0.14c 0.34 ± 0.01b 1.73 ± 0.05d 0.50 ± 0.20e

FAYBF 1.00 ± 0.00d 0.22 ± 0.01b 0.12 ± 0.00a 1.10 ± 0.01b 0.12 ± 0.10c

MAYBF 0.10 ± 0.01b 0.13 ± 0.01a, b 0.12 ± 0.12a 1.10 ± 0.01a, b 0.10 ± 0.01a, b
Mean values with different superscript within the column are significantly different (p≤0.05)

Legend: UAYBF: Untreated African Yam Bean Flour; UAYBY: Untreated African Yam Bean Yogurt;

CMY: Cow Milk Yogurt; MAYBY: Malted African Yam Bean Yogurt

MAYBF: Malted African Yam Bean Flour

216
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Adolfsson, O. (2004): Yoghurt and gut function. Nutrition, 80(2): 245-256.

Aderinola, T. A and Olanrewaju, Z. Y. (2014): Evaluation of African Yam Bean Yoghurt

Supplemented with Cow Milk Quality and Microbiological, Journal of Microbiology,
Biotechnology and Food Sciences, DOI: 10.15414/jmbfs.2014.4.1.70-74

Amakoromo, E. R., Innocent-Adiele, H. C. and Njoku H. O. (2012): Physicochemical quality of a

yoghurt-like product from African yam bean, Report and Opinion. 4(4): 58-61.

AOAC, (2012): Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Official methods of analysis 19th
edition, Washington D.C., USA.

Henry-Unaeze H. N., and Okoye R. C. (2022): Evaluation of pasting and functional properties of flour
blends made from African yam bean (Sphenostylis Stenocarpa) and Corn (Zea Mays)
Seeds. World Journal of Innovative Research (WJIR), 12(3), 19-24.

Kamaeshwaran. S., Priyadharshini. J., K., Saranya, C., Sudha, P. J. Sandra and Swathy, K. S. (2014):
Phytochemical Screening and Acute Toxicity Study of Hydro alcoholic Extract of
Plectranthusvettiveroides, International Journal of Pharmacy Research and Science, 02(2),
126-134.
Makanjuola, O. M. (2012): Production and quality evaluation of soy-corn yoghurt, Advanced Journal
of Food Science and Technology., 4(3): 130-134.

Milkesa Feyera (2021): Overview of malting and fermentation role in sorghum flour, primarily for
antinutrient reduction. Journal of Human Nutrition and Food Science, 9(1): 1138.

Saint-Eve, A., Levy, C., Martin, N., and Souchon, I. (2006). Influence of proteins on the perception
of flavored stirred yoghurts, Journal of Dairy Science, 89(3): 922–933.

Sanful, R. E. (2009): The use of tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus), cow milk and their composite
substrates for yoghurt production, Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 8(6): 755- 758.

Temitayo, O., E., Iyi-Eweka E., Oyinlola, O., R. and Joseph Odigure, O. (2016): Effects of
Incubation Temperature on the Physical and Chemical Properties of Yoghurt, 3rd
International Conference on African Development Issues, (CU-ICADI 2016) ISSN:2449-
075X.
Usman. A. M. and Bolade K. M. (2020): Quality characteristics of imitation yogurt produced from
the blends of milk from cow, coconut, soybean and almond seeds. Volume 8, Issue 9 ISSN
2320-9186

217
 EVALUATION OF THE NUTRITIONAL AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF MAIZE
GRUEL FORTIFIED WITH BAOBAB FRUIT PULP AND SOY POWDER
*
Adebayo, Y. O.1, Lasabi, O. T.2, Akinsanya O.B 3 and Adeyemo, A. E.1
1
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State,
Nigeria.
2
Institute of Food Security, Environmental Resources and Agricultural Research, Federal University
of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria.
3
Department of Chemical and Food Sciences, Bells University of Technology, Ota, Ogun State.
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
An improved complementary food consisting of fermented maize, soybeans and baobab fruit pulp
was formulated and evaluated for proximate, micronutrient and sensory properties. As the
proportion of soy powder and baobab fruit pulp powder increased, the protein content increased as
well, ranging from 21.9% to 10.3%. The fat and ash contents, with values ranging from 8.5% to
3.8% and 0.67% to 0.32%, respectively, followed the same trend. The values of minerals ranged
from; Calcium (551.27 mg/kg to 276.50 mg/kg), Potassium (1874.90 mg/100 g to 803.80 mg/100 g),
Zinc (15.43 mg/kg to 11.50 mg/kg), Magnesium (167.50 mg/kg to 162.83 mg/kg), Iron (490 mg/kg to
109.00 mg/kg). Vitamin D ranged from 0.3633 mcg/100g to 0.2300 mcg/100g, vitamin C ranged
from 61.33 mg/100g to 3.767 mg/100g, and vitamin A ranged from 0.8100 mcg/kg to 0.5867 mcg/kg.
The sensory panelists showed a high preference for the proportion of maize, soy powder and baobab
fruit pulp at 60:20:20. According to this study, adding soybeans and baobab fruit pulp to fermented
maize boosted the gruel's macro and micronutrient content, creating a product that is rich in
nutrients and can be used as a complementary food for children
Keywords: Baobab Fruit, Soybean powder, fermentation, Maize

INTRODUCTION
Low-quality meals, poor child-feeding practices, and high infection rates can have negative impacts
on health (Abiose et al., 2015). Traditional complementary diets in underdeveloped countries are
typically cereal-based and low in protein, calorie density and bulk. Nutritional deficiency can be
addressed through a variety of methods, one of which is grain legume and fruit supplementation
(Barber et al., 2017).
Baobab fruit pulp flour is a prescription-only dietary supplement that can assist children and
pregnant women achieve their daily calorie, carbohydrate and protein requirements. Baobab gruel is
an excellent way to supplement cereals with key macro and micronutrients, particularly vitamin C,
which is required for iron absorption (Barca et al., 2018; Gimba et al., 2020). The findings of the
study will help develop policies to eliminate hunger, improve nutrition, and facilitate the value
addition of baobab products.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The golden variety of maize (Zea mays) and soybean (Glycine max) were purchased at the
Aleshinloye market in Ibadan. Baobab fruit pods were harvested in the hamlet of Idi Opele, Surulere
Local Government, Ogbomoso, Oyo State.

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Preparation of Fermented Maize Flour
With minor adjustments, the fermented maize slurry was made as described by Barber et al. (2017).
Following wet milling and sieving, the resulting slurry was allowed to ferment in water for 12 h.
Excess water was then decanted, and the slurry was dewatered with a muslin cloth to yield the cake,
which was then dried overnight in an air oven at 50°C for 15 minutes. To obtain fermented maize
flour, the dried fermented product was crushed into powder using an electric blender.

Preparation of Malted Soybean Flour

Ahure and Ejoha's (2020) modified method was used to create malted soybean flour. Soybean seeds
were sifted, cleaned, washed, and soaked for 12 h in a plastic bucket, laid out on a jute bag, sprouted
at room temperature for 48 h, oven-dried at 60°C for 8 h, de-vegetated by hand rubbing, winnowed,
and milled into flour using a hammer mill. The flour was sieved to ensure uniform particle size
before being packaged airtight and stored at room temperature.

Production of Baobab Fruit Pulp Powder

The fruit pulp was extracted manually using the method described by Aluko et al. (2016) with slight
modifications. The pulp was separated from the seeds by abrasion using a wooden mortar and pestle.
The powder was blended using an electric blender to produce a fine homogeneous product and stored
in dry airtight opaque containers.

Preparation of Baobab-Enriched Fermented Cereal Gruel

The recipe was adapted from Barber et al. (2017), with maize flour supplemented with various
quantities of soy powder and baobab fruit pulp powder, as shown in Table.

Table 1: Recipe formulation for the Enriched Maize Gruel

Samples Maize Powder Malted Soy Powder Baobab Fruit Pulp Powder

(%) (%) (%)

MA 100 0 0

MB 90 5 5

MC 80 10 10

MD 70 15 15

ME 60 20 20

MA- Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 100:0:0
MB- Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 90:5:5
MC-Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 80:10:10
MD-Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 70:15:15
ME-Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 60:20:20
Proximate analysis

219
The proximate composition (moisture, crude protein, carbohydrates, crude fat, ash, and crude fibre)
was determined by the method AOAC (2012).

Micronutrients analysis
AOAC (2012) used Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer to determine Calcium, Magnesium,
Sodium, Potassium, Iron, and Zinc. Vitamins A, B12, C, and E were also determined by the method
described by (AOAC, 2012).
Sensory Evaluation
The sensory evaluation of gruel from varied soy and baobab fruit pulp powder blends was performed
by a panel of 20 nursing mothers and students from the College of Food Science and Human
Ecology. Sensory evaluation was carried out in a boot where panelists assessed the colour,
mouthfeel, taste, texture, and overall acceptability of the samples. The scores were based on a 9-
point hedonic scale, with the degree of likeness of the product attribute. The panelists were instructed
to score colour first and water was provided for rinsing the mouth. Expectoration cups with lids were
provided for panelists who did not wish to swallow the samples. (Barber et al. 2017)
Statistical Analysis
All determinations were made in triplicate and subjected to ANOVA. Duncan's Multiple Range Test
was used to test for significant differences at P ≤ 0.05 between replicates and to check for the
difference between plain and baobab-enriched gruel. SPSS version 21.0 was used.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results
Proximate composition of Gruel
Table 2 shows that as the amounts of soy powder and baobab fruit pulp increased, the protein, fat, and ash
levels gradually increased. Sample ME (60:20:20) had the highest protein content at 21.9%, whereas sample
MA (100:0:0) had the lowest (10.3%). When the ratio of soy powder to baobab fruit pulp powder was
increased, so did the ash level. The moisture content in MA (100:0:0) was 31.94% and in ME (60:20:20) was
29.80%. Sample MA had the highest fibre content (1.78%), whereas sample MC had the lowest (1.43%).
Sample MA had the highest energy content value of 71.40%, while sample ME had the lowest (62.72%
Mineral Content of Gruel
Table 3 shows the mineral composition of the three samples. The magnesium values rose with
increasing levels of substitution, with sample ME (60:20:20) having the greatest value and sample
MA (100:0:0) having the lowest. Sample ME had the greatest iron value of 490 mg/kg, while sample
MA had the lowest value of 109.00 mg/kg. Samples MD and ME did not differ significantly from
one another, but they did differ significantly from sample MC. The potassium values increased as the
proportion of soy powder and baobab increased, with sample ME having the highest value and
varying significantly from all the other samples.
Zinc content values increased as the proportions of soy powder and baobab fruit pulp powder
increased, with sample ME having the highest value of 15.43 mg/kg at 20% soy and baobab fruit
pulp powder proportions. Samples ME and MD did not differ significantly from one another, but
they did differ considerably from the other three samples. All of the calcium samples were
considerably different, with MD having a value of 551.27 mg/kg, while MA had a value of 276.50
mg/kg.

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 Vitamins Content of Enriched Gruel
Table 4 shows the vitamin content of the samples, with ME having the highest value of 0.8100
mg/kg of Vitamin A and MA having the lowest. ME had the highest vitamin B12 concentration and
MA had the lowest, with values ranging from 0.54 mg/100g to 0.34 mg/100g. The vitamin C content
of samples ME and MA ranged from 61.33 mg/100g to 3.767 mg/100g, while the vitamin D
concentration of ME and MA differed greatly, ranging from 0.3633 mg/100g to 0.2300 mg/100g.
Table 2: Proximate Composition of Enriched Maize Gruel (%)

%
Substitution Protein Moisture Ash Fat Fibre Carbohydrate
(M:S: B) (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g)
MA
(100:0:0) 10.3±0.10d 31.94±0.03a 0.32±0.04d 3.8±0.03e 1.78±0.04a 71.40±1.61a
MB (90:5:5) 11.3±0.01c 31.42±0.03ab 0.55±0.02c 5.6±0.03c 1.62±0.02b 64.71±0.08bc
MC 17.5±0.03b 30.65±0.03bc 0.61±0.04b 4.8±0.03d 1.43±0.02d 65.93±0.04b
(80:10:10)
MD 21.7±0.02a 30.59±0.97cd 0.57±0.02bc 7.9±0.03b 1.51±0.04c 64.35±0.02c
(70:15:15)
ME 21.9±0.03a 29.80±0.03d 0.67±0.03a 8.5±0.04a 1.62±0.04b 62.72±0.01d
(60:20:20)

Sensory Evaluation of Gruel

The samples varied significantly in terms of appearance, flavour, texture and acceptability. MB
(90:5:5) had the lowest score in all the sensory attributes, while the 20% substitution of soy and
baobab powder had the greatest score for all the parameters. The low scores for the 5% substitution
of soy and baobab powder show that the acceptability of the pap rose as the substitution level
increased.

M:S: B- Maize Powder: Malted Soy powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp

MA- Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 100:0:0
MB- Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 90:5:5
MC-Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 80:10:10
MD-Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 70:15:15
ME-Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 60:20:20

Table 3: Mineral Content of Soy and Baobab Fruit Pulp Powder Enriched Maize Gruel

%
Substitution
(M:S:B) Mg (mg/kg) Fe (mg/kg) Na (mg/kg) K (mg/kg) Zn (mg/kg) Ca (mg/kg)
MA 162.83±0.47b 109.00±2.00c 956.57±4.15a 803.80±0.36c 11.50±0.40b 276.50±2.63e
(100:0:0)
MB (90:5:5) 163.53±0.59b 124.00±9.54c 942.80±2.52b 805.43±1.00c 12.27±0.76b 284.50±0.89d

221
 Samples Taste Colour Mouthfeel Texture

MA(100:0:0) 5.70c 5.70a 5.60c 6.10b

MB (90:5:5) 6.15bc 6.15ab 5.95c 6.10b

MC(80:10:10) 6.80b 6.80b 6.75b 6.75b

MD(70:15:15) 7.65a 7.75a 7.55a 7.85a

ME(60:20:20) 8.00a 7.90a 7.85a 8.05a

MC 166.43±0.80a 283.33±70.24b 818.27±2.67d 574.37±1.21d 12.90±0.50b 408.57±3.11c

(80:10:10)
MD 164.13±1.88b 420.00±65.57a 794.80±3.35e 1123.60±1.21b 14.73±1.17a 551.27±1.16a
(70:15:15)
ME 167.50±1.21a 490.00±60.00a 858.10±1.91c 1874.90±3.86a 15.43±0.30a 454.63±1.07b
(60:20:20)
Values with superscripts in the same column differ significantly (P ≤ 0.5). (N=2±SD)
M:S: B- Maize Powder: Malted Soy powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp
MA- Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 100:0:0
MB- Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 90:5:5
MC-Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 80:10:10
MD-Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 70:15:15
ME-Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 60:20:20
Table 4: Sensory Properties of Enriched Maize Gruel

Values with superscripts in the same column differ significantly (P ≤ 0.5). (N=2±SD)
MA- Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 100:0:0
MB- Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 90:5:5
MC-Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 80:10:10
MD-Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 70:15:15
ME-Maize Powder: Malted Soy Powder: Baobab Fruit Pulp 60:20:20

DISCUSSION
According to Omosebi et al. (2018), the inclusion of soy powder can enhance the lysine and
tryptophan content in maize powder, thereby providing infants and toddlers with essential protein.
To meet the daily protein requirements for these age groups, infants aged 6-8 months need 9.1 g, 9-
11 months require 9.6 g, and 12-23 months require 10.9 g, as stated by Abeshu et al. (2016). By
consuming 100 g of soy and baobab fruit pulp powder-enriched gruel, infants and toddlers can obtain
approximately 90-100% of the recommended daily allowance (RDA) of protein.

The gradual increase in fat content in the gruel can be attributed to the higher proportion of soy
powder. Fat plays a crucial role in the diets of newborns and young children by providing essential

222
fatty acids, aiding in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, increasing dietary energy density, and
preventing excessive weight gain in infants. As suggested by Oladiran and Emmambux (2020),
complementary foods should provide 3 g/day (5-8%) of dietary fat for infants aged 9-11 months and
9-13 g/day (15-20%) for those aged 12-23 months. Consuming 100 g of soy and baobab fruit pulp
powder-enriched gruel can supply approximately 150-250% and 55-95% of the RDA of fat for
infants aged 9-11 months and 12-23 months, respectively.

Infants and young children require 400-700 g of vitamin A per day (Awasthi and Awasthi, 2020).
Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin that is essential for vision, immunity, bone growth, reproduction,
the surface of the cornea and sclera, and the epithelial integrity of the respiratory, urinary, and
gastrointestinal tracts. It influences gene expression and can lead to impaired eye and vision, cellular
differentiation, and cell-mediated immune system (Awasthi and Awasthi, 2020). Vitamin B12 is
essential for brain development, neural myelination and cognitive function. The proportion of soy
powder and baobab fruit pulp powder increased the vitamin B12 value, with ME having the highest
value and MA having the least. This ranges from 0.54 mg/100g to 0.34 mg/100g, providing over
100% of the daily requirement (Venkatramanan et al., 2016). The daily vitamin C requirement for
children is 15-45 mg/day, and 100 g of enriched maize gruel can provide over 100% of this
requirement. Sample MA had the least amount of vitamin C, while sample ME had the highest value.
The high Vitamin C value can be attributed to the baobab fruit pulp powder, which has been reported
to contain a high amount of vitamin C. Vitamin C is essential for normal metabolic functioning and
is a cofactor for enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of collagen, carnitine and neurotransmitters
(Pelhivan, 2017).
Vitamin D concentrations in samples ME and MA varied significantly, ranging from 0.3633
mg/100g to 0.2300 mg/100g. It is a fat-soluble vitamin linked to calcium homeostasis and bone
formation and has been linked to the innate immune system's ability to prevent infections and the
adaptive immune system's ability to moderate autoimmune diseases (Weydert, 2014). The daily
requirement for infants, toddlers, and young children is 5 g/day, and 50 g of the product will satisfy
more than 100%.

CONCLUSION
Gruels made from 10%, 15% and 20% substitution levels are suitable for increasing the
macronutrient and micronutrient density of traditional supplemental foods and preventing childhood
malnutrition. Sample ME (60% maize powder,20% soy powder and 20% baobab fruit pulp powder)
is advised for high-nutrient-content local supplemental foods

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 THERMOPHYSICAL AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF UNRIPE PLANTAIN AND
WATER YAM COMPOSITE FLOURS
1
Adegoke, A. F., 1 Onifade, E. O., 1Omohimi, C. I.
1
Omidiran, A. T., Kajihausa, O. E., 2Adekoyeni, O. O., 3John, E. P. and 1Adebowale, A. A.
1
1
Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta
2
Department of Home Science and Management, Federal University Gashua, Yobe State, Nigeria
3
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta
Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
This study investigated the proximate, thermal, and functional properties of composite flour from
unripe plantain and water yam. The flour composition included 100:0, 0:100, 50:50, 60:40, 40:60,
70:30 and 30:70 of unripe plantain and water yam flours, respectively. The moisture, fat, crude
protein, crude fibre, ash and total carbohydrate content of the composite flour ranged from 7.75-
8.20%, 4.50-5.25%, 3.06-6.13%, 0.00-1.00%, 1.67-5.67% and 77.91-80.82%, respectively. The
functional properties investigated were water absorption capacity, swelling power and swelling
index. The values obtained varied between 2.79 and 3.39 g/g, 3.50 and 5.51 g/g, and 4.00 and 6.00
g/g, respectively. Mean values of thermal properties (specific heat capacity and thermal
conductivity) were 173.29–176.60 J/Kg/k and 26.00-26.47 W/m/k, respectively. The difference in
thermal properties was associated with the moisture content of the flours. The proximate, thermal
and functional properties results were significantly different (p<0.05). The results obtained showed
that these composite flour blends had great potential in the production of numerous food product.

INTRODUCTION
According to Noorfarahzihah et al. (2014), composite flour can be defined as a mixture of flours
from tubers, and/or cereal and/or fruits and vegetables. Also, composite flour could mean a mixture
of several flours obtained from roots and tubers, cereal, legumes, etc., with or without the addition of
wheat flour (Adeyemi and Ogazi, 1985). Notwithstanding, the chief objective of producing
composite flour is to achieve a food material that compares better than the individual components
with regards to improved functionalities and economies. Composite flours can be used to produce a
range of cooked or baked food products like cake and solid cooked paste called amala amongst other
various uses.

Plantain (Musa paradiasica) is an incredible super food belonging to the banana family. Plantains
are largely grown in Uganda, Nigeria, Ghana and Rwanda. They have various health benefits and can
be eaten in a variety of ways. The United States Department of Agriculture (2018) reported that
plantain gives energy, fats, protein, carbohydrates, dietary fibre, etc.
Water yam (Dioscorea alata) is a common food crop with prevalence in south west states and
Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Water yam is often eaten in its cooked form or processed into flour and
reconstituted into dough. They contain little amount of sugar and enjoy extended shelf life
(Raemackers, 2001), which makes it more available in and off seasons. Unripe plantain and water
yam flours in their cooked paste form (amala) have been reported to have tremendous benefits such
as body weight and blood sugar control, and prevention of type II diabetes mellitus and homeostatic
maintenance of blood sugar levels for diabetic patients (Adeola and Ohizua, 2018). As a result of
associated post-harvest losses, processing of unripe plantain and water yam into flour ensures the
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products are available in and out of season. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the
thermal, pasting and functional properties of unripe plantain and water yam composite flours.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Unripe plantains and water yam tubers were purchased at Osiele market located in Odeda Local
Government, Abeokuta, Ogun State.

Production of Plantain and Water yam flour

The approach reported by Fadimu et al. (2018) and Malomo et al. (2013) was used in the production
of the plantain and water yam flour, respectively. The flour produced was packaged in a high-density
polyethylene bag and stored until analysis.

Composite flour preparation

The plantain flour and water yam flour were blended together in different proportions as shown in
Table 1. The samples were coded PF (Plantain Flour) and WYF (Water Yam Flour).

Proximate composition determination

Proximate content for moisture, ash, crude protein, crude fibre, and total fat was determined using
the standard method of AOAC (2010). Total Carbohydrate was determined by difference.

Thermal Properties

Specific heat capacity

The method of Choi and Okos (1986) was used to determine the specific heat capacity of the flours.
The specific heat capacity was obtained using the various mass fraction derived from the proximate
composition of the samples, as shown in Equation 1.

Cp = 4.180Xw + 1.711Xp + 1.929Xf + 1.547Xc + 0.908Xa (1)

Cp is the specific heat capacity in KJ/kg and X are the respective mass fraction of water, protein, fat,
carbohydrate and ash present in the flour.

Table I: Blend formulations of unripe plantain and water yam flours

Sample Unripe Plantain (%) Water Yam (%)

A 100 0
B 0 100
C 50 50
D 60 40
E 40 60
F 70 30
G 30 70

Thermal conductivity
The method of Sweat (1986) was used to determine the thermal conductivity of the flour blends. The
thermal conductivity was obtained by substituting the various proximate composition of the sample
in the expression below.

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K = 0.25Xc + 0.155Xp + 0.16Xf + 0.135Xa + 0.58Xw (2)

K is the thermal conductivity (W/mᵒC) and X is the respective mass fraction of carbohydrate,
protein, fat, ash and water in the flour.

Determination of Functional Properties

Swelling power and solubility index

Swelling power and solubility index were determined using the method reported by Afoakwa et
al. (2012).

Water absorption capacity

The water absorption capacity (WAC) of the flour was determined as described by Oyeyinka et al.
(2013) with modifications.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Proximate Composition of Blends from Plantain and Water Yam Composite Flour
The proximate composition of the blends from plantain and water yam composite flour is presented
in Table II. As inclusion of water yam flour increased, the moisture content decreased. The highest
moisture content was observed in 100 % water yam flour sample. A significant difference (p<0.05)
was observed in all the moisture contents of the blend sample. Moisture contents of the samples
which ranged from 7.03 to 10.18% were generally low and suggested reduced chances of microbial
spoilage with increased shelf life if properly packaged. The values of protein content obtained in the
study ranged from 3.06 to 6.13%, sample with 100% plantain flour had the highest mean value.
Protein is necessary for proper body maintenance and growth (Adeola and Ohizua, 2018). Crude
protein content of water yam flour blends relatively decreased with the addition of plantain flour.
This could be due to low protein content of plantain as reported in research findings of Ogazi (1996),
among others. The fat content of the blends ranged from 4.50 to 5.25%. There was no significant
difference (p>0.05) in flour samples in terms of fat content. The low-fat content of the flour blends is
desirable and suggests that they could be used as weight reducing diets. Buckman et al. (2018) stated
that low fat content in foods reduces the risk of oxidation and rancidity which causes off flavour.
The ash content of composite flour ranges from 1.67 to 5.67%. Ash content helps to indicate the
rough estimate of mineral, therefore sample with the highest ash content indicated that it could have
the highest mineral content. The decrease in ash could be because of low ash content of plantain pulp
(Ogazi, 1996). The crude fibre and the carbohydrate content of the plantain – water yam flour blends
ranged from 0.53 to 1.00% and 78.01 to 80.82%, respectively. The inclusion of water yam flour
increased the carbohydrate content of the flour blends. All the values for fibre obtained in this study
were not within the range reported by Abiodun et al. (2012). Crude fibre is the part of food that is not
digested by human, but the proper body functioning of the intestinal tract depends upon the presence
of adequate fibre. Fibre helps in the maintenance of human health and has been known to reduce
cholesterol level of the body. Dietary fibre decreases the absorption of cholesterol from the gut. It
aids at improving the conversion of starch in simple sugar. Carbohydrate contents for water yam -
plantain and the blends ranged from 74.42 – 79.29%.

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Functional and Thermal Properties of Blends from Plantain and Water Yam Composite Flour
The functional properties of the composite flour blends are shown in Table III. Water absorption
capacity of the samples ranged from 2.79 – 3.39 g/g and this indicated that sample 30:70 had an
ability to hold more water compared to other samples. High water absorption flour has been found to
be suitable for baking, as inclusion of water yam flour increased, the water absorption capacity
decreased. At varied ratios, there was a significant difference (p<0.05) in water absorption between
composite flour samples and the control (100% plantain flour). This is not surpri