Semiconductor Physics

Presented By
Dr.Abinash Singh
Associate Professor
UCRD-UIE
Chandigarh University
 OBJECTIVES
To understand the basic materials and properties of semiconductors.

Understand the basic of semiconductor and components like diode, transistor, FET,
MOSFET and Energy Sources.

OBJECTIVES To give knowledge about semiconductor physics and discus working and applications of
basic devices, including p-n junctions, BJTs and FETs.
& OUTCOMES

LEARNING To apply the knowledge of basic semiconductor material physics and understand
fabrication processes
OUTCOMES To understand the characteristics of different electronic devices such as diodes, transistors.

To derive the relationships between the parameters in diode, FET, configurations of

Transistor and MOSFETs.
To describe the working and design considerations for the various photonic devices like
photo detectors, solar-cells and LEDs
To provide problem solving experience and learning of concepts through it in
semiconductor physics.
 S.No All Elements Marks Final
Weightage
1 1st Mid Semester Test 20 20
2 2nd Mid Semester Test 20 20
3 Element 1- Quiz (Theory) 6*4 = 24 4

COURSE 4 Element 2 - Surprise Test

(Theory)
3*12 = 36 4

SCHEME 5 Element 3 - Assignments 3*10 = 30 10

(Theory)
6 Practical Mid Semester Test 15 15
7 Practical Worksheet 10*30 45
8 Practical End Term 40 40
9 Theory End Term 60 60
10 Attendance (if more than 90%) 2 2
 Unit-1 Contact Hours:10
(Semiconductor)
Introduction to Semi-conductors, Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semi conductors, Charge carriers, Basic Structure of
P-N Junction, P-N Junction as a diode, Forward and reverse biasing of P-N Junction diode, Volt-Ampere
Semiconductors Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode, Zener diode, Volt-ampere Characteristics of Zener Diode, Applications
of P-N Junction and Zener diode.
Carrier generation and recombination, Carrier transport: diffusion and drift of carriers, Introduction to
Carrier Transport mobility and resistivity, Einstein Relation, Continuity Equation.
SELF STUDY TOPIC P&N-type semiconductors, Ripple factor, efficiency, idea of regulation in diode circuits

Unit-2 (Semiconductor Device Operation) Contact Hours:10

Theory Introduction to BJT: Formation of PNP / NPN junctions, Biasing of Transistor, Circuit configuration :CB, CE,
BJT & FET CC configuration, Emitter efficiency and Transport factor, Transistor as a switch and an Amplifier,
Introduction to FET, and Applications of FET(MOSFET).
Introduction to optoelectronic devices, Photoelectric effect in semi-conductors, photo resistors and
Syllabus photoconductors, visible light emitting diodes and displays, Photodiode, phototransistor, p-n junction solar
cell and its characteristics.
Optoelectronic
Devices

SELF STUDY Transistor action, injection efficiency, base transport factor and current amplification factors for CB and CE
modes, MOSFET Structure and characteristics
Unit-3 (Renewable energy Sources& Energy Storage Devices) Contact Hours:10

Renewable energy Introduction to Renewable energy Sources, Importance of renewable sources of energy, Types of RE
Sources sources, Limitations of RE sources, Basic Principle of SPV conversion – Types of PV Systems- Types of
Solar Cells, Photovoltaic cell concepts: Cell, module, array ,PV Module I-V Characteristics, Efficiency

Introduction to energy storage devices, Selecting Battery: Basic Battery Specifications, common parameters
Energy Storage of battery/applications ,Different types of Batteries used in different applications, Power Supplies: Linear and
Devices SMPS
 WHY TO STUDY SEMI CONDUCTOR

Semiconductor materials are useful because their

behavior can be easily manipulated by the
deliberate addition of impurities, known as doping.

Semiconductor Physics is the fact that the

microscopic properties it deals with are responsible
for the majority of modern technology.

Semiconductor, any of a class of crystalline solids

intermediate in electrical conductivity between a
conductor and an insulator.

5
 INTRODUCTION TO SEMI CONDUCTOR

Based on the electrical conductivity all the materials in nature are classified
as insulators, semiconductors, and conductors.

Fig.1 classification of materials 6

 Basics of Semi Conductor

Electrical Conductivity:
Level to Which a material Conduct
Electricity.

⮚Conductors: Allows the current to

flow through it with the application
of voltage like copper.
⮚Semi Conductor: Whose
Conductivity lies between Conductor
& Insulator.
⮚Insulator: Do not allow the current
to flow through it with the application
of voltage like Glass.

Fig. 3 energy band gap insulator, semiconductor, conductor

7
 Fermi level in Semi Conductor

The Fermi level (denoted by EF) is present between

the valence and conduction bands. It is the highest
occupied molecular orbital at absolute zero. The
charge carriers in this state have their own
quantum states and generally do not interact with
each other. When the temperature rises above
absolute zero, these charge carriers will begin to
occupy states above the Fermi level.
In a p-type semiconductor, there is an increase in
the density of unfilled states. Thus, accommodating
more electrons at the lower energy levels. However,
in an n-type semiconductor, the density of states
increases, therefore, accommodating more
electrons at higher energy levels.

Fig. valance band and conduction band

8
 Properties of Semi Conductor

⮚ It has negative temperature coefficient of Resistance i.e. the resistance of Semi

conductor decreases with the increase in the temperature and vice versa.
⮚Doping increases the conductivity of Semi Conductor.
⮚At absolute Zero, it behaves as perfect insulator.
⮚At room temperature ,it behaves as conductor.

Examples of Semiconductors:

Gallium arsenide, germanium and silicon are some of the most commonly used
semiconductors. Silicon is used in electronic circuit fabrication, and gallium arsenide is used
in solar cells, laser diodes, etc.

9
 Properties of Semi Conductor

⮚Semiconductors act like insulators at zero Kelvin. On increasing the

temperature, they work as conductors.
⮚Due to their exceptional electrical properties, semiconductors can be
modified by doping to make semiconductor devices suitable for energy
conversion, switches and amplifiers.
⮚Lesser power losses.
⮚Semiconductors are smaller in size and possess less weight.
⮚Their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser than insulators.
⮚The resistance of semiconductor materials decreases with an increase in
temperature and vice-versa.

10
 Types of Semi Conductors

• Semiconductor may be classified as under:

Fig. Classification of Semi Conductor

11
 Intrinsic Semiconductor

An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is

made of the semiconductor material in its
extremely pure form.
Examples of such semiconductors are: pure
germanium and silicon which have
forbidden energy gaps of 0.72 eV and 1.1 eV
respectively. The energy gap is so small that
even at ordinary room temperature; there
are many electrons which possess sufficient
energy to jump across the small energy gap
between the valence and the conduction
bands.

Fig. Intrinsic Semi Conductor 12

 Intrinsic Semi Conductor
In intrinsic semiconductors, current flows due to the motion of free
electrons, as well as holes. The total current is the sum of the
electron current Ie due to thermally generated electrons and the
hole current Ih.
Total Current (I) = Ie + Ih
For an intrinsic semiconductor, at finite temperature, the
probability of electrons existing in a conduction band decreases
exponentially with an increasing band gap (Eg).

13
 Extrinsic Semi Conductor

The conductivity of semiconductors can be

greatly improved by introducing a small
number of suitable replacement atoms called
IMPURITIES. The process of adding impurity
atoms to the pure semiconductor is called
DOPING. Usually, only 1 atom in 107 is replaced
by a dopant atom in the doped semiconductor.
An extrinsic semiconductor can be further
classified into types:
N-type Semiconductor
P-type Semiconductor

Fig. Classification of Extrinsic Semi Conductor

14
Difference Between Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semi Conductor

S.No Intrinsic Semi Conductor Extrinsic Semi Conductor

1. Pure semiconductor Impure semiconductor

2. The density of electrons is equal to the The density of electrons is not equal to the density of
density of holes holes
3. Electrical conductivity is low Electrical conductivity is high

4. Dependence on temperature only Dependence on temperature, as well as on the

amount of impurity
5. No impurities Trivalent impurity and penta-valent impurity

15
 Applications of Semi Conductor

Semiconductors are used in almost

all electronic devices. Without
them, our life would be much
different.
Their reliability, compactness, low
cost and controlled conduction of
electricity make them ideal to be
used for various purposes in a wide
range of components and devices.
Transistors, diodes, photosensors,
microcontrollers, integrated chips
and

Applications of Semi Conductor

16
 Uses of Semiconductors in Everyday Life

• Temperature sensors are made

with semiconductor devices.
• They are used in 3D printing
machines
• Used in microchips and self-driving
cars
• Used in calculators, solar plates,
computers and other electronic
devices.
• Transistors and MOSFET used as a
switch in electrical circuits are
manufactured using
semiconductors.
Fig. Applications of Semi Conductor

17
 Importance of Semiconductors

• They are highly portable due to their small size

• They require less input power
• Semiconductor devices are shockproof
• They have a longer lifespan
• They are noise-free while operating

18
 Introduction of Diode

A diode is a two-terminal
electronic component that
conducts electricity primarily
in one direction. It has high
resistance on one end and
low resistance on the other
end.

Fig. Diode
19
 Symbol of Diode

Diodes are normally used in rectifiers,

where they convert AC signals to DC
signals. They come with a wide range
of applications including power
conversion, radio modulation, logic
gates, temperature measurements and
current steering.

20
 Formation of P-N Junction Diode
A diode is normally made up of a semiconductor material i.e.
silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide etc.
Two crystals of the same semiconductor material(normally silicon)
are doped with different types of impurities, one crystal with
pentavalent impurity, while the second one with trivalent, to
create two types of semiconductor materials named:
P-Type Semiconductor: Majority Charge Carriers are
Holes(+).
N-Type Semiconductor: Majority Charge Carriers are
Electrons(-).
When these two semiconductors are joined/merged together, the
free electrons from the N-Type start to move towards the P-Type
region, while the Holes start moving towards the N-Type region.
At the border of these two regions, electrons get combined with
Holes and neutralized.

Fig. Working of Diode

21
 Biasing of Condition in Diode
There are two operating regions in the P-N junction diode:
P-type
N-type
There are three biasing conditions for the P-N junction
diode, and this is based on the voltage applied:
Zero bias: No external voltage is applied to the P-N
junction diode.
Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential
is connected to the p-type while the negative terminal is
connected to the n-type.
Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage
potential is connected to the p-type and the positive is
connected to the n-type.

Fig. Diode Biasing

22
 Zero Bias of Diode

when two semiconductor

materials are merged
together, a momentary flow
of charge carriers occurs,
which results in the creation
of a depletion region. This
state of the diode is normally
termed as Zero Biasing State,
as there's no power applied at
any terminal.

Fig. Un-biasing of diode

23
 Forward Biasing of diode

•The PN Junction created at the center of two regions is

very small but it's powerful enough to stop the free
electrons from passing through it.
•So, if we could provide some external power to these
electrons, they can break this barrier and can make their
entry into the P-Type region.
•This external power required to overcome the depletion
region is normally termed as a Forward Threshold Voltage
of diode.
•the positive terminal of the battery is connected with
the anode of the diode and as we will provide a voltage Fig. Forward Biasing of Diode
greater than its threshold voltage, the diode will start
conducting and is said to be acting as forward biased.

24
 Reverse Bias of P-N Junction

•If the polarity of the applied power is reversed

i.e. positive terminal of the battery gets
connected with the cathode(-), while the negative
terminal gets connected with the anode(+), the
depletion region will start to increase.
•In this state, the diode won't allow the current to
flow through it and is said to be acting as reverse
biased.
•In a reverse Biased state, the diode acts as an
open switch.
•A diode in ideal condition when reverse biased
has infinite resistance.
Fig. Reverse Biasing of P-N Junction Diode

25
V-I Characteristics of Diode

26
 Applications of Diode
There are various types of diodes and these diodes are used in numerous ways.
•The most basic function would be changing AC current to DC current by removing some part of the signal. This
functionality would make them rectifiers. They are used in electrical switches and are used in surge protectors
because they can prevent a spike in the voltage.
•Diodes help in performing digital logic. Millions of diodes are used similar to logic gates and used in modern
processors.
•They are used for isolating signals from a supply. For example, one of the major uses of diodes is to remove
negative signals from AC current. This is known as signal demodulation. This function is basically used in radios as a
filtering system in order to extract radio signals from a carrier wave.
•They are also used in creating power supplies and voltage doublers. Using a full wave rectifier will help to deliver
a more stable voltage. Combination of a diode with a capacitor will help to make small AC voltage multiply to
create a very high voltage.
•The light emitting diodes or LEDs are used in sensors and also in laser devices any many other light illumination
devices.
•Zener diodes are used as voltage regulators are used in electronic tuning.
•Diodes are the basis of op-amps and transistors.
29
Diode as Rectifier
• Half Wave Rectifier: When alternating current (AC) is allowed to pass through a diode, it allows
current to pass only in one direction. The process is because the diode is in the forward bias for
the one-half cycle of alternating current and reverse bias for the other half cycle of AC. In reverse
bias, it provides high resistance, so current is not allowed to flow. However, during the forward
bias, it has very low resistance and current flows. During the alternate half-cycles, only the half-
wave is obtained; that is why it is called a half-wave rectifier.
• Full-wave rectifier: A full-wave rectifier converts the complete cycle of alternating current into the
pulsating direct current signal. The main difference between the half-wave and full-wave rectifiers
is that full-wave rectifiers use the complete AC signals and convert them into DC signals.
Conversely, the half-wave rectifier uses only half of the AC signal and converts it into a DC signal.
Half Wave Rectifier
• A half-wave rectifier comprises a transformer, a P-N
junction diode, and a load resistor. The complete
working of a half-wave rectifier needs two cycles, i.e.,
both positive and negative cycles.

• The diode is connected to the forward bias during the

positive half cycle. The current is conducted to the
load resistance and the voltage established across the
diode.
• The diode is in reverse bias condition during the
negative half cycle. Hence, the current flows across
the circuit are zero, and there is no movement in the
circuit.
• The net voltage established across the diode is only
during the positive half cycle of the circuit, and we will
get pulsating DC voltage across the load resistor.
Full Wave Rectifier
• A full-wave rectifier is made up of a transformer, two diodes,
and load resistance. Four diodes can also be used in full-wave
rectifiers, commonly called bridge rectifiers. A full-wave
rectifier uses both halves of AC input. The anodes of the
center-tapped diodes are connected to the load resistor and
secondary winding of the transformer.

• Diode D1 will be connected in the forward bias, and diode D2

will be in reverse bias during the positive half cycle of AC. So,
current flows through diode D1 and is blocked by diode D2.
• Diode D2 will be connected in the forward bias, and diode D1
will be in reverse bias during the negative half cycle of AC. So,
current flows through diode D2 and is blocked by diode D1.
• In a full-wave rectifier, DC voltage is obtained for both
positive and negative half cycles of AC input.
Application of Diodes as a Rectifier

• Diodes as rectifiers have many applications. Some of them are mentioned

below:
• Diodes as rectifiers are used in power rectification, such as turning AC
voltage into DC voltage.
• Diodes detect the amplitude of modulated radio signals, which helps us
listen to radio clearly.
• Diodes as rectifiers are also used in lighting systems.
• Half-wave rectifiers are also used to detect the peak of the incoming
waveform or a signal.
• Full-wave bridge rectifiers are used to supply polarized voltage in weldings.
Half wave rectifier FACTS
• Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier
• Affordable
• Simple connections
• Easy to use as the connections are simple
• Number of components used are less
• Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier
• Ripple production is more
• Harmonics are generated
• Utilization of the transformer is very low
• The efficiency of rectification is low
• Applications of Half Wave Rectifier
• Following are the uses of half-wave rectification:
• Power rectification: Half wave rectifier is used along with a transformer for power rectification as powering equipment.
• Signal demodulation: Half wave rectifiers are used for demodulating the AM signals.
• Signal peak detector: Half wave rectifier is used for detecting the peak of the incoming waveform.
Full Wave Rectifier FACTS
• Types of Full Wave Rectifier
• There are two main types of full-wave rectifiers, and they are:
• Two diodes full-wave rectifier circuit (requires a center-tapped transformer and is used in vacuum tubes)
• Bridge rectifier circuit (doesn’t require a centre-tapped transformer and is used along with transformers for efficient
usage)
• Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier
• The rectifier efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is high
• The power loss is very low
• Number of ripples generated are less
• Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier
• Very expensive
• Applications of Full Wave Rectifier
• Following are the uses of full-wave rectifier:
• Full-wave rectifiers are used for supplying polarized voltage in welding and for this bridge rectifiers are used.
• Full-wave rectifiers are used for detecting the amplitude of modulated radio signals.
Zener Diode
• Zener diode is a special PN Junction diode that is designed especially to operate
in reverse biased condition. It conducts the flow of current in both forward and
reverse biased condition. In forward biased condition it acts as normal diode.

• Zener diodes are made by doping high concentration of P-type And N-type
material. The concentration of ion in material is kept higher than normal diode.
Hence, it has very thin depletion region.

• The specified voltage above which Zener diode conducts the flow of current in
reverse biased condition is known as breakdown voltage or Zener voltage.

• Normal diodes gets damaged / blown in reverse biased condition.

Zener Diode Breakdown
• Breakdown in Zener diode
• Zener diodes have two types of reverse breakdown.
1. Zener breakdown
• Zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped diodes. When the reverse voltage applied to diode is increased. The thin depletion
region generates strong electric field.
• When applied reverse voltage reaches close to Zener voltage. The electric field in the depletion region gets strong enough to pull
electrons from valence band. The valence electrons gains enough energy from electric field that it breaks the bonding with parent
atom.
• The valence electrons that break out are now free electrons. These free electrons carry current. At Zener breakdown region even a
small increase in voltage results in high increase of current.
2. Avalanche breakdown
• Avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal PN junction diodes and Zener diodes but at very high reverse voltage.
• When reverse voltage is very high. The free electrons ( that are minority carriers ) gains huge amount of energy and gets
accelerated to greater velocity.
• These high speed free electrons collides with the atoms and extract out electrons. Further these electrons again gets accelerated
and collide with other atoms. This way a very large number of free electrons are generated.
• These free electrons results in rapid increase of current inside the diode that destroys it
Zener Diode Advantages
• The advantages of Zener diode are as follows –
1.Zener diodes are cheap.
2.They are small in size
3.Output is highly accurate
4.It can handle high power
Zener Diode Characteristics
Zener Diode Applications
• Over Voltage Protection
• Suppose the circuit requires 6 volt. So we put a Zener diode that has 6 volt of
breakdown voltage. When an over voltage, suppose 10 volt try to rush through
circuit that needs 6 volt, the circuit may get blown.
• Here, Zener diode comes in action. Above 6 volt, Zener diode starts conducting
current and provides constant output voltage of 6 volt to the circuit.
• Zener diode as voltage regulator
• The most wide application of Zener diode is its use as voltage regulator. It can
input a wide range of voltage to provide a constant and accurate output voltage.
• When the Zener voltage / breakdown voltage is reached the output voltage goes
constant.
• To limit the excess flow of current through Zener diode, a resistor is added in
series.
Zener Diode Applications
• Zener diode is used in clipping circuits
• Clipper circuits are used to prevent the output signal from going beyond a
determined value without changing anything of the input signal. Uses of
zener diode include modifying and shaping the AC waveform clipping
circuits. The clipping circuits limit one part of the AC waveform to shape
the waveform or provide protection. These kinds of circuits are generally
used in TV and FM transmitters to remove interference.

• Zener diode can be used to shift voltage

• Zener diode’s core uses include converting a signal from one voltage to
another. It has the ability to maintain a steady output voltage in the
breakdown region. This voltage shifting functionality makes zener diode an
ideal component of the operation.
Zener Diode Specifications

• Some commonly used specifications for Zener diodes are as follows:

• Zener/Breakdown Voltage – The Zener or the reverse breakdown voltage ranges from 2.4 V to 200
V, sometimes it can go up to 1 kV while the maximum for the surface-mounted device is 47 V.
• Current Iz (max) – It is the maximum current at the rated Zener Voltage (Vz – 200μA to 200 A)
• Current Iz (min) – It is the minimum value of current required for the diode to break down.
• Power Rating – It denotes the maximum power the Zener diode can dissipate. It is given by the
product of the voltage of the diode and the current flowing through it.
• Temperature Stability – Diodes around 5 V have the best stability
• Voltage Tolerance – It is typically ±5%
• Zener Resistance (Rz) – It is the resistance to the Zener diode exhibits.
Generation and recombination of carriers
• Carrier generation describes processes by which electrons gain energy and move from
the valence band to the conduction band, producing two mobile carriers;
while recombination describes processes by which a conduction band electron loses
energy and re-occupies the energy state of an electron hole in the valence band.
• Generation of carriers (free electrons and holes)
• The process by which free electrons and holes are generated in pair is called generation
of carriers.
• When electrons in a valence band get enough energy, then they will absorb this energy
and jumps into the conduction band. The electron which is jumped into a conduction band
is called free electron and the place from where electron left is called hole. Likewise, two
type of charge carriers (free electrons and holes) gets generated.
• Recombination of carriers (free electrons and holes)
• The process by which free electrons and the holes get eliminated is called recombination
of carriers. When free electron in the conduction band falls in to a hole in the valence
band, then the free electron and hole gets eliminated.
Einstein Equation
Continuity Equation
This equation gives us the relation between the incoming and outgoing charge carriers with
the generation and recombination of carriers
Transistors
• The transistor is a main building block of all modern electronic systems. It is
a three terminal device whose output current, voltage and power are
controlled by its input current. In communication systems it is the primary
component in the amplifier. An amplifier is a circuit that is used to increase
the strength of an ac signal.
• Basically there are two types of transistors.
• Bipolar junction transistor.
• Field effect transistor
• The important property of the transistor is that it can raise the strength of
a weak signal. This property is called amplification.
• Transistors are used in digital computers, satellites, mobile phones and
other communication systems, control systems etc.
Transistors
• A transistor consists of two P-N junction. The junction are formed by
sand witching either p-type or n-type semiconductor layers between
a pair of opposite types which is shown below
Transistor parts
• A transistor has three regions known as emitter, base and collector
• Emitter: it is a region situated in one side of a transistor, which supplies
charge carriers (i.e, electrons and holes) to the other two regions. Emitter
is heavily doped region
• Base: It is the middle region that forms two P-N junction in the transistor.
The base of the transistor is thin as compared to the emitter and is a lightly
doped region
• Collector: It is a region situated in the other side of a transistor (i.e, side
opposite to the emitter) which collects the charge carriers. The collector of
the transistor is always larger than the emitter and base of a transistor. The
doping level of the collector is intermediate between the heavy doping of
emitter and the light doping of the base
Transistor symbols
• The transistor symbol carries an arrow head in
the emitter pointing from the P- region towards
the N- region
• The arrow head indicates the direction of a
conventional current flow in a transistor
• The direction of arrow heads at the emitter in
NPN and PNP transistor is opposite to each other
• The PNP transistor is a complement of the NPN
transistor
• In NPN transistor the majority carriers are free
electrons, while in PNP transistor these are the
holes
BJT vs FET
FET
• The term FET stands for Field Effect
Transistor. FET is the voltage controlled
device. Figure depicts FET symbols for P
channel and N channel type. There are
three terminals in a FET device. viz.
source, drain and gate.
• The source is the terminal through
which the carriers enter the channel.
The drain is the terminal through which
carriers leave the channel. The gate is
the terminal that modulates the channel
conductivity by application of voltage to
this terminal.
Conclusion
• In summary, choice between BJT vs FET depends on specific
requirements of a circuit or application. BJTs excel in current
amplification and robust switching while FETs are favored for voltage
amplification, low-power applications, high-speed switching and low
noise amplification.
Transistor - Basics
• Unlike semiconductor diodes which are made up from two pieces of semiconductor material to
form one simple pn-junction. The bipolar transistor uses one more layer of semiconductor
material to produce a device with properties and characteristics of an amplfier.
• Unlike semiconductor diodes which are made up from two pieces of semiconductor material to
form one simple pn-junction. The bipolar transistor uses one more layer of semiconductor
material to produce a device with properties and characteristics of an amplfier.
BJT at a glance
• Whenever we say the term ‘transistor’, it often refers to BJT. It is a
current controlled device, where the output current is controlled
by the input current. The name bipolar indicates that two types of
charge carriers i.e., Electrons and Holes conduct current in the
BJT, where holes are positive charge carriers and electrons are
negative charge carriers.
• BJTs are of two types: NPN and PNP. Both these function in the
same way but they differ in terms of biasing and power supply
polarity. In PNP transistor, N-type material is sandwiched
between two P-type materials whereas in case of NPN transistor
P-type material is sandwiched between two N-type materials.
• These two transistors can be configured into different types like
common emitter, common collector and common base
configurations.
The operation of n-p-n transistor
• The n-p-n transistor consists of
two n-type semiconductors
that sandwich a p-type
semiconductor. Here, electrons
are the majority charge
carriers while holes are the
minority charge carriers.
• In an n-p-n transistor, the
majority of the charge carriers
are electrons and holes are the
minority charge carriers. A small
amount of current at the base
terminal causes a large amount
of current to flow from emitter to
collector. The figure below
represents the circuit diagram
of the n-p-n transistor:
The operation of n-p-n transistor
• From the circuit diagram of
the n-p-n transistor, it is
seen that the emitter-base
circuit is forward biased
while the collector-emitter
circuit is reverse biased.
• Due to the forward bias, the
majority of charge carriers
in the emitter are repelled
towards the base. The
electron-hole
recombination is very small
in the base region because
the base is lightly doped.
Most of the electrons cross
into the collector region.
The operation of p-n-p Transistor

• The p-n-p transistor

consists of two p-type
semiconductors that
sandwich an n-type
semiconductor. Here,
holes are the majority
charge carriers while
electrons are the
minority charge carriers.
The operation of p-n-p Transistor

• The emitter-base (VBE) battery

connects the p-type emitter
which is forward biased
whereas the collector-base
(VBC) battery connects the p-
type collector which is reverse
biased.
In this case, the majority charge
carriers in emitter are holes
which are repelled towards the
base. As the base layer is thin,
thus only little interaction occurs
when electrons and holes
combine. Most of the holes
reach the collector. The current
is carried by holes in p-n-p
transistors.
Why are n-p-n Transistors Most
Preferred Over p-n-p Transistors
• Carrier Mobility – The majority charge carriers in n-p-n
transistors are electrons unlike in p-n-p transistors where the
majority charge carriers are holes. Electrons move far more easily
than holes within the crystal lattice. As a result, they have higher
mobility and operate faster providing a much better level of
performance.
• Production Costs – The manufacture of silicon-based transistors
is most economically carried out using large N-type silicon
wafers. The manufacture of PNP transistors requires three times
more surface area of the wafer, and this significantly increases
the costs.
• Negative Grounding – Over the years, a negative ground has
become standard and the polarity of NPN transistors means that
the basic transistor configurations operate with a negative
ground.
NPN VS PNP Transistor
NPN VS PNP Transistor
Operating Modes of Transistors
• Active Mode
• In this mode, the transistor is generally used as a current amplifier. In active mode, two
junctions are differently biased that means emitter-base junction is forward biased whereas
collector-base junction is reverse biased. In this mode, current flows between emitter and
collector and the amount of current flow is proportional to the base current.
• Cutoff Mode
• In this mode, both collector base junction and emitter base junction are reverse biased. As
both the PN Junctions are reverse biased, there is almost no current flow except small leakage
currents (usually in the order of few nano amps or pico amps). BJT in this mode is switched OFF
and is essentially an open circuit.
• Cutoff Region is primarily used in switching and digital logic circuits.
• Saturation Mode
• In this mode of operation, both the emitter-base and collector-base junctions are forward
biased. Current flows freely from collector to emitter with almost zero resistance. In this mode,
the transistor is fully switched ON and is essentially a close circuit.
• Saturation Region is also primarily used in switching and digital logic circuits.
Characteristics of BJT
Transistor configurations
• Common emitter configuration: Offers high voltage gain and
moderate current gain, commonly used for amplification applications.
• Common base configuration: Provides high current gain and
moderate voltage gain, suitable for impedance matching and RF
amplifier circuits.
• Common collector configuration: Offers high voltage gain and unity
current gain, commonly used for impedance buffering and voltage
amplification.
Common Base (CB) configuration (or)
Grounded base configuration
• In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between the emitter and
base, and output is taken from the collector and base. Here, the base
of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and
hence the name common base connection.
Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

• In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between the base and

emitter, and output is taken from the collector and emitter. Here, the
emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits
and hence the name common emitter connection.
Common Collector (CC) Configuration

• In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between the base and

collector while output is taken between the emitter and collector.
Here, the collector of the transistor is common to input and output
circuits and hence the name common collector connection.
 Current Components of BJT Transistor
• When BJT transistor is not biased, that is, there is no voltage drop across its junctions and thus, no current flows through it. If
Emitter-Base junction is forward biased and Collector-Base junction is reverse biased, the voltage across the device causes
electrons from emitter to flow to collector. In this, electrons pass through P type lightly doped base region and some of the
electrons recombine with holes. Therefore, collector current is less than that of emitter current. Emitter current, Base current and
Collector current can be related by.
• Emitter current = Base current + Collector current
• Mainly three parameters are used to define BJT transistor performance. Current Amplification factor, Base Transport Factor,
Emitter Injection Efficiency parameters shows the performance of NPN transistor and PNP transistor.
• (a). Current Amplification Factor
• Current amplification factor in a BJT transistor is defined as the ratio of output current to its input current. In a common base
configuration, current amplification factor is the ratio of collector current to the emitter current.
• α = Ic / Ie
• (b). Base Transport Factor
• It is defined as the factor of base current required to transfer emitter current to collector of the BJT transistor. Base transport
factor is the ratio of collector current to base current of a BJT transistor. That is, it is the ratio of output current to input current in
common emitter configuration.
• β = Ic / Ib
• (c). Emitter Injection Efficiency
• Emitter injection efficiency in a BJT transistor defines the efficiency of majority carrier injection from emitter. It is the ratio of
current due to emitter majority carriers to the total emitter current. It defines the injection capability of an emitter. Heavily doped
region will have high injection factor
Modes of operation of BJT Transistor
• BJT Transistor can be modeled as two PN junctions connected back to back. Depending on the application, each
junction can be forward or reverse biased independently. Thus there are four different biasing methods.
• (a). Forward-active Mode
• In forward active mode of BJT transistor Emitter-Base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse
biased. When transistor operates in this mode, collector current increases linearly with the increase in base current.
Therefore when BJT transistor is used as an amplifier it is biased to operate in active mode.
• (b). Reverse-active Mode
• Reverse active mode is also called inverse active because its biasing conditions are just opposite to that of forward
active mode. That is emitter-Base junction is reverse biased and Collector-Base junction is forward biased.
• BJT Transistor is symmetrical and so if bias conditions are inversed the emitter and collector of a transistor gets
interchanged and current flows in the opposite direction. Because of the difference in the doping concentration and
size of the collector and emitter region, current gain of the transistor is two to three times less than that in the forward
active mode.
• (c). Saturation Mode
• In saturation mode both Emitter-Base and Collector-Base junctions are forward biased. Maximum current flows through
the transistor because in both junctions depletion width is very narrow. BJT Transistor behaves like a closed switch in
this mode.
• (d). Cut- off Mode
• Both Emitter-Base and Collector-Base junctions are reverse biased in cut-off mode. In this mode transistor is inactive
that is no current flows from emitter to collector. Transistor behaves like open switch in cut-off mode.
Contd…
• The three transistor configuration modes are analogous to the movement of a car.
Forward active mode is when the car is moving at an average speed and its speed can by
controlled by accelerator liver. Similarly current flow in the transistor in forward active
mode is controlled by the base current.

• Cut off mode is when the engine to the car is turned off and even if accelerator is
pressed to its maximum nothing happens. Similarly for a transistor in cut off mode
collector current is close to zero, increase in base current has no effect on it.

• Saturation in BJT transistor is analogous to a car moving down a steep hill such that it has
already achieved its maximum speed. No further increase in the speed is possible for a
car in this state. For a transistor in saturation region maximum current flows through the
device. Increase in base current has no effect on the collector current.
MOSFET
• MOSFETs or Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistors, were
invented to overcome the disadvantages posed by FETs,
such as the slow operation, high drain resistance, and
moderate input impedance.
• Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistors commonly known
as MOSFETs are electronic devices used to switch or amplify
voltages in circuits. It is a voltage controlled device and is
constructed by three terminals. The terminals of MOSFET are
named as follows:
• Source
• Gate
• Drain
• Body
MOSFET Construction
• The p-type semiconductor forms the base of the
MOSFET.
• The two types of the base are highly doped with
an n-type impurity which is marked as n+ in the
diagram.
• From the heavily doped regions of the base, the
terminals source and drain originate.
• The layer of the substrate is coated with a layer of
silicon dioxide for insulation.
• A thin insulated metallic plate is kept on top of
the silicon dioxide and it acts as a capacitor.
• The gate terminal is brought out from the thin
metallic plate.
• A DC circuit is then formed by connecting a
voltage source between these two n-type regions.
Working Principle and Types of mode in
MOSFET
• When voltage is applied to the gate, an electrical field is generated
that changes the width of the channel region, where the electrons
flow. The wider the channel region, the better conductivity of a
device will be. MOSFETs are of two classes: Enhancement mode and
depletion mode. Each class is available as n-channel or p-channel;
hence overall they tally up to four types of MOSFETs.
Contd…
• Depletion Mode
• When there is no voltage across the gate
terminal, the channel shows maximum
conductance. When the voltage across the
gate terminal is either positive or negative,
then the channel conductivity decreases.
• Enhancement Mode
• When there is no voltage across the gate
terminal, then the device does not conduct.
When there is the maximum voltage across
the gate terminal, then the device shows
enhanced conductivity.
• The N-channel MOSFETs are abbreviated as
NMOS and are symbolically represented as
shown in the figure
• Similarly, the P-channel MOSFETs are
abbreviated as PMOS and are symbolically
represented as follows:
Operating Regions of MOSFET
• Cut-Off Region
• The cut-off region is a region in which there will be no conduction and
as a result, the MOSFET will be OFF. In this condition, MOSFET behaves like
an open switch.
• Ohmic Region
• The ohmic region is a region where the current (IDS)increases with an
increase in the value of VDS. When MOSFETs are made to operate in this
region, they are used as amplifiers.
• Saturation Region
• In the saturation region, the MOSFETs have their IDS constant in spite of
an increase in VDS and occurs once VDS exceeds the value of pinch-off
voltage VP. Under this condition, the device will act like a closed switch
through which a saturated value of IDS flows. As a result, this operating
region is chosen whenever MOSFETs are required to perform switching
operations.
MOSFET vs BJT
MOSFET FACTS
• MOSFET applications
• Radiofrequency applications use MOSFET amplifiers extensively.
• MOSFET behaves as a passive circuit element.
• Power MOSFETs can be used to regulate DC motors.
• MOSFETs are used in the design of the chopper circuit.
• Advantages of MOSFET
• MOSFETs operate at greater efficiency at lower voltages.
• Absence of gate current results in high input impedance producing high
switching speed.
• Disadvantages of MOSFET
• MOSFETs are vulnerable to damage by electrostatic charges due to the thin
oxide layer.
• Overload voltages make MOSFETs unstable.
Optoelectronic Devices
• Optoelectronic devices are special types of semiconductor
devices that are able to convert light energy to electrical
energy or electrical energy to light energy.
• Solid crystalline minerals, which are heavier than insulators but
lighter than metals, are used to make this device. An
optoelectronic device is an electrical gadget that uses light.
• Numerous optoelectronics applications, including those in the
military, telecommunications, automatic access control
systems, and medical equipment, use this technology.
Contd…
• Properties of Optoelectronic Devices
• Such devices have a longer wavelength.
• They can be easily fabricated.
• They are cost-effective.
• They have the size of a manometer.
• Such devices use high-power light sources.
• Optoelectronic junction devices are the p-n junction devices in which
the carriers are generated by the photons.
• Some examples of optoelectronic devices are light-emitting diodes
(LED), Solar cells, and Photodiodes.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

• LED consists of a heavily doped p-

n junction diode and is used in
forward bias. As we know p side is
rich in holes and the n side is rich in
electrons. So when current is
applied in forward bias, the
electrons from the n side of the
diode move towards the p side
which has holes. The combination
of 1 electron and 1 hole results in
the release of a photon which is
emitted in form of light that we see
in LED.
Contd…
• Properties of LED
• The intensity of light emitted by an LED is directly proportional to the magnitude of the current because
when more current is applied, more photons will be released and the intensity of light will be more.
• The Colour of the emitted light depends upon the band gap (the gap between the conduction band and
valence band) of the semiconductor.
• The reverse breakdown voltage for an LED is low.
• LED can be formed only using compound semiconductors like GaAs.
• Advantages of an LED
• They are rugged and don’t require any maintenance.
• They have a fast response time.
• They emit monochromatic light.
• They need low operational voltage and consume less power.
• Symbol for LED
• In physics, LED can be represented using the following symbol:
Photodiode
• It is a device that converts light energy into electric energy. It is used
in reverse bias conditions and is generally made of materials such
as Silicon, Germanium, and Indium gallium arsenide.
• Symbol of Photodiode
• In physics, a photodiode can be represented using the following
symbol:

• The symbol for the photodiode is the same as LED except for the
fact that the arrows point inwards which means the photodiode
absorbs light energy whereas LED emits light energy.
Contd…
• Working of Photodiode
• A photodiode is subjected to photons in the form of light which affects
the generation of electron-hole pairs. If the energy of the falling photons
(hv) is greater than the energy gap (Eg) of the semiconductor material,
electron-hole pairs are created near the depletion region of the diode.
The electron-hole pairs created are separated from each other before
recombining due to the electric field of the junction. The direction of the
electric field in the diode forces the electrons to move towards the n-
side and consequently the holes move towards the p-side. As a result of
the increase in the number of electrons on the n-side and holes on the
p-side, a rise in the electromotive force is observed. Now when an
external load is connected to the system, a current flow is observed
through it.
• The more the electromotive force created, the greater the current flow.
The magnitude of the electromotive force created depends directly
upon the intensity of the incident light.
Advantages of photo diode
• Quick response when exposed to light.
• The reverse current is linearly proportional to the intensity of incident
light. (Linear response)
• High speed of operations.
• Lightweight and compact size.
• Wide spectral response. ...
• Relatively low cost.
Disadvantages of photo diode
• Require increases in the dark current
• It depends on the temperature
• Small active area
• Normal PN junction photodiode has a very high response time
• It has very low sensitivity
• Light sensitive device
• Poor temperature stability
• Change in current is very small, hence may not be sufficient to drive
the circuit
• It need offset voltage
Applications of photo diode
• Photodiodes are used in simple day-to-day applications. The reason for their prominent use is their linear
response of photodiode to light illumination.
• Photodiodes with the help of optocouplers provide electric isolation. When two isolated circuits are
illuminated by light, optocouplers are used to couple the circuit optically. Optocouplers are faster
compared to conventional devices.
• Photodiodes are used in safety electronics such as fire and smoke detectors.
• Photodiodes are used in numerous medical applications. They are used in instruments that analyze
samples, detectors for computed tomography and also used in blood gas monitors.
• Photodiodes are used in solar cell panels.
• Photodiodes are used in logic circuits.
• Photodiodes are used in the detection circuits.
• Photodiodes are used in character recognition circuits.
• Photodiodes are used for the exact measurement of the intensity of light in science and industry.
• Photodiodes are faster and more complex than normal PN junction diodes and hence are frequently used
for lighting regulation and optical communication.
Photo transistor
• A photodiode can generate photocurrent
because its junction is exposed to incident
light. A phototransistor functions in a similar
way, except that the exposed semiconductor
material is the base of a bipolar junction
transistor (BJT). Phototransistors are
transistors with the base terminal
exposed. Instead of sending current into
the base, the photons from striking light
activate the transistor. This is because a
phototransistor is made of a bipolar
semiconductor and focuses on the
energy that is passed through it. These
are activated by light particles and are
used in virtually all electronic devices
that depend on light in some way.
Photo transistor operation
• The phototransistor is made up of semiconductor material. When
the light was striking on the material, the free electrons/holes of the
semiconductor material causes the current which flows in the base
region. The base of the phototransistor would only be used for
biasing the transistor. In case of NPN transistor, the collector is
made positive concerning emitter, and in PNP, the collector is kept
negative.
• The light enters into the base region of phototransistor generates
the electron-hole pairs. The generation of electron-hole pairs mainly
occurs into the reverse biasing. The movement of electrons under
the influence of electric field causes the current in the base region.
The base current injected the electrons in the emitter region. The
major drawback of the phototransistor is that they have low-
frequency response
Construction of photo transistor
• The phototransistor is a three-layer semiconductor device
which has a light-sensitive base region. The base senses the
light and converts it into the current which flows between the
collector and the emitter region.
• The construction of phototransistor is similar to the
ordinary transistor, except the base terminal. In
phototransistor, the base terminal is not provided, and instead
of the base current, the light energy is taken as the input.
Contd…
• The construction of the phototransistor is quite
similar to the ordinary transistor. Earlier, the
germanium and silicon are used for fabricating the
phototransistor. The small hole is made on the
surface of the collector-base junction for placing
the lens. The lens focuses the light on the surface.
Nowadays the transistor is made of a highly light
effective material (like gallium and arsenides). The
emitter-base junction is kept at forward biased, and
the collector-base junction is at the reverse biased.
• When no light falls on the surface of the transistor,
the small reverse saturation current induces on the
transistor. The reverse saturation current induces
because of the few minority charge carriers. The
light energy falls on the collector-base junction and
generates the more majority charge carrier which
adds the current to the reverse saturation current.
The graph below shows the magnitude of current
increases along with the intensity of light.
Applications of photo transistor
• Encoders where a rotating disc with light and dark stripes rotates
- this gives speed and direction or rotation.
• Card readers.
• Security systems
• Infra-red detectors.
• Lighting control.
• Opto-couplers
• Counting systems - a light or IR beam is interrupted for each item
counted.
• Lighting control.
Photodiode Vs Phototransistor
• The photodiode and phototransistor both convert the light energy
into the electrical energy. But the phototransistor is mostly
preferred over the photodiode because of their following
advantages.
• The current gain in the phototransistor is more than the
phototransistor even if the same amount of light strike on it.
• The sensitivity of the phototransistor is higher than the photodiode.
• The response time of the photodiode is much higher than the
phototransistor.
• The output current of the photodiode is in microamperes, and it can
switch on or off in nanoseconds. While the response time of the
phototransistor is in microseconds and it provides current in
milliamperes.
LDR (Light Dependent Resistor )
• A photoresistor (also known as a photocell, or
light-dependent resistor, LDR, or photo-conductive
cell) is a passive component that decreases
resistance with respect to receiving luminosity
(light) on the component's sensitive surface.
• It is a one type of resistor whose resistance varies
depending on the amount of light falling on its
surface. When the light falls on the resistor, then
the resistance changes. These resistors are often
used in many circuits where it is required to sense
the presence of light. These resistors have a
variety of functions and resistance. For instance,
when the LDR is in darkness, then it can be used to
turn ON a light or to turn OFF a light when it is in
the light. A typical light dependent resistor has a
resistance in the darkness of 1MOhm, and in the
brightness a resistance of a couple of KOhm
Light Dependent Resistor

• The controlling of lights and home

appliances is generally operated
and maintained manually on
several occasions. But the process
of appliances controlling may cause
wastage of power due to the
carelessness of human beings or
unusual circumstances.
• To overcome this problem we can
use the light-dependent resistor
circuit for controlling the loads
based on the intensity of light. An
LDR or a photoresistor is a device
that is made up of high resistance
semiconductor material.
LDR Advantages
• Sensitivity is High
• Simple & Small devices
• Easily used
• Inexpensive
• There is no union potential.
• The light-dark resistance ratio is high.
• Its connection is simple
LDR Disadvantages
• Spectral response is narrow
• Hysteresis effect
• Temperature stability is low for the best materials
• In stable materials, it responses very slowly
• The use of LDR is limited where the light signal changes very
quickly
• It is not so much a responsive device.
• It provides incorrect result once working temperature alters
Applications of LDR
• These resistors are used as light sensors and the applications
of LDR mainly include alarm clocks, street lights, light intensity
meters, burglar alarm circuits.
Solar Cell
• A solar cell is an electrical device that
converts light energy to electrical energy. It is
a p-n junction semiconductor that generates
electricity only when the energy of incident
light is greater than its band gap.
• Working of Solar Cell
• When the light (photons) of energy greater
than the bandgap of the semiconductor is
thrown into the solar cell, the energy of the
photons gets transferred to the cell.
• The energy of the photons is transferred to
the electrons in the lower, p-type layer.
• Due to this energy, the electrons can jump to
the upper layer i.e. n-type layer, and then
move into the circuit through the metallic
conducting strips.
• Due to the movement of the electrons, the
current is produced in the circuit.
Unit 3
Examples of Renewable Energy
• We can define renewable energy as those energies which can never be
depleted. The importance of renewable energy is invaluable. These types
of energy sources are different from fossil fuels, such as oil, coal, and
natural gas. Some examples of renewable energy sources are:

• Wind energy
• Solar energy
• Geothermal energy
• Hydropower
• Biomass energy
Types of Renewable Energy Sources
• Solar energy
• Wind energy
• Hydro energy
• Tidal energy
• Geothermal energy
• Biomass energy
• Hydrogen
Solar Energy
• Solar Energy: The radiant light and heat
energy from the sun is harnessed with the
use of solar collectors. These solar
collectors are of various types such as
photovoltaics, concentrator photovoltaics,
solar heating, (CSP) concentrated solar
power, artificial photosynthesis, and solar
architecture. This collected solar energy is
then used to provide light, heat, and
different other forms of electricity.
• Used in homes, businesses, schools, and
hospitals.
Wind Energy
• Wind Energy: The energy we get from winds is known as wind energy.
For this, windmills have been used for hundreds of years to pump out
water from the ground. We use large tall wind turbines that allow
winds to generate electricity. The natural airflow on the surface of the
earth is used to run the wind turbines. The modern-day wind turbines
range from about 600 Kilowatt to 5 Megawatts, for commercial
purposes these are rated with an output power of 1.5 to 3
Megawatts. The most preferred locations for these wind turbines to
be installed are the areas which and strong and have constant
airflows on offshore and sites that are at high altitudes. The power
generated from wind energy in 2015 met 4% of global energy
consumption.
Wind Energy
• Wind turbines convert
wind into electricity
• Wind blows, the turbine's
blades spin clockwise,
capturing energy
• Gearbox sends that wind
energy to the generator,
converting it to electricity
• windmills used to pump
water on farms
Hydro Energy
• Hydroelectric energy or Hydro energy
• Uses the power of moving water to generate electricity
• Dams are constructed to store water in a reservoir which, when
released, flows through turbines to produce electricity
• China - largest producer of hydroelectricity
• Around the world producers - The United States, Brazil, Canada,
India, and Russia
• Renewable electricity generated on Earth from hydropower – 71%
Hydro Energy
• Hydroelectricity: According to statistics, hydroelectricity generated
around 16.6% of the global energy resources and constituted about
70% of all renewable electricity. This energy is another alternative
source of energy that is generated by the construction of dams and
reservoirs on the flowing water, the kinetic energy from the flowing
water is used to run the turbines which generate electricity. Tidal
power converts the energy of tides and Wave power which captures
the energy from the surface of the ocean waves for power
generation. These two forms of hydropower also have huge potential
in electric power generation.
Geothermal Energy
• Geothermal Energy: It is the energy that is generated from the
thermal energy which is stored in the earth. The heat energy is
captured from sources such as hot springs and volcanoes and this
heat is directly used by industries for heating the water and other
purposes.
Geothermal Energy
• Derived from the heat of the earth
• Heat from the Earth’s core is constantly radiating outward and
warming rocks, water, gas, and other geological material
• Hot water can be released through geysers, hot springs, steam vents,
underwater hydrothermal vents, and mud pots
• Heat can be captured and used directly for heat, or their steam can
be used to generate electricity
• Geothermal power plants harness these heat sources to generate
electricity
• used to heat structures such as buildings, parking lots, and sidewalks
Biomass Energy
• Biomass Energy: This type of energy is derived from biomass which is
a type of biological material derived from living organisms and plant-
derived materials which are called lignocellulosic biomass. Biomass
can be directly used via combustion to produce heat and indirectly it
can be used to convert to biofuels. Biomass can be converted to other
usable forms of energy such as transportation fuels like ethanol,
biodiesel, and methane gas.
Biomass Energy
• Derived from biomass to create heat and electricity or to produce liquid
fuels such as ethanol and biodiesel used for transportation
• Biomass - any organic matter coming from recently living plants or animals
• Most common biomass materials used for energy - plants, wood, and waste
• Environmental impact relatively neutral - the same amount of carbon
dioxide as fossil fuels, the replacement plants are grown as biomass to
remove an equal amount of CO2 from the atmosphere
• Biomass can be burned to create heat (direct), converted
into electricity (direct), or processed into biofuel (indirect)
Tidal Energy
• Two types of energy produced from ocean: thermal energy and tidal
energy
• Tidal energy: mechanical energy from the motion of tides and waves
• Still in its infancy stage
• few commercial-sized tidal power plants operating
• The first was located in La Rance, France
• largest - Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station in South Korea
• future looks promising as 70% of the surface of our planet covered by
ocean
Hydrogen Energy
• Clean energy
• Hydrogen is the simplest (comprised of one proton and one electron)
and the most abundant element in the universe, yet it does not occur
naturally as a gas on earth
• Instead, it is found in organic compounds (hydrocarbons such as
gasoline, natural gas, methanol, and propane) and water (H2O)
• Consumed in a fuel cell, produces only water, electricity, and heat
• Hydrogen and fuel cells can play an important role in our national
energy strategy
Benefits/ Importance of Renewable Energy
resources
• Environmental Benefits
• Economic Growth
• Energy Independence
• Inexhaustible Energy
• Technological Advancements
• Reduction in energy costs
• Health Benefits
• Diversification of Energy Sources
• Supporting Local Communities
Limitations of Renewable Energy Sources
• Geographic limitations of renewable energy
• High initial investment
• Higher upfront cost
• Low efficiency
• Not always a commercially viable option
• Expensive installation
• Intermittency
• It still generates minor pollution
• Requires a huge upfront capital outlay
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