Understanding Culture, Society and

politics

Culture – defined by Edward B. Tylor “That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief,
art, morals, law, custom and other capabilities, and habits acquired by man as a member of
society.
Campbell (2004) said that students identify with certain groups to experience a feeling of
belongingness that students of all ages have strong need to belongs to groups, because groups
provide a source of motivation for them. This is the essence of socialization.

Culture – Prevailing set of beliefs, values customs, tradition, laws, etc… which bind the groups.
Identity – Distinct characteristics, traits, and attributes which set a particular group apart

Cultural Identity
 The identity or feeling of belonging to the group.
 Part of a person’s self-conception and self-perception.

 Ethnicity
 Social class
 Generation
 Locality
 Nationality
 Religion
 Any kind of social group

Cultural Awareness
 Connotes to the ability of the person to recognize the different beliefs, values and
customs that someone has based on that individual’s origins.
 Respect

Cultural Differences
Cultural background - consists of the ethnic, religious, racial, gender, linguistic, or other
socioeconomic factors and values that shape an individual’s upbringing.

 Concrete understanding of one’s culture; values, customs and traditions

 Forbears/Ascendants
 Gender and Sexuality
Genders – refers to the personal traits and social roles of the male and female members of
society.

Sexuality – is the state of being either masculine or feminine. Biological.

Socio-Economic status

Socio-economic Status – the level of an individual’s social standing and financial position in the
society.

Socio-economic class – the status of every individual from the sociological and economic points
of view

Social status – a person’s standing or rank in social ladder of stratification based on prestige,
power, popularity, etc...

Economic status - a person’s place in the society’s economic stratification based on wealth,
property, and total assets.

Ethnicity
 Condition in which social group belongs to a common national or cultural tradition.

Ethnic – Large groups of people who have certain racial, cultural, religious or other traits in
common.

Observations about Social Political, behavior,

and phenomena
Food taboos
– a prohibition against certain foods.

Food in the Philippines

 Influence from Malay, Spanish, Arab, Indian, Japanese, Chinese, and American Cuisines.
 Three meals a day with merienda, an afternoon snack
 Staple food; Rice
 Cooking methods: frying, grilling, sautéing and most of the time, boiling.

Dishes Considered as Taboos

1. Any meat of animals considered as endangered. Meat of monkeys, tortoise(pawikan),
monitor lizards(bayawak), or rare birds are unacceptable to eat either by public standards
or by law.
2. Any dish that has dog or cat meats
Philippines Republic Act No. 8485 – declares that it is completely “illegal to slaughter a
dog or cat for personal trade or slaughtering a dog or cat for commercial trade and
consumption.”
3. Any food that violates human dignity because they are not anymore acceptable for human
consumption by public opinion.
 Double-dead meat or botcha – pork, beef, and chicken meat coming from
previously already dead animals
 Palpates
 Palapag

Food prohibited to others because of Religion

 Muslims, some Protestants, 7th-day Adventist do not eat pork
 Dinuguan

The standby (Istambay) Phenomenon

 A person who does not have to work and who usually hangs-out on street corners
 An act of one’s time unprofitably; idler
 A person who spends his time unprofitably
 Synonymous to : paglalakwtsa(gallivanting), taongtamad (lazy person), and di
ginagamit(not being used)

Political dynasty
 Families whose members are engaged in politics have been in the Philippines political
structure since time past.
 While many believe that political dynasties are associated with the extent of poverty and
corruption happening in the country, there is no enabling law enacted in Congress that
would give tooth to sec 26, Article II Declaration of Principles and state Policies, 1987
Philippines constitution, “The state shall guarantee equal access to opportunities for
public service and prohibit political dynasties as may be provided by law”, that would
eradicate political dynasties in the Philippines.

Philippine Elections
 The president, Vice- president, and the senators.
 Elected on a national or popular election serve for six-year term
 The members of the House of Representatives, and the local government officials,
namely: governors, vice- governors, members of provincial boards, mayors, vice-
 mayors, the city/municipal councilors are elected for a term of three years and are
eligible for re-elections.
 The president, as per the 1987 Philippine constitution, is limited to a single term
and is barred from running re- election. The vice President, on the other hand,
may run for re-election or may opt for a higher position.
 The Senate or upper House has. 24 members which are elected on a nationwide
at-large basis. The lower half of the senator’s term is renewed every three years.
The House of Representatives or lower House has 250 seats of which 80% are
contested in congressional districts and 20% are allotted to party-lists.
 In the Philippines, the common dictum in the vernacular is “Kaya siya nanalo kasi
nandaya siya; Kaya siya natalo kasi dinaya siya.

Observation on social, Political, and Cultural

Change
Major Social changes in the 21st Century
 Industrial Revolution
 Agricultural and Mechanicals
 Globalization
1. Agricultural Period – Pastoral
2. Industrial Period – Steam engine, Factory system

Components/Elements of states

 People
 Government
 Sovereignty
 Territory

Selfie Phenomenon
Selfie – has been defined as self- portrait photography, normally shot with digital camera or
camera phone held in the hand or braced by a selfie stick.
Definition of Anthropology, Political Science
and Sociology
Sociology
 Deals with the study of society and social interactions taking place.
 Deals with origin, evolution, and development of human society.
 Focus on all kinds of social interactions, social relationships, social organization,
structure and process.

Areas of Sociology
 Social organization - includes the study of social groups, social institutions, social
stratifications, mobility, ethnic relations, and bureaucracy.
 Social psychology - tackles human behavior or nature as a result of group life,
personality, formation, social attitude and collective behavior.
 Social Change – deals with the study of changes in the society and culture, and the
factors resulting from such change.
 Social Organization and Disorganization – study the emergence of societies, their
structure formation and the ways they are strengthened. They also study crime,
delinquency, family conflict, poverty, subversion, unemployment and wide range of
current social issues and problems.
 Human Ecology - studies the behavior of a given population and its relationship to
present social institutions.
 Population – is concerned with population size, composition, change and quality, and on
how they influence the economic, political, and social systems.
 Sociological Theory and Methods – is concerned with the application the results of
sociological studies to solve various human problems.

Anthropology
 The study of human’s past and present.
 It’s goal is to describe and explain human variation or the observed similarities
and differences in people through time and across space.
 Draws and builds upon knowledge from the social and biological sciences as well
as the humanities and physical sciences to understand the full sweep and
complexity of cultures across all of human history.

Major Branches of Anthropology

 Cultural anthropology – studies human cultures, beliefs, ideas, technologies,
economies, practices, values, and other spheres of social and rational organization. This
 branch is primarily based on cultural understanding gained through actual experiences, or
participant observations of the human population.
 Physical Anthropology – deals with the biological and behavioral aspects of human
beings. It focuses on their relationships to non-human primates and their extinct homed
ancestors.
 Archeology – studies both the ancient and recent past of humans through the material
remains, such as artifacts, fossils, and bone fragments.
 Linguistic Anthropology – studies the relations between language and culture in relation
to human biology, human reasoning and human language.
 Applied Anthropology - deals with the application of anthropological facts,
perspectives, theories, and procedures in identifying, assessing, and solving social
problems.

Political Science
 A social science discipline that deals with the study of the state and government.
 Concerned about politics and policies of the government
 According to AristotlesPolitics)
 The study of the state
 Deals comprehensively with the theory and practices of politics.
 Focuses on the analysis of political systems, political behavior, and political culture.

Major Subdivision of Polscie

 Political Theory – focuses on the ideas of classical thinkers, such as Aristotle, Nicole
Machiavelli, Cicero, and Plato among others.
 Comparative Politics – deals with the incisive evaluation and comparison of the
doctrines of various constitutions, of political actors, legislature and other allied
fields.
 Public administration- focuses on the implementation of government policies, the
academic disciplines involved and the principles governing civil servants working in
the government.
 International Relations – delve on nation- states’s interactions including
intergovernmental and transnational organizations.
 Law – governs the relationship between individuals and the government, and the
relationships of individuals among themselves directly affecting the society.
 Political Methodology- focuses on the quantitative methods used in the study of
politics combining Statistics, Mathematics, and formal theory. It is often used in
positive research, unlike normative research. It is related to econometrics.
Unit 2: Lesson 1 and 2

Lesson 1: Society
Society – is a group of people interacting with each other and having a
common culture; sharing common geographical or territorial domains, and
having relatively common aspirations.

Types of Societies

A.Pre-Industrial Societies
 Main economic activity is food production carried out through
the utilization of human and animal labor.
 These societies are subdivided according to their level of
technology and their method of producing foods. These are the:
1. Hunting and gathering society
 Main food production: hunting wild animals and
gathering wild plants daily.
 Typically form small groups such as bands.
 Social status is relatively equal among members
decisions are made through general consensus.
 Leadership is personal, based on charisma, and used
only for special purposes.
2. Pastoral Society
 Food production is based on pastoralism (domesticated
herds of animals).
 More efficient than hunting and gathering (subsistence
method).
 Members do not search for food daily; they rely on
animals for food.
  Herds are moved from one pasture to another (nomadic
lifestyle
 More reliable food supply allows for larger populations.
Fewer people are needed to produce food.
 Division of labor becomes more complex. Specialization
in economic activities emerges.
3. Horticultural Society
 Main food source: fruits and vegetables grown in garden
plots Use of slash-and-burn(kaingin) method to prepare
land for farming.
 Process involves cutting and burning wild vegetation
Ashes act as natural fertilizer for the soil. Relies on
human labor and simple tools for cultivation Land is
used for one or more seasons.
 When soil becomes infertile, they abandon the plot and
clear a new one.
 Old plots are left to revert to their natural state. Farming
is shifting and small-scale, not permanent.
4. Agrarian Society
 Happened around 8,500 years ago.
 Mark by technological advances in farming and animal
domestication.
 Enabled extensive crop cultivation and livestock raising
increased food supply supported larger, stable
populations.
 Led to the development of towns as trade centers.
Allowed people to specialize(e.g rulers, educators,
merchants, religious leaders)
 People no longer needed to focus solely on food
production. Resulted in greater social stratification and
more complex societies.
5. Feudal Society
  Wealthy groups acquired and claimed land as their own
domains.
 Land ownership became a key source of power. Under
feudalism, vassals were bound to serve landowning
lords. In exchange for military protection, peasants
provided.
 Food, crops, crafts, services, and homage system was
exploitative, benefiting landowners over peasants.
 Estates were multi-generational – peasant families
worked the same land for generations.
 Created a rigid social hierarchy with limited social
mobility.

B.Industrial Societies
 Capitalism – Free completion, free market, and the right to
acquire property, emerged.
 The introduction of foreign metals, silk, and spices in the market
stimulated greater commercial activity in European societies.
 Industrial societies which rely heavily on machines powered by
fuels in the production of goods became dramatically increased
and efficient.

C.Post-Industrial Societies
 More advanced societies, dominated by information, services,
and high technology, surfaced.
 These hallmarks of these societies were beyond the production
of goods.
 Advanced industrial societies are shifting toward an increase in
service sectors. Government, research, education, health, sales,
law and banking and in almost all sectors of society.

D. Modern Societies
  Characterized by mass production of essential goods.
 Products are sold in large quantities in markets.
 People buy items they cannot produce themselves.
 Use of commodity-money improved trade and commerce
efficiency.
 Banks serve as: safe storage for money and source of unearned
money through loans and credit.

Lesson 2: Culture

Culture
 ‘That complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals,
laws, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as
a member of society… (Edward B. Taylor)
 “The way of life especially the genera customs and beliefs of a
particular group of people at particular time … - Cambridge English
Dictionary.

Culture – Refers to all that man has made for himself through time, material
or non-material, still useful or not anymore, all to provide for his society.

Characteristics of culture
1. Culture is learned – It is not inherited biologically but acquired
through socialization.
2. Culture is symbolic – It uses symbols (e.g, language, gestures, objects)
3. Culture is dynamic – It changes over time due to inventions, diffusion,
globalization, and interaction with other cultures
4. Culture is adaptive – It helps people adjust to their environment.
5. Culture is transmitted – It is passed from one generation to another
through language education, rituals, and traditions.

Main types of Culture

 A. Material culture – Physical culture/Tangible remains: Technology,
artifacts, relics, fossils.
B. Non-Material Culture – Intangible: values, norms, beliefs, traditions,
and customs.

Unit 2: Lesson 3 and 4

Lesson 3: Aspects of Culture
Art
 Involves the expression of human creativity and imagination.
 A key aspect of culture that reflects and influences society.
 Arts can both express and change culture
 A manifestation of human creative instinct.
 Major components of the arts include Literary arts, performing arts,
culinary arts, media and visual arts

Language
 A system of communication used by a society. It is the most important
tool for verbal communication.
 Cultural differences are strongly reflected in language.
 Every country has its own language(s)
 Understanding a culture requires knowledge of its language

Food
 Any substance consumed for nutritional support
 It is a key element of cultural experience
 Every culture has its own unique food and eating customs.
 Eating local food is one of the best ways to understand and experience
a culture.

Government
  Refers to the group of people or institutions with authority in a
society.
 Politics is the science of state and government.
 Power and authority are distributed through political processes.
Government has the power to: Make law, interpret laws and enforce
decisions.

Costume
 Clothing is a distinctive style of dress for an individual or group.
 Reflects class, gender, profession, ethnicity, or nationality
 Type and amount of clothing depend on:
1. Physical (climate, body needs)
2. Social (customs, norms)
3. Geographic (location-based) factors

Religion
 Unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things.
 Structural features include Ideas, beliefs, doctrines, rituals, and
ceremonies.
 In contemporary times, religions are rationalized and systematized into
theologies and creeds.
 Explains the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe.
 Often involves devotional practices, rituals, and a moral code.
 Guides human behavior and influences social and cultural life.

Education
 Education is the process of teaching and learning
 Commonly associated with school, where students attend class
regularly.
 Involves books, notebooks and teachers guiding the learning process.
 It is a social process where individuals are socialized.
 Through education, individuals learn culture, values, and social norms.
Lesson 4: Ethnocentrism and Relativism
Cultural diversity – refers to the existence of a variety of cultural or ethnic
groups within a society or the world as a whole.

Orientations in Viewing Other Cultures

Cultural Relativism – The principle that a person’s beliefs and practices
should be understood based on that person’s own culture. Not judged by the
standards of another.

Ethnocentrism – The tendency to view one’s own culture as superior and to

use it as the standard to judge other cultures.

Human Biocultural and Social

Evolution

Darwin’s Evolution Theory of Natural Selection

 Refused to accept that all species that emerged have been created
independently.
 His studies pointed out the thought of evolution of species through
change, and that this occurs through the process of natural selection.
 He established that all life is linked and demonstrated how natural
selection operates.

Survival of Fittest – means the most well adapted organisms will survive to
reproduce.
Natural Selection
 Does not only produce changes within a species but also to the
emergence of new species.
 Changes in a species may be expected to occur through the passage of
time as the environment changes or as the speies move to new
environments.

The Evolution of Man from the Theory of Natural

Selection
 Man, as an animal underwent through the process of biological
evolution and has shared some characteristics with other animals in the
pasts, particulary what we call the “homids”.
 Adaptation to environment is a must to bilogical beings in order to
survive.

The Primates
 Man, and the other presents primates ahre many common traits,
biological and behavioral, that offer evidence of common ancestry.
 This does not mean, however that the present monkeys and apes are our
ancestors.
 However, we should view them as distant relatives of man.

The Rise of Homo

 Man, alone is a Rational Animal.
 Man alone has art or the aesthetic appreciation.
 Man has Language
 Can bring ideas, Create and Invent tools.
 Man has history.
  Man is Self-conscious

Homo Habilis

 1st in the line of Homo

 Believed to be the first of the “great Ape” type creatures to have
evolved into “Homo” (Man).
 He was given the name Homo-habilis, meaning ‘handy man’, because
he made tools.

Homo Erectus

 An “upright Ape-Man” is believed to be the first creature to stand fully

upright.
 He was believed to be the first to use fire. We think that Homo-Erectus
build campires and may have madee simple ovens with hot stones.

Homo Sapiens

 Homo-sapiens have well-defined characteristics and habit such as

bipedal stance and gait, brain capacity averaging about 82 inches, high
forehead, small teeth, and jaw, defined chin, construction and use of
tools, and the ability to make use of symbols such as used in language
and writing.
 Early-Homo-Sapiens used simple technology.
 Their tools were in the form of chipped stones, which points were
sharpened to be used as simple knives for butchering and cutting.
 Their garments were made from anmal hides. Their shelters were
make-shift shelters if natural caves were not available.
Becoming A Member of Society:
Enculturation and Socialization

Enculturation – The process by which individuals learn, internalize or acquire

the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values that enable them to become
functioning members of their societies.

Socialization – The process whereby the individual behavior is modified to

conform to the expectation of the group.

Three Levels of Human-Development

 Vegetative Level

Refers to the embryo and early infancy. This is characterized by

preoccupation with food. The infant grabs things and brings them directly
to the mounth. The main though of the infant is survival.

 Animal Level

Characterized by desires for sex and reproduction. At this stage man is no

different from animals in their need for food and sex. At this stage, the
socialization of man is incomplete.

 Human Level

Is conisdered the attainment of human of a personality. This implies the

assimilation of behavior, attitudes, and values the society considers necessary
and important to the well-being of the group,
Social Norms and Social Values

 Social Norms

Are standards of behavior which tell whether an action is right or wrong;

appropriate or not. They represent standardized generalizations concerning
expected models of behaviors. Among the norms observed by society include
folkways, mres, and laws.

1. Folkways – are customary norms that we follow but not ascribe moral
value to. We learn them through intutition as we grow up. They are the
habits, customs, and repetitive patterns of behavior.

Example: Mano po, Po and Opo, Bayanihan, Harana, Pamamanhikan.

2. Mores – Are moral norms if you break them, you would be seen as not
just in poor taste, but immoral. They’re often linked to religious rules.
They dictate what is considered right or wrong behavior and are often
associated with strong moral beliefs and sanctions.

Example: Muder, Theft, Incest, Cannibalism, Marriage and Death.

3. Laws – Are norms that actually defined as being legal or illegal. The
government has decided these norms are so important that you could
get in trouble for breaking them.
4. Sanctions - are penalties or other means of enforcement used to
provide incentives for obedience with the law, or with rules and
regulations.

To ensure that individuals conform to the norms or behave in ways

prescribed within society, snactions are appled to attain the individual’s
conformity and acceptance of its norms

Forms of Sanction
A. Informal Sanction

Reactions or responses from ordiary people (family friends, peers, society)

to someone’s behavior. They are not written or officially organized and
come in unfavorable or favorable public opinion, giving or withdrawing
of support, or gasp.

Example: Giving someone dirty look for cutting in line., Praising A friend
for helping someone.

B. Formal Sanctions

Reactuibs or penalties officialy given by institutions (like schools,

government, or workplaces). They are based on written rules, laws, or
policies.

Example: Getting a fine or ticket for jaywalking, Receiving a medal or

award from school.

Application of Sanctions

A.Physical Sanctions

Are tangible rewards or punishments for behavior, such as fines, medals,

or court sentences.

It can be used in various contexts, including within families and formal

system like law enforcement.

B.Psychological Sanctions

Adddress the feelings and emotions of a person. They can make one feel
good or bad.
Possitive psychological sanctions are found in compliments ribbons,
badges and awards.

Negative psychological sanctions are found in insults and rejection.

Social Values
Are cultural standards that indiate the general good deemed desirable for
organized social life. These are assumption of what is right and important
for society.

Status
Refers to one’s position or place in a social group. It can be ascribed., a
status that is assigned to an individual from birth; or achieved, that which
one acquires either by choice or by force or through some form of
competition and individual effort.

Ascribed satuses – are the status such as parent, child, and sibling.

Acieved statuses – comes with the effors. Beig a spouse, emplooyee, or

homeowner are example of because they are chosen.

Role

Refers to the functional and dynamic aspect of the status. It is the totality
of cultural patterns and behavior expected of a particular status.

Forms of Roles
A. Role as Expectation – refers to the rights, duties and obligation an
individual has while occupying a status.
B. Role as Perfomance – refers to how the individual actually behaves
while occupying the status.
C. Role conflict – Arises when an individual encounters conflicting
demands from his two or more statuses. This happens when in his
performances of one role; such would run counter to another role.
 D. Role Set – refers to the individual ‘s repertaire (list) of performances
towards variety of others while he/she occupies a given status.

Socialization for Sex roles

Societies categorize their members into males and females and each is
viewed as a distinct sex or gender. Gender differences are a function of
cultural patterns which presribe the different expectations and norms of
behavior for boys and girls.

Becoming a member of Society: Conformity and

Deviance

Types of Social Control

Direct Control

Is exercised by the the primary groups like family, peer group, who praise or
condeem the behavior of an individual.

Indirect Control

Is exercised by the secndary groups like traditions, customs, institutions, etc.

Positive and negative means

The postive means of social control is through praise, prizes, fame, respect
and promotion.

The negative means include criticism, gossip, punishment and ostracism.

Formal and Informal Control

Formal control – is designed and regulated by some authority like the
government which makes laws to control order.

Informal Control – is the unwritten rules and regulation characterized by

informal authority like crticisms, sociability, and public opinion.

Deviance

Is defined as the recognized violation of cultural norms.

Deviancy, however, must not be constrcted in as always negative. This may

be tolerated, approved or disapproved.

Explanation For Deviant Behaviors

Social Pathology

“Deviance is like a disease in society."

This theory views deviant behavior (such as crime, drug use, or rebellion) as
a symtom of a “sick” society – just like how a body shows symtomps when
it’s sick.

Deviants are seen as “ill” or “damaged” parts of society that need to be

corrected, treatedm or removed for society to functions properly.

Social Pathology

“Deviance comes from something phsycially wrong in the body or brain.”

This theory says deviant behavior is caused by biological or genetic defects –

such as brain abnormalities, hormonal, imbalances, or inherited traits.

It treats deviance like a medical problem, often diagnosed through scientific

testing.

Social Disorganization

“Deviance happens when different cultures or value systems clash.”

This theory argues that deviance occurs when different groups in society have
different norms or values – and these conflict with each other.

When someone grows up in an environment with different values from the

dominant culture, their behavior may be seen as deviant

Labeling

“ Deviance is created by the labels society puts on people.”

This theory focuss on how being labeled as ‘deviant’ changes a person’s

behavior and identity.

It’s not the act itself that makes someone deviant – It’s the reaction of society
or the label apploed to them.

Value Conflict

This theory holds that acts are considred criminal or deviant because they are
at variance with a group’s values.

Modes Of Adaptation

Conformist

A conformist is someoe who follows the rules of societies. They agree with
what society says is important and they try to achieve those goals in the right
way.

Innovator

An innovator still wants what society values (like money or fame), but they
use unaacceptable or illegal ways.

Ritualist

A ritualist is someone who follows the rules even though they don’t belive
they will achieve success. They do things out of habt or duty, but without
hope.

Retreatist
Somoene who completely give up on both society’s goals and the ways to
achieve them. They widrawn from society and don’t participate.

Rebel

Is a person who rejects both the societal goals and the means to achieve them;
instead he substitutes them with new goals and neww means to achieve them.

Human Dignity, Rights, and The Common

Good

Man as a Member of a Political Community

A member of a political community must be able to internalize the Preamble
of the Constitution by heart.

Citizenship

Has ben defined as -membership in a political communityy which is personal

and more or less permanent in charater. It is the staus or character of bing a
citizen.

Bill of Rights

Natural rights, civil rights, polticial rights, economic right as well as rights of
the accused before, during and after trial.

Human Rights
Are rights inherent to all human beings, whatever our nationality, place of
residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any
other status.

Human Dignity

Refers to an individual or group’s sense of self- respect and self-worth,

physical and psychological integrity, and empowerment.

Inclusive Citizenship

 As citizens we always think of the promotion of the common good or

general welfare
 A responsible citizen promotes the common good by obeying the law,
paying taxes, honesty, informing himself about important political
issues, volunteering in the community and respecting the rights and
opinions of others.
 A responsible citizen is willing to sacrifice his individual interests for
the collective good of the nation. He remembers his civic duties and
serves his counttry despise any discomfort such as course might bring.

Groups: Primary and Secondary Groups

What is a group?
Group – is a collection of people whose members interact with each other in
accordance with the position they occupy and the roles they are expected to
perform.

Social Group

A unit of interacting personalities with interdependence of roles and statuses

existing among them

Different Characteristics of Groups

1. The members interact with each other over some period of time.
2. Each member idenfies with the group and is recognized as part of the
group by the other member.
3. Each member is entitled to certain privileges and at the same time is
expected to accept certain responsibilities and duties.
4. There is a specialization, or role in their activities which is carried out
by the members of the group.

Types of Groups
Contemporary sociologists have established four patterns of classifying
groups: according to the Nature of Social Ties, according to Self-
Identification, according to Purpose, and according to Social Organization

Social Groups according to social Ties

Primary Group

This is the kind of group where the members have intimate, personal, - face.
To face relationship. It is usually characterized by bonds of tenderness,
sympathy, mutuality of interest and a -well feeling

Example: Family, Neigborhood, Peer Group

Family – is a group of people united by the ties of blood (Consanguinity), or
adoption which provide for the rearing of the child and supplyig his needs.

Neighborhood – Is a geographically localized community within a larger city,

town, suburb, or rural area.

Peer Group – Is a group of two or more members who are more or less of the
same age with a loosely organized structure; often called gang, barkada or
tropa.

Secondary Group

Is a group which the individual comes in contact with later in life. It is

characterized by impersonal, business-ike, contractual, formal and casual
relationships.

Example: Employer-Emloyee Relationships, Vendor-to-client Relationships

Doctor-to patient Relationships.

In-Groups and Out-Groups

Social Groups according to Self-Identification

In-Group

Is a group in which individual identifies himself and is given a sense of

belongingness. It can be as small as the family or as big as the nation.

Out-Group

Feeling of indifference, avoidance, strangerness, dislike, out of place. It refers

to the members’ position in reference to another group where they do not
belong.

Social Groups According To Purpose

Task Group
Is a group of perons formed to accomplish jobs, tasks, or obligation.

Relationship Group

Is a group of persons formed to fulfill the feeling of companionship. It is

simmilar to a barkada or peer group.

Influence Group

Is a group of persons formed to support a particular cause or ideology.

Examples are political parties or campaign groups.

Social Groups according to social organization

Gemeinschaft

Is a social system in which most relationships are personal or traditional and

often both.

Gesellschaft

Is a society of bargaining and contract. Relationships are individualistic,

impersonal, formal contractual and realistic. This is also referred to as
“society”.

Peer Pressure

is a sociak pressure by member of one’s peer group to take a certain action,

adopt certain values, or othewise conform in order to be accepted.

Reference Groups
Is a a group to which the individual refers and with whom he identifies either
consicously or unconsciously. It serves as a model to which the individual
patterns his lifestyle.

Informal Groups

They are based on the group members’, shared interests and goals. Informal
groups are not structured with a specific goal in mid.
Formal Groups

Formal reference groups have a specific goal or mission. They also have a
specific structure and positions of authority.

Functions of Reference Groups

1. They serve a normative function by setting and enforcing standards of
conduct and belief.
2. They also perform a comparision function by serving as a standard
againts which people can measure themselves and others.
3. They serve not only as sources of current evaluation but also as sources
of aspiration and goal attainment.

Social Networks
Is a social structure that exist between actors-idividuals or organization

A social network indicates the way that peple and organizations are
connected through various social familarities, ranging from casual
acquaintance to close familial bonds.

Node – The person or organizaion participatig in the network.

Ties – are the various types of connections between these nodes. Ties are
assessed in terms of strength. Loose connections, like more aquintances, are
called weak ties. Stron ties, like famiy bonds are called strong ties.

Social network analysis/Social network theory – The study of social network.

Social Network Theory

Is the study of how people, organizations or groups, interact wth others,

inside their networks.
The three types of social networks that social scientiest explore are ego-
centric networks, socio centric networks, and open-system networks.

Egocentric – are connected with a single node or individual. For examples,

you, the node, connected to all yoyur close friends

Socio-Centric – Are closed networks by default. Two commonly used

examples of this type of network are children in a classroom or workers
inside an organization.

Open-system – The boundary lines are not clearly defined

A few examples in this type of networks are America’s elite class,

connections between corporations, or the chain of influencers of a particular
decision.