ICS 2174: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE
Computer organization refers to the components that make up a computer system.
Computer architecture is the science of integrating these computer components to achieve a level
of functionality and performance.
Von Neuman Architecture
The Von Neuman architecture has got extensive application in everyday life. It consists of some
important features and here we will have a detailed elaboration to the features.
CPU
The central processing unit (CPU) of a computer is a piece of hardware that carries out the
instructions of a computer program. Every instruction, no matter how simple, has to go through
the CPU. It performs the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of a computer
system. It is also simply referred to as the processor. All work that is done on a computer is
performed directly or indirectly by the processor. The CPU is composed of three elements or
parts: arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit and the registers.
Mrs. Onyango
ICS 2174: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE
i. ALU: the Arithmetic Logic Unit performs simple arithmetic and logical operations. It is
involved in any sort of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of data. In
addition to that any other kind of algorithmic function and activities will be carried out by
the ALU.
ii. Control Unit: it provides control signals in accordance with some timing which in turn
controls the execution process. During the processing of data the control unit manages
the data flow. The control unit follows the principle of the one at a time and accordingly
it processes all the data. It decodes the program instructions. The control unit calls upon
the arithmetic logic unit to perform the necessary calculations.
iii. Registers: fast stand-alone storage locations that hold data or instructions temporarily to
speed up the operation of the processor. Multiple registers are needed to facilitate the
operation of the CPU. They serve as high-speed memory where instructions can be
copied to and retrieved. The following are the types of registers utilized by the processor
during execution of instructions:
Memory Address Register (MAR) – specifies address for next read or write instruction.
Memory Buffer Register (MBR) – contains data to be written into or receives data read
from memory.
I/O address register - specifies a particular I/O device.
I/O buffer register - used for exchange of data between an I/O module and CPU (or
memory).
Program Counter (PC) - keeps track of which instruction executes next.
Instruction Register (IR)-holds the instruction that is currently being executed.
Mrs. Onyango
ICS 2174: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE
The processor plays a significant role in the following important aspects of a computer system;
Performance: while other components also play a key role in determining performance, the
processor's capabilities dictate the maximum performance of a system. The other devices only
allow the processor to reach its full potential.
Software Support: Newer, faster processors enable the use of the latest software. In addition,
new processors, enable the use of specialized software not usable on earlier machines.
Reliability and Stability: The quality of the processor is one factor that determines how reliably
your system will run. This also depends to some extent on the age of the processor and how
much energy it consumes.
Energy Consumption and Cooling: Originally processors consumed relatively little power
compared to other system devices. Newer processors can consume a great deal of power. Power
consumption has an impact on everything from cooling method selection to overall system
reliability.
Mrs. Onyango
ICS 2174: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE
Motherboard Support: The processor in use in your system will be a major determining factor
in what sort of chipset we must use, and hence what motherboard you buy. The motherboard in
turn dictates many facets of the system's capabilities and performance.
MEMORY
It is the other major subsystem in a computer. It consists of a collection of storage locations, each
with a unique identifier, called an address. Data is transferred to and from memory in groups of
bits called words. A word can be a group of 8bits, 16bits, 32bits or 64bits. If the word is 8bits, it
is referred to as a byte. The term “byte” is so common in computer science that sometimes a16-
bitword is referred to as a 2-byteword, or a 32-bit word is referred to as a 4-byteword. The table
below shows the memory units in use.
The memory stores data, results and programs to be executed. There are two classes of storage:
Primary and Secondary.
Primary Storage
It consists of: RAM and ROM
i. RAM (Random Access Memory)
It is possible both to read data from the memory and to easily and rapidly write new data into the
memory.
It is volatile - can only be used for temporary storage.
Mrs. Onyango
ICS 2174: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE
Dynamic RAM- stores data as charge on capacitors which tend to discharge over time,
therefore require periodic charge (like a memory reference) to refresh.
Static RAM - stores data in traditional flip-flop logic gates. No refresh is needed and they
are generally faster than dynamic RAMs.
ii. ROM (Read Only Memory) ROM is used to store data and program which is not going to
change. It contains a permanent pattern of data which cannot be changed. Data is actually
wired-in to the chip as part of the fabrication process.
However, there exist varieties of ROM that allow alteration of the contents of the chip:
PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory
The writing process is performed electrically and may be done after chip fabrication. Once
written, it cannot be erased.
EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
It is read and written electrically. Before a write, all cells must be erased by exposure to UV
radiation. Writing uses different electronics from normal memory writes. Errors can be corrected
by erasing and starting over. They are more expensive than PROM.
EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
Any part(s) of the memory can be written at any time. It is updateable in place, that is, writing
uses ordinary bus control, address, and data lines. Writing takes much longer than reading. It is
more expensive (per bit) and less dense than EPROM.
Flash Memory
This type of memory uses electrical erasing technology. It allows individual blocks to be erased,
but not byte-level erasure, and modern flash memory is updateable in place (some may function
more like I/O modules).
It has much faster erasure than EPROM.
It has the same density as EPROM.
Secondary Storage
Assignment Qn. 2: Describe the features of various types of secondary storage devices.
Mrs. Onyango
ICS 2174: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE
INPUT– OUTPUT
The input unit converts the external world data to a binary format, which can be understood by
the CPU, e.g. mouse, joystick, keyboard etc.
The output unit converts the binary format data to a format that a user can understand e.g.
monitor, printer, LCD, LED etc
Assignment Qn. 3: Describe five types of input devices and five output devices.
COMPUTER BUSES
This is a group of wires which carries information from the CPU to peripherals or vice versa.
The CPU, memory and I/O devices are normally interconnected by the computer bus. A
computer’s main functions are data processing, data storage, data movement and control. Based
on these, the computer buses have the following functions:
1. Data sharing - data refers to the actual digital pieces of information that need to be sent from
one peripheral to another. All types of buses found on a computer must be able to transfer data
between the computer peripherals connected to it. This data is transferred in either serial or
parallel, which allows the exchange of 1, 2, 4 or even 8 bytes of data at a time. (A byte is a group
of 8 bits). Buses are classified depending on how many bits they can move at the same time,
which means that we have 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit or even 64-bit buses.
2. Addressing - A bus consists of address lines, which match those of the processor. This allows
address information to be sent to or from specific memory locations. The address information
describes where the data is located and where it needs to go during a particular operation.
3. Power - A bus supplies power to various peripherals that are connected to it.
4. Timing - The bus provides a system clock signal to synchronize the peripherals attached to it
with the rest of the system. It transfers control signals that manage the flow of address and data.
That includes which direction for the transfer of information and exactly how data needs to be
routed through the computer system.
The expansion bus facilitates the easy connection of additional components and devices on a
computer for example the addition of a TV card or sound card.
Mrs. Onyango
ICS 2174: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SCIENCE
The bus structure is as shown in the figure below:
Data bus: this is a bidirectional bus that carries data bits from the processor to peripherals and
vice versa.
Address bus: this is a unidirectional bus that carries address information bits from the
processor to peripherals.
Control bus: it is a bidirectional bus that carries control signals from the processor to
peripherals and vice versa.
Mrs. Onyango
