1. What is Wastewater?

 Definition:
Wastewater is any water that has been used by humans and is no longer clean enough for its intended
purpose. It contains dissolved or suspended waste materials such as organic matter, inorganic
compounds, nutrients, microorganisms, and sometimes toxic chemicals.
 Sources of Wastewater:
1. Domestic wastewater (sewage): Generated from households (toilets, kitchens, bathing, laundry).
2. Industrial wastewater: Generated from industries (chemicals, dyes, heavy metals, oils, solvents).
3. Agricultural runoff: Irrigation return flow, fertilizers, pesticides, animal waste.
4. Stormwater: Rainwater runoff carrying soil, oils, debris, and pollutants.
 Why it matters:
Untreated wastewater pollutes rivers, lakes, and groundwater, spreading diseases and damaging aquatic
life. Proper treatment is necessary for environmental and human health.
Wastewater Ecosystem
 Definition:
A wastewater ecosystem refers to the community of microorganisms (bacteria, protozoa, fungi, algae,
viruses) and the chemical/physical environment that interact within wastewater treatment systems (like
sewage treatment plants, wetlands, lagoons).
 Key Components:
1. Microbial community:
 Bacteria (aerobic & anaerobic) – decompose organic matter, convert ammonia → nitrate → nitrogen gas.
 Protozoa – consume bacteria and suspended solids, improving water clarity.
 Fungi – degrade complex organic compounds.
 Algae – produce oxygen in stabilization ponds.
 Viruses – present but usually unwanted (can infect humans & animals).
2. Substrates (food sources): Organic matter (proteins, fats, carbohydrates), nutrients (N, P, K).
3. Environmental factors: pH, temperature, oxygen availability, light (in ponds).
 Types of Wastewater Ecosystems:
o Natural ecosystems: Wastewater lagoons, constructed wetlands where natural microbial activity treats
water.
o Engineered ecosystems: Activated sludge, trickling filters, anaerobic digesters where microbial
communities are optimized.
 Importance:
o Self-purification of water bodies.
o Breakdown of pollutants.
o Cycling of nutrients (C, N, P).
o Foundation for biological wastewater treatment processes.

3. Characteristics of Wastewater
Wastewater has physical, chemical, and biological characteristics.
(a) Physical Characteristics
1. Color:
o Fresh wastewater: Grayish, cloudy.
o Stale wastewater: Black (due to anaerobic decomposition).
2. Odor:
o Fresh: Soapy or musty smell.
o Stale: Rotten egg smell (H₂S gas).
3. Temperature: Usually higher than ambient water due to household/industrial discharges.
4. Turbidity: High due to suspended solids.
5. Solids:
o Total solids (TS): All matter left after evaporation.
o Suspended solids (SS): Particles that can be filtered.
o Dissolved solids (DS): Salts, small organics.
o Settleable solids: Heavy solids that settle in 2 hours (measured in Imhoff cone).
(b) Chemical Characteristics
1. Organic matter:
o Mainly carbohydrates, proteins, fats, oils.
o Measured by BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) or COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand).
2. Nutrients:
o Nitrogen (ammonia, nitrates, nitrites).
o Phosphorus (orthophosphates, polyphosphates).
3. pH: Normally 6.5 – 8.5; acidic/alkaline wastewater affects treatment.
4. Toxic chemicals: Heavy metals (Pb, Hg, Cr, Cd), detergents, solvents, pesticides.
5. Chlorides & Sulfates: Indicate industrial or saline sources.
6. Cause eutrophication in lakes/rivers.

Eutrophication is the excessive enrichment of water bodies (lakes, rivers, reservoirs) with
nutrients, mainly nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), leading to dense growth of algae and
aquatic plants.

7. Term comes from Greek: “eu” = well, “troph” = nourishment.

8. It makes water “over-fertile.”

Causes
9. Natural eutrophication:
Slow, natural process over centuries (lake aging).
10. Cultural (man-made) eutrophication:
Rapid nutrient enrichment due to human activities:
o Agricultural runoff (fertilizers, manure).
o Domestic sewage (detergents, organic waste).
o Industrial effluents (nutrient-rich discharges).
o Aquaculture & livestock waste.
o Stormwater runoff (carrying soil, leaves, debris).

Effects
Water quality degradation: foul odor, bad taste, turbidity.
Algal blooms: some toxic (cyanobacteria → cause poisoning).
Oxygen depletion (hypoxia): fish kills, biodiversity loss.
Loss of biodiversity: only a few tolerant species survive.
Eutrophication of reservoirs/lakes: reduces lifespan due to sediment and organic accumulation.
Human health impacts: waterborne diseases, toxins from algae.

5. Indicators
High BOD and COD.
Low DO (Dissolved Oxygen).
Presence of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria).
High turbidity, foul odor.

6. Control / Prevention
At source (prevention):
Reduce fertilizer & pesticide use.
Use eco-friendly detergents.
Proper sewage treatment before discharge.
Treatment in water bodies:
Aeration (increase DO).
 Removal of weeds/algae.
Chemical treatment (alum, copper sulfate).
Policy & management:
Strict regulations on effluent discharge.
Watershed management & buffer zones.
Promote reuse/recycling of wastewater.

(c) Biological Characteristics

1. Pathogens: Bacteria (E. coli, Salmonella), viruses, protozoa, helminths (worms).
2. Indicator organisms: Coliform bacteria used to assess contamination level.
3. Microbial activity: Breakdown of organics through aerobic & anaerobic processes.
4. Oxygen demand: High microbial activity consumes dissolved oxygen → fish kills in natural waters if
untreated.

4. Summary Table – Characteristics of Wastewater

Category Key Parameters Importance
Affect appearance, acceptability, and
Physical Color, odor, temp, turbidity, solids
sedimentation
pH, BOD, COD, nutrients (N, P), salts, toxic
Chemical Indicate pollution load & treatability
metals
Pathogens, indicator organisms, microbial
Biological Show health risks & treatment needs
communities
┌───────────────┐ ┌──────────────────┐ ┌──────────────────┐ ┌───────────────────┐
│ Sources │ → │ Ecosystem │ → │ Characteristics │ → │ Treatment │
│ (Domestic, │ │ (Microbes + │ │ (Physical, │ │ (Primary, │
│ Industrial, │ │ Substrates + │ │ Chemical, │ │ Secondary, │
│ Agricultural) │ │ Environment) │ │ Biological) │ │ Tertiary) │
└───────────────┘ └──────────────────┘ └──────────────────┘ └───────────────────┘

4. Standard Methods of solid waste disposal and management are as below:

 Open burning  Ploughing in fields  Fermentation and
 Dumping into the  Hog feeding biological digestion
sea  Grinding and
 Sanitary Landfills discharging into
 Incineration sewers
 Composting  Salvaging
Dumping into Sea
 Possible only in coastal cities
 Refuse shall be taken in barges sufficiently far away from the coast (15-30 km) and dumped
there
 Very costly and Not environment friendly
SANITARY LANDFILLS:
 Sanitary landfills are sites where waste is isolated from the environment until it is safe.
 It is considered when it has completely degraded biologically, chemically and physically.
 In high-income countries, the level of isolation achieved may be high.
 A landfill site, also known as a tip, dump, rubbish dump, garbage dump, or dumping
ground, is a site for the disposal of waste materials.
 Landfill is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal, although the systematic
burial of the waste with daily, intermediate and final covers only began in the 1940s
 Some landfill sites are also used for waste management purposes, such as temporary
storage, consolidation and transfer, or for various stages of processing waste material, such as
sorting, treatment, or recycling.
 Sanitary landfill, method of controlled disposal of municipal solid waste (refuse) on land.
 The method was introduced in England in 1912 (where it is called controlled tipping).
  Waste is deposited in thin layers (up to 1 metre, or 3 feet) and promptly compacted by
heavy machinery (e.g., bulldozers); several layers are placed and compacted on top of each
other to form a refuse cell (up to 3 metres, or 10 feet, thick).
 At the end of each day the compacted refuse cell is covered with a layer of compacted soil
to prevent odours and windblown debris.
 All modern landfill sites are carefully selected and prepared (e.g., sealed with impermeable
synthetic bottom liners) to prevent pollution of groundwater or other environmental problems.
 When the landfill is completed, it is capped with a layer of clay or a synthetic liner in order
to prevent water from entering.
 A final topsoil cover is placed, compacted, and graded, and various forms of vegetation
may be planted in order to reclaim otherwise useless land.
Engineered Landfills of Solid Wastes
 Bottom of the trench is lined with impervious material to prevent the leachate from
contaminating groundwater
 A well designed and laid out leachate collection mechanism is to be provided
 Leachate so collected is treated and then disposed off

Components of a Typical Landfill

INCINERATION:
 Incineration features combustion of wastes to transform them into base components, with
the generated heat being trapped for deriving energy.
 Assorted gases and inert ash are common by-products.
 Pollution is caused by varied degrees dependent on nature of waste combusted and
incinerator design.

 Use of filters can check pollution.

 It is rather inexpensive to burn wastes and the waste volume is reduced by about 90%.
 The nutrient rich ash derived out of burning organic wastes can facilitate hydroponic
solutions.
 Hazardous and toxic wastes can be easily be rid of by using this method.
 The energy extracted can be used for cooking, heating, and supplying power to turbines.
 However, strict vigilance and due diligence should be exercised to check the accidental
leakage of micro level contaminants, such as dioxins from incinerator lines.

Waste to Energy Combustors

 Incinerators (Old type): Waste was just burned to reduce its volume. The hot exhaust gas released
was too hot to be cleaned properly by electrostatic filters (used to trap smoke and dust). No energy
was recovered.
 Modern Combustors (New type): These burn solid waste and recover useful energy (like heat or
electricity) from the process, while also controlling pollution more effectively.
Combustors for Solid Waste
 Storage pit – for storing and sorting incoming refuse
 Crane – for charging the combustion box
 Combustion chamber consisting of bottom grates on which combustion occurs
  Grates on which refuse moves
 Heat recovery system of pipes in which water is turned to steam
 Ash handling systems
 Air pollution control systems
 Grates – Provide turbulence so that the MSW can be thoroughly burned, moves the refuse
down, provides under fire air to the refuse through openings in it (to assist in combustion as
well as to cool the grates)
 Operating temperature of combustors ~ 980 to 1090 degree C

Composting
 Similar to sanitary landfilling
 Yields a stable end product – good soil conditioner and may be used as a base for fertilizers
 Popular in developing countries
 Decomposable organic matter is separated and composted
Methods
1. Open window composting
2. Mechanical composting
Open window composting
 Refuse is placed in piles, about 1.5m high and 2.5m wide at about 60% moisture content
 Heat build up in the refuse piles due to biological activity – temperature rises to about 70
degree C
 Pile is turned up for cooling and aeration to avoid anaerobic conditions
 Moisture content is adjusted to about 60%
 Piled again – temperature rises to about 70 degree C
 The above operations are repeated
 After a few days (~ 7 to 10 weeks) temperature drops to atmospheric temperature –
indication of stabilization of compost
Mechanical composting
 Process of stabilization is expedited by mechanical devices of turning the compost
 Compost is stabilized in about 1 to 2 weeks
 To enrich compost – night soil, cow dung etc. are added to the refuse
 Usually done in compost pits
 Arrangements for draining of excess moisture are provided at the base of the pit
 At the bottom of the pit, a layer of ash, ground limestone, or loamy soil is placed – to
neutralize acidity in the compost material and providing an alkaline medium for
microorganisms
 The pit is filled by alternate layers of refuse (laid in layers of depth 30 – 40 cm) and night soil
or cow dung (laid over it in a thin layer)
 Material is turned every 5 days or so
 After ~ 30 days – it is ready for use
Methods used in India Indore method – aerobic – brick pits 3 x 3 x 1 m – up to 8-12 weeks materials are
turned regularly in the pits and then kept on ground for about 4-6 weeks – 6 to 8 turnings in
total Bangalore method – anaerobic – earthen trenches 10 x 1.5 x 1.5 m – left for decomposition –
takes 4 to 5 months
Vermicomposting
  Ideal for biodegradable wastes from kitchens, hotels etc.
 At household level, a vessel or tray more than 45 cm deep, and 1 x 0.60m may be sufficient
 A hole shall be provided at one end in the bottom for draining the leachate out into a tray or
vessel
 Lay a 1” thick layer of baby metal or gravel at the bottom of the tray
 Above that lay an old gunny bag or a piece of thick cloth, a layer of coconut husk upside
down over it and above that a 2” thick layer of dry leaves and dry cow dung (powdered)
 Lay the biodegradable waste over it
 Introduce good quality earthworms into it (~ 10 g for 0.6 x 0.45 x 0.45 m box)
 If the waste is dry, sprinkle water over it daily
 Rainwater should not fall into the tray or vessel or box
 Keep it closed
 If the box is kept under bright sun earthworms will go down and compost can be taken from
the top
 Compost can be dried and stored
 Continue putting waste into the box
 Add little cow dung at intervals
 Do not use vermiwash directly. Dilute in the ratio 1:10 before use
Disposal by Ploughing into fields
 Not very commonly used
 Not environment friendly in general
Disposal by hog feeding
 Not common in India
 Refuse is ground well in grinders and then fed into sewers
 Disposal of garbage into sewers – BOD and TSS increases by 20-30%
 Disposal of residual refuse – still a problem
Salvaging
 Materials like paper, metal, glass, rags, certain types of plastic etc. can be salvaged, recycled,
and reused
Fermentation or Biological Digestion
 Biodegradable Waste – convert to compost
 Recycle whatever is possible
 Hazardous wastes – dispose it by suitable methods
 Landfill or incinerate the rest

OBJECTIVES OF WASTE WATER TREATMENT

 The purpose of waste water treatment is to remove contaminant from water so that the treated water
can meet the acceptable quality standard.
 The quality standard usually depends whether the water will be reused or discharged into river.
 Before disposing of sewage into river or land, sewage has to be treated to make it safe and to make it
harmless.
 Methods of waste water treatment depends on composition of waste water and required quality for
treated water.
 Treatment process are broadly classified as physical, chemical and biological treatments.
 Physical treatment methods utilize physical separation of pollutant such as by filtration etc.
 Chemical treatment methods utilize chemical characteristics of pollutant for purification. For e.g.,
Coagulation etc.
 Biological treatment methods utilize biological characteristics of pollutants such as bacteria, viruses
by purification.
 Other purpose of waste water treatment includes:
 To reduce strength of sewage
 To make waste water less offensive
 To prevent public health from toxic effect of pollutant
 To conserve nature
 LAYOUT OF SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT

Flow Equalization in Physical Treatment of Wastewater

1. Definition
 Flow equalization is a physical treatment method used in wastewater management.
 It involves collecting and storing wastewater in an equalization basin/tank to balance
variations in flow rate and pollutant concentration before sending it to further treatment
units.
 Flow equalization = storage + mixing of wastewater to smoothen variations in flow and load
→ protects treatment units → improves efficiency.

2. Why Needed?
 Wastewater flow and composition are not constant – they vary by hour (peak in
mornings/evenings), by day, and due to industrial discharges.
 Sudden changes can overload treatment units (like sedimentation tanks, biological reactors)
and reduce efficiency.
 Flow equalization provides a steady, uniform input for downstream treatment.

3. Objectives
1. Minimize fluctuations in flow rate.
2. Maintain nearly uniform pollutant load.
3. Prevent shock loading of biological units (activated sludge, trickling filters).
4. Improve efficiency of chemical and biological processes.
5. Reduce size/cost of downstream treatment units.

4. Types of Flow Equalization

1. In-line Equalization
o Basin/tank is placed directly in the main wastewater flow line.
o All wastewater passes through it before treatment.
2. Off-line Equalization
o Basin is provided separately.
o Only excess/peak wastewater is diverted into it.
o Released later when flow is low.
5. Design Features
 Equalization basin/tank: large enough to handle peak variations.
 Mixing system (aeration or mechanical stirrers): prevents settling of solids & odor.
 Level sensors & pumps: control inflow and outflow automatically.
 Bypass arrangement: for emergencies.

6. Advantages
 Provides uniform flow and load to treatment units.
 Protects biological units from toxic shocks (sudden industrial discharges).
 Reduces chemical usage in treatment (steady conditions).
 Improves sludge quality and settling.
 Enhances overall treatment efficiency.

7. Limitations
 Requires large land area and capital cost.
 Needs proper mixing to avoid septic conditions (foul smell, H₂S).
 Additional operation and maintenance (aeration, pumping).

Flocculation in Physical Treatment Methods of Wastewater

1. Definition
 Flocculation is a physical treatment process where small suspended particles in wastewater
are agglomerated (brought together) into larger, heavier particles (called flocs) by gentle
mixing.
 It usually follows coagulation (where chemicals like alum or ferric salts neutralize particle
charges).

2. Purpose
 To transform fine, dispersed, non-settleable particles into larger, settleable flocs.
 Makes it easier to remove particles by sedimentation or filtration.

3. Process
1. Coagulation stage (before flocculation): Chemicals are added to destabilize colloidal
particles.
2. Flocculation stage: Gentle mixing is applied → destabilized particles collide and stick
together → form flocs.
3. Flocs settle down in sedimentation tanks or get filtered.

4. Types of Flocculation
1. Perikinetic flocculation:
o Caused by Brownian motion of particles.
o Effective for very fine particles.
2. Orthokinetic flocculation:
o Caused by gentle stirring/mixing in flocculation basins.
o Common in treatment plants.

5. Design Features
 Flocculation basin/tank: Provided after coagulation.
 Mixing speed: Gentle, to avoid breaking flocs (slow paddles, vertical shafts).
 Retention time: Typically 20–30 minutes.

6. Factors Affecting Flocculation

1. Mixing intensity (G value): Too low = no collisions, too high = flocs break.
2. Time of mixing: Should be sufficient for floc growth.
 3. Type & dose of coagulant: Alum, ferric chloride, polymers.
4. pH and alkalinity of water.
5. Temperature: Low temperature slows particle collisions.

7. Advantages
 Produces settleable flocs → easier sedimentation.
 Improves clarity of treated water.
 Removes colloidal matter and turbidity effectively.
 Reduces pathogens by enmeshing them in flocs.

8. Limitations
 Requires chemical addition (coagulants).
 Operational cost due to chemicals and energy (for mixing).
 Sensitive to water pH and temperature.
 Improper mixing → weak or broken flocs.

9. Applications
 Municipal wastewater treatment.
 Drinking water treatment plants.
 Industrial wastewater treatment (textile, paper, chemical).

Here’s a well-structured exam note on Chlorination in Wastewater Treatment with all details in order,
simplified but comprehensive for quick study and writing in exams:

Chlorination in Wastewater Treatment

1. Introduction & History
 Chlorination as a disinfection method dates back to the mid-19th century.
 chlorination became common in wastewater treatment, aided by development of
hypochlorite solutions and liquid chlorine production.

2. Chemical Principles of Chlorination

 Chlorine exists in forms: Cl₂ (gas), NaOCl (sodium hypochlorite), Ca(OCl)₂ (calcium
hypochlorite).
 Reaction in water:
Cl₂ + H₂O → HOCl + HCl

HOCl ⇌ H⁺ + OCl⁻
 Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) partially dissociates:

 pH dependence:
o Low pH → more HOCl (stronger disinfectant).
o High pH → more OCl⁻ (weaker disinfectant).

3. Disinfection Mechanism
 Oxidative damage → destroys proteins, lipids, nucleic acids.
 Protein denaturation → enzyme inactivation.
 DNA damage → prevents replication & growth of microbes.

4. Types of Chlorination Systems

1. Gaseous Chlorine Systems – effective but hazardous.
2. Liquid Hypochlorite Systems – safer, commonly used (NaOCl, Ca(OCl)₂).
3. Chlorine Dioxide Systems – powerful oxidizer, effective even at high pH, less influenced by
organic matter.

5. Chlorination Stages in Treatment

 Pre-Chlorination – added before treatment (odor control, microbial reduction).
 Primary Treatment – after sedimentation.
  Secondary Treatment – after biological processes.
 Tertiary Treatment – final polishing step.
 Post-Treatment – chlorine contact tank for required retention time.

6. Dose and Contact Time (CT Concept)

 Effectiveness depends on:
o Chlorine dose (mg/L).
o Contact time (min).
 Expressed as:
CT = Chlorine Concentration × Contact Time

7. Benefits of Chlorination
 Effective pathogen removal (bacteria, viruses, protozoa).
 Residual disinfection → prevents regrowth.
 Cost-effective compared to UV/ozone.
 Easy implementation with existing infrastructure.

8. Drawbacks & Challenges

 Formation of Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) – e.g., THMs, HAAs.
 Dechlorination required before discharge (using SO₂, NaHSO₃).
 Sensitive to pH & temperature – HOCl most effective at pH 6.5–7.5.

9. Alternatives to Chlorination
 Ultraviolet (UV) Irradiation – no DBPs, effective against protozoa.
 Ozonation (O₃) – strong oxidant, improves dissolved oxygen, but costly.
 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) – OH· radicals for high-level disinfection.

Here’s a 15-mark exam answer on Methods to Remove Heavy Metals from Wastewater – well structured,
with definitions, methods, diagrams suggestion, and key points:

Methods to Remove Heavy Metals from Wastewater

1. Introduction
 Heavy metals (e.g., Pb, Cd, Hg, Cr, As, Ni, Cu, Zn) are toxic, non-biodegradable, and bio-
accumulative.
 Their presence in wastewater poses serious health hazards and environmental risks.
 Hence, removal and recovery methods are necessary before discharge or reuse.

2. Major Methods for Heavy Metal Removal

A. Physical Methods
1. Adsorption
o Uses adsorbents such as activated carbon, biochar, zeolites, clays, agricultural
waste.
o Metals adhere to surface via physical or chemical interactions.
o Advantages: cost-effective, efficient at low concentrations.
2. Membrane Filtration
o Processes: Reverse Osmosis (RO), Nanofiltration (NF), Ultrafiltration (UF),
Electrodialysis.
o Separates metals by size exclusion and electrostatic repulsion.
o Produces high-quality effluent but is expensive and prone to fouling.
3. Ion Exchange
o Uses cation/anion exchange resins to swap metal ions with innocuous ions (Na⁺, H⁺).
o Highly selective and efficient, but resins require regeneration.

B. Chemical Methods
1. Chemical Precipitation
 oConverts soluble metal ions into insoluble precipitates (e.g., hydroxides, sulfides,
carbonates).
o Example:
M^{2+} + 2OH^- → M(OH)_2 ↓
o Simple and widely used in industries.
2. Coagulation–Flocculation
o Uses coagulants (e.g., alum, FeCl₃) to destabilize metal complexes → form flocs →
settled.
3. Electrochemical Methods (Electrocoagulation, Electrodeposition)
o Apply electric current → metals deposit on cathode.
o Effective but energy-intensive.

C. Biological Methods
1. Biosorption
o Use of microbial biomass, algae, fungi, bacteria to bind heavy metals via functional
groups on cell walls.
o Low-cost, eco-friendly.
2. Bioremediation
o Microorganisms transform metals into less toxic/immobilized forms (e.g., reduction
of Cr(VI) to Cr(III)).
3. Phytoremediation
o Use of plants (e.g., water hyacinth, duckweed, Indian mustard) to uptake metals
from water.
o Suitable for low concentration treatment.

3. Comparison of Methods
 Chemical methods → suitable for high concentration, but generate sludge.
 Physical methods → efficient, costly, require maintenance.
 Biological methods → eco-friendly, cost-effective, slower, best for low concentrations.

4. Conclusion
 No single method is universally effective.
 A hybrid approach (e.g., precipitation + adsorption, membrane + biosorption) is often
adopted.
 Choice depends on metal type, concentration, cost, and end-use of treated water.

Wastewater Effects on Environment and Human Health

1. Introduction
 Wastewater contains organic matter, suspended solids, nutrients (N, P), toxic chemicals,
and pathogens.
 If discharged without treatment, it has serious environmental and health consequences.

2. Environmental Effects
1. Water Pollution
o Wastewater contaminates rivers, lakes, and groundwater.
o Reduces quality of drinking and irrigation water.
2. Eutrophication
o Excess nitrogen & phosphorus → algal blooms → oxygen depletion → fish kills and
aquatic ecosystem damage.
3. Oxygen Depletion
o High Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) → microbes consume dissolved oxygen →
aquatic life suffocates.
4. Soil Contamination
 oHeavy metals and salts accumulate in soil → reduce fertility → affect crop
productivity.
5. Toxicity to Aquatic Life
o Industrial wastewater (metals, pesticides, dyes) is toxic → bioaccumulation in food
chain.

3. Human Health Effects

1. Waterborne Diseases
o Pathogens in wastewater cause cholera, dysentery, typhoid, hepatitis, diarrhea.
o Affects especially children in developing areas.
2. Chemical Toxicity
o Heavy metals (Hg, Pb, Cd, As) → kidney damage, neurological disorders, cancer.
o Nitrates → “blue baby syndrome” (methemoglobinemia).
3. Antibiotic Resistance
o Untreated hospital wastewater spreads antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
4. Chronic Health Issues
o Long-term exposure → skin diseases, liver/kidney damage, developmental issues.
5. Indirect Impact
o Contaminated fish/vegetables (grown with polluted water) transfer toxins to
humans.

4. Conclusion
 Wastewater, if untreated, is a serious threat to ecosystems and public health.
 Proper treatment (primary, secondary, tertiary) and safe reuse/discharge are essential to
protect the environment and society.
Module 2

1. An Overview of Biological Treatment of Wastewater

In the biological treatment of wastewater, the microbial community has a vital role in the degradation of
contaminants. This process, also referred to as 'biodegradation', is carried out by a variety of
microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa. Compared to physical and chemical processes,
biological treatment usually costs less and imposes less damage on the environment. Production of
secondary pollutants, a great concern in sewage treatment, is very low or nearly zero in biological
treatment (Dadrasnia et al., 2017).
Several purposes are pursued in biological treatment (Metcalf & Eddy, 2014):
1. Oxidation of organic compounds and transforming them into less hazardous matters
2. Suspended solids can be removed by getting stuck in flocs or by being a part of a biofilm
3. Microorganisms use nutrients (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus) to reproduce themselves,
which can result in the removal of these nutrients.
4. This process has been used to remove some specific pollutants in wastewater, such as trace
organic chemicals
Based on the type of cellular respiration, microorganisms can oxidize organic matter in two conditions:
aerobic and anaerobic. Each of these two conditions is explained later. There is another classification of
biological treatment in which microbes can be attached to a medium or can be suspended in the
wastewater. These two modes, known as attached growth and suspended growth, are the subject of the
next section of this article

Classification of biological treatment methods

2. Suspended Growth vs. Attached Growth
In the attached growth process, stone or plastic media is used as a fixed bed for microorganisms to grow
and form a biofilm on the surface of the media. When sewage comes into contact with the biofilm,
microbes degrade organic substances and remove them from the wastewater. A trickling filter is an
attached growth system used in the biological treatment of wastewater.
On the other hand, in a suspended growth process, microorganisms degrade organic substances in a liquid
suspension. Mixing is usually done to increase contact between microbes and organic matter, which results
in better pollutant removal. Activated sludge is an aerobic suspended growth system that is widely used in
treatment plants (EPA, 2004).

3. Aerobic Biological Treatment of Wastewater

In aerobic treatment, the oxidation of organic matter happens in the presence of oxygen. To obtain energy,
microorganisms convert organic substances using oxidation and reduction reactions. In these reactions,
organic matter is oxidized by microorganisms, which causes the organic matter to lose electrons. These
electrons reach oxygen through electron carriers, and the released energy is used for cell growth.
Microorganisms receive this energy as ATP (adenosine triphosphate) (Comeau, 2008).
َAs a result of the aerobic microbial metabolism described above, organic pollutants break down into
carbon dioxide and water. This process is used in various technologies in treating municipal and industrial
sewage. Some of them are introduced below.

Activated sludge process

3.2. Trickling Filter
A trickling filter is a fixed film aerobic treatment that consists of a bed filled with media such as rocks or
plastic. Microbes attach to the medium and form a slime layer on the surface of it. In trickling filters,
wastewater is sprayed on the surface of the packed bed through a rotating distribution system, and air is
injected into the system from the bottom of the filter. As wastewater flows down the trickling bed, the
slime formed on the media breaks down the organic pollutants in the wastewater. Over time, the thickness
of the slime layer increases, and when it reaches a critical thickness, it gets washed off from the media. A
fresh layer of biofilm forms again. After the trickling filter, a sedimentation basin is placed to separate the
solids from the wastewater. Trickling filters require an underdrain system for collecting the wastewater and
distributing the air through the filter (Daigger and Boltz, 2011).

Microbes break down pollutants in the wastewater as it trickles through the filter media.
3.3. Membrane Bioreactor (MBR)
Membrane BioReactor (MBR) is a combination of the biological treatment of wastewater by activated
sludge along with the physical process of membrane filtration. Microfiltration and ultrafiltration are used in
MBR to separate the solids from the wastewater and recycle the biomass to the reactor. In fact,
membranes are used instead of secondary clarifiers to remove solids from the effluent. Membrane
bioreactors can be submerged or external. In submerged MBR, the membrane is located inside the
biological reactor, while in external MBR the membrane filtration takes place outside of the reactor
(Abdelkader, 2007).
 Membrane Bioreactor Combines biological treatment with membrane filtration
3.4. Sequence Batch Reactor (SBR)
Sequence Batch Reactor (SBR) is a fill-and-draw activated sludge process in which treatment takes place in
one basin instead of separate basins. Thus, SBR is suitable for areas with limited available land. There are
five steps in one cycle of the SBR process: Fill, react, settle, draw, and idle. At first, the basin gets filled with
wastewater. In the second step, mixing and aeration are required for the biological degradation of organic
compounds. Then, aeration and mixing are stopped and the basin works as a secondary clarifier. In the
fourth step, treated wastewater is discharged. The time between drawing and filling the basin again is
called ‘idle’ which is used for sludge wasting (Al-Rekabi et al., 2010).

5 Steps of The SBR Process

3.5. Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC)
A Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC) is an attached growth system used in treating wastewater on a small
municipal or industrial scale. In this method, circular rotating discs are closely put together. These discs are
mainly made of plastic materials, and they rotate at a constant speed. Microorganisms form a biofilm on
the surface of the discs that are half drowned in wastewater. The rest of the disc is in contact with the
atmosphere, which allows microorganisms to receive oxygen. As the discs rotate, microorganisms degrade
organic pollutants. A secondary clarifier is placed after the RBC to separate the solids (Waqas et al., 2023).

4. Anaerobic Biological Treatment of Wastewater

Anaerobic oxidation of organic matter, unlike aerobic treatment, takes place in the absence of oxygen.
Therefore, the electron acceptor and donor are both organic matter. The final product of anaerobic
treatment is biogas, and two-thirds of the produced biogas is methane (Meegoda et al., 2018).
Methane is a valuable source of energy, which gives anaerobic treatment an advantage. Numerous
anaerobic methods were developed over the years, and some of them are listed below.
4.1. Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB)
Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) is a promising method for treating sewage. It is largely used in
industries for high Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) reduction. In UASB reactors, wastewater flows upward
through a layer of sludge with a high microbial population which results in the decomposition of pollutants
and the production of biogas. There are three phases in the reactor: gas, liquid, and solids. A separator is
placed at the top of the reactor to separate these phases from each other (Nnaji, 2013).

UASB reactors treat wastewater using upward flowing sludge

4.2. Anaerobic Fluidized Bed Reactor (AFBR)
Anaerobic Fluidized Bed Reactor(AFBR) is an attached growth method in which the media (e.g., small sand
and activated carbon) is suspended in the reactor. Because of its fluidized stage, the media provide a higher
specific surface that results in better removal of contamination (Rajeshwari et al., 2000).
Anaerobic Fluidized Bed Reactor uses suspended media for improved treatment.
4.3. Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR)
Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR) consists of a tank in which several chambers have been created by placing
baffles. These reactors can resist hydraulic and organic variable loads. Wastewater flows on top and below
these baffles which results in the decomposition of organic matter and production of biogas. The main
advantage of ABR is separating two phases of acid and methane production, which increases microbial
activity in the reactor (Barber and Stuckey, 1999).

Anaerobic Baffled Reactor separates acid and methane production phases.

4.4. Anaerobic Contact Process
This process has an anaerobic unit where wastewater is mixed. A settling tank is placed next to this unit to
separate anaerobic sludge from wastewater. This sludge is recycled into the anaerobic tank, which
enhances microbial contact with raw wastewater. Since gas can interrupt the settlement of solids, a
degassifier is placed before the settling tank (Hassan et al., 2013).
 Anaerobic Contact Process Combines Mixing and Settling for Wastewater Treatment
5. A Comparison Between Aerobic and Anaerobic Treatment
The following table compares the aerobic and anaerobic biological treatment of wastewater in various
aspects such as waste production, energy consumption, and effluent quality (Anijofor et al., 2017):

Comparison Between Aerobic and Anaerobic Treatment

6. Conclusion
Increased sewage production and the lack of freshwater recourses in recent decades, call for more
attention in wastewater management. Biological treatment of wastewater has been a prominent method
for over a century and it is still the main part of wastewater treatment plants. Biological methods are
classified in several ways. They can be divided into aerobic and anaerobic methods. The choice of method
depends on many factors, as each method has advantages and disadvantages. Aerobic treatment offers
better effluent quality, while anaerobic treatment is more efficient for higher COD loads. Biogas production
is another advantage of anaerobic treatment since it can be a source of energy. Activated sludge and UASB
reactors are two common systems in aerobic and anaerobic processes, respectively.

Bacterial Life Cycle

1. Introduction
 Bacteria are unicellular, prokaryotic organisms that reproduce asexually (mainly by binary
fission).
 Their growth in culture is described in terms of a growth curve (life cycle), which has distinct
phases.
  Understanding the bacterial life cycle is important in medicine, food safety, and wastewater
treatment.

2. Stages of Bacterial Life Cycle (Growth Curve)

A. Lag Phase
 Bacteria introduced into a new medium → no immediate cell division.
 Cells metabolically active, synthesizing enzymes, proteins, and nucleic acids to adapt to
environment.
 Duration depends on nutrients, pH, temperature, previous cell condition.

B. Log (Exponential) Phase

 Cells divide at maximum rate by binary fission.
 Population doubles at regular intervals (generation time).
 Cells are most active, uniform, and sensitive to antibiotics & disinfectants.
 Growth is exponential:
n
N=N0×2
(where N = final number, N0 = initial cells, n = generations).

C. Stationary Phase
 Nutrients become limiting, waste products accumulate.
 Cell division rate ≈ Cell death rate.
 Population size reaches a plateau.
 Cells may form endospores (e.g., Bacillus, Clostridium) for survival.

D. Decline (Death) Phase

 Nutrient exhaustion + toxic accumulation → cells die faster than they divide.
 Death may follow an exponential pattern.
 Some resistant cells or spores may survive.

3. Diagram of Bacterial Growth Curve (exam sketch)

No. of Bacteria (log scale)
│
│ _________
│ / \ ← Stationary
│ / \
│ / \
│ / \__ ← Decline
│ /
│ / ← Log (Exponential)
│/
│/ ← Lag
└─────────────────────────── Time

4. Special Features in Lifecycle

 Binary Fission: Main method of reproduction.
 Sporulation: Some bacteria form spores in harsh conditions.
 Genetic Variation: Achieved via conjugation, transformation, transduction.

5. Conclusion
 Bacterial life cycle = Lag → Log → Stationary → Decline.
 Knowledge of these phases is crucial in:
o Determining antibiotic effectiveness (best in log phase).
o Designing industrial fermentations.
o Understanding disease progression and food spoilage.

Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC)

1. Principle
 Based on the principle of attached growth biological treatment.
 Microorganisms (mainly bacteria) grow as a biofilm on the surface of rotating discs.
 As discs rotate, biofilm is alternately:
o Exposed to wastewater → absorbs organic matter.
o Exposed to air → receives oxygen.
 Continuous rotation ensures contact between microbes, substrate (organic matter), and
oxygen → efficient biological degradation.

2. Construction
 Series of large circular discs (2–3 m diameter) mounted on a horizontal shaft.
 Shaft partially submerged (≈40%) in wastewater tank.
 Discs made of plastic or other lightweight material.
 Shaft slowly rotated (1–5 rpm) using a motor.
 After RBC, effluent passes to secondary clarifier for settling biofilm slough.

3. Working
1. Wastewater flows into the tank containing partially submerged discs.
2. Microorganisms form biofilm on disc surfaces.
3. As the discs rotate:
o Submerged portion: biofilm absorbs organic matter.
o Exposed portion: biofilm receives oxygen from air.
4. Organic matter degraded → CO₂, H₂O, new biomass.
5. Biofilm thickens over time → excess biomass sloughs off → carried with effluent → removed
in clarifier.

4. Advantages
 Simple and compact design.
 Energy efficient (low power needed for rotation).
 Resistant to shock loads.
 Low sludge production compared to Activated Sludge Process.
 Easy operation and maintenance.

5. Limitations
 Sensitive to temperature (less effective in very cold climates).
 Requires large installation space for multiple stages.
 Odor and noise may be issues.
 Mechanical parts (shaft, motor) need maintenance.

6. Applications
 Municipal sewage treatment.
 Industrial wastewater (textiles, food, paper, dairy).
 Small and medium treatment plants.

Algal Ponds and Hyacinth Systems (used in wastewater treatment):

1) Algal Ponds (Waste Stabilization Ponds with Algae)
Principle
 Based on symbiotic relationship between algae and bacteria.
 Bacteria degrade organic matter → release CO₂, NH₃, phosphates.
 Algae use these nutrients + sunlight for photosynthesis → release O₂.
 O₂ supports bacterial activity → continuous cycle of treatment.
Types
1. Aerobic Ponds – Shallow, oxygen from algae/photosynthesis.
 2. Facultative Ponds – Both aerobic (top) and anaerobic (bottom) zones.
3. Anaerobic Ponds – For high-strength wastewater, sludge digestion.
Working
 Wastewater stored in ponds (depth 1–2 m).
 Sunlight + algae growth → oxygenation.
 Bacteria oxidize organic pollutants → stabilize wastewater.
 Pathogen reduction by sunlight, pH rise, longer retention time.
Advantages
 Simple, low-cost, natural method.
 Good for pathogen removal.
 Can handle variable flows.
Limitations
 Requires large land area.
 Odor and mosquito problems.
 Less efficient in cloudy/cold climates.

2) Hyacinth System (Water Hyacinth Treatment)

Principle
 Uses floating aquatic macrophytes (Eichhornia crassipes – Water Hyacinth) for treatment.
 Roots provide large surface area for microbial attachment → degrade pollutants.
 Plants absorb nutrients (N, P, heavy metals) directly.
Working
1. Wastewater enters pond/lagoon covered with water hyacinths.
2. Roots absorb nutrients and toxic substances.
3. Attached microbes degrade organic matter.
4. Plant canopy reduces light → limits algal growth, controls odor.
5. Harvested plants can be used as compost, biogas, animal feed (limited).
Advantages
 Natural, low-cost method.
 Removes nutrients (N, P) and heavy metals.
 Provides shade, reduces mosquito breeding.
 Aesthetic green cover.
Limitations
 Rapid growth → frequent harvesting needed.
 Can become invasive if uncontrolled.
 Sensitive to frost/temperature.
 Limited load-bearing capacity compared to advanced systems.

Here’s a detailed exam-ready answer (10 marks) on the Role of Microbes in Wastewater Treatment:

Role of Microbes in Wastewater Treatment

Microorganisms are the backbone of biological treatment processes, as they help in the degradation,
stabilization, and removal of pollutants present in wastewater.

1. Organic Matter Degradation

 Bacteria decompose organic matter (carbohydrates, proteins, fats) into simpler end products
like CO₂, H₂O, and NH₃.
 Example: In activated sludge, bacteria consume BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand).

2. Nutrient Removal
 Nitrogen Cycle (Nitrification–Denitrification):
o Nitrifying bacteria (Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter) convert ammonia → nitrite →
nitrate.
o Denitrifying bacteria (Pseudomonas, Bacillus) convert nitrate → nitrogen gas,
reducing eutrophication risk.
  Phosphorus Removal: Certain microbes (Polyphosphate Accumulating Organisms – PAOs)
store phosphorus inside their cells and are removed with sludge.

3. Pathogen Reduction
 Some bacteria, fungi, and protozoa outcompete or consume pathogens, reducing disease-
causing organisms in wastewater.

4. Sludge Stabilization
 Anaerobic microbes (methanogens, acidogens) break down organic sludge into biogas (CH₄
+ CO₂), reducing sludge volume and producing energy.

5. Algal–Bacterial Symbiosis in Ponds

 In stabilization ponds:
o Bacteria degrade organics → release CO₂.
o Algae use CO₂ + sunlight → photosynthesis → O₂.
o O₂ supports further bacterial activity (self-sustaining cycle).

6. Biofilm Formation
 In trickling filters and rotating biological contactors, microbes form biofilms on media
surfaces.
 Biofilms degrade pollutants as wastewater flows over them.

7. Removal of Toxic Compounds & Heavy Metals

 Certain microbes (e.g., Thiobacillus, Pseudomonas) degrade hydrocarbons, pesticides, and
toxic compounds.
 Fungi and algae can bioaccumulate heavy metals like Pb, Cd, Hg.

Conclusion
Microbes play a vital role in wastewater treatment by:
 Reducing BOD & COD,
 Removing nutrients (N, P),
 Stabilizing sludge,
 Producing renewable energy (biogas),
 Protecting environment & human health.