INSTRUMENT GUIDE

Everything You Need To Know

What Is Instrument Time?

§ 61.51g (1) - A Person may log instrument time only for that flight time when the person operates the
aircraft solely by reference to instruments under actual or simulated instrument flight conditions.
§ 61.51g (2) - An authorized instructor may log instrument time when conducting instrument flight
instruction in actual instrument conditions.
Aeronautical Experience
Logging Instrument Time Required for Instrument Rating
§ 61.51 g(3i-ii) § 61.65
Location and type of each approach 50 hours of X-Country PIC time
Safety pilot if required At least 10 hours in airplanes
Flight simulator used - 40 hours actual or simulated instrument time
provided an authorized instructor is At least 15 hours with a CFII
present during the simulated flight 20 of which may be accomplished in an
approved FTD or ATD with instructor
Use of full flight simulators or Flight Training
When is an Instrument Rating Required devices (FTDs)
When acting as PIC under IFR Must be with a CFII
weather conditions § 61.3 Max 30 hours under Part 141
When carrying passengers for Max 20 hours under Part 61
compensation or hire on cross-country Use of FAA approved Aviation Training
flights in excess of 50 NM or at night § 61.133 Device
Must be with a CFII
Flight in Class A airspace § 91.135
Max 10 hours if Basic ATD
Flight in Special VFR between sunset Max 20 hours if Advanced ATD
and sunrise § 91.157 One 250 NM X-Country flight
Along airways or directed by ATC routing
To act as PIC under IFR An instrument approach at each airport
Pilot must have a current medical certificate 3 different kinds of approaches
Pilot must have a current Instrument Rating using navigation systems
3 hours of instrument flight training in the last
2 calendar months

Page 1
 Recency Requirements

Instrument Currency Flight Review

§ 61.57(c)
Within the last 24 calendar months
Min 1 hr flight instruction
Conducted 6 Instrument Approaches Min 1 hr ground instruction
Intercepted and tracked courses Conducted by authorized instructor
using navigation systems May be substituded by...
Performed holding procedures A proficiency check
Note: The FAA doesn’t specify how many A practical test for a new rating or
6 Months

holds. Just more than one.

certificate
Completion of one or more phases of
These can be completed in an
FAA sponsored pilot proficiency award
approved FFS, ATD, or FTD provided
program (WINGS)
the device is of the same category
and type aircraft and the pilot Flight Instructor Renewal § 61.197
performs them in simulated instrument (substitutes ground portion only)
conditions. A flight instructor is not
required. Passenger Carrying
3 takeoffs and landings in the preceding
Additional time to accomplish 90 days in the same aircraft
the 3 tasks with... category, class, and type
A safety pilot in simulated instrument (Full stop with a tail dragger)
conditions
A CFI or examiner
Additional 6 Months

Night Flight
Safety Pilot 3 takeoffs and landings in the preceding
Must have at least a Private Pilot Certificate 90 days in the same aircraft
(does not have to be current) category, class, and type
Must be rated in the same Full Stop
category and class aircraft 1 hr after sunset to 1 hour before sunrise
Must have a current medical
Aircraft must have dual controls
Must have adequate visibility of front and Helpful Tip
each side of the aircraft Use the accronym “6 HITS” to remember
the IFR recency requirements
6 - 6 Instrument Approaches
Instrument Proficiency Check H - Holding procedures
IPC Required

Administered by a CFII, examiner, or FAA I - Intercepted a course

approved official T - Tracked a course
Some IPC tasks can be conducted in an S - Using navigational systems
FTD or ATD

Page 2
Required Personal Documents Required Aircraft Maintenance Inspections
Pilot Certificate “AV1ATES”
Medical Certificate A - Annual Inspection § 91.409
Authorized photo ID Every 12 Calendar Months
Radio Operator Permit V - VOR Check § 91.171
(for flight outside the US) Every 30 days
1 - 100 Hour Inspection § 91.409
Required if flying for hire
Required Aircraft Documents A - Altimeter § 91.411
§ 21.5, 91.103, 91.1, 91.203 Every 24 Calendar Months
“ARROW” T - Transponder § 91.413
A - Airworthiness certificate Every 24 Calendar Months
R - Registration E - ELT § 91.207
R - Radio station license (for international flights) Every 12 Calendar Months
O - Operating limitations & Information (in AFM) Battery must be replaced after more than 1
W - Weight and Balance data (aircraft specific) hour of cumulative use
- or -
If 50% of the usable battery life is expired
Preflight Self Assessment S - Static System § 91.411
§ 91.17, AIM 8-1-1 Every 24 Calendar Months
“IM SAFE”
I - Illness
M - Medication Minimum Required Equipment for VFR Flight
S - Stress § 91.205
A - Alcohol “A TOMATO FLAMES”
F - Fatigue A - Altimeter
E - Emotion/ Eating T - Tachometer for each engine
O - Oil Temp indicator for each engine
M - Manifold pressure gauge for each engine
A - Airspeed Indicator
Preflight General
T - Temp gauge for each liquid cooled engine
“PAVE”
O - Oil pressure gauge for each engine
P - Pilot
F - Fuel quantity gauge for each engine
A - Aircraft
L - Landing gear position lights
V - EnVironment
A - Anticolision lights (aircraft certified after 03/11/96)
E - External Factors
M - Magnetic compass
E - ELT
S - Safety belts/ shoulder harnesses
Decision Making & Risk Management
“DECIDE”
D - Detect a change has occured
E - Estimate the need to counter the change
C - Choose what is the desired outcome
I - Identify the solutions
D - Do the necessary actions
E - Evaluate the effects of the acitons

Page 3
 Minimum Required Equipment for Operating with inoperative equipment
VFR Night Flight § 91.213
All day VFR + “FLAPS” Is the equipment required by:
F - Fuses (spare set) An Airworthiness Directive (AD)
L - Landing light (if for hire) Regulations for type of flight operation
A - Anticolision light VFR Day certification requirements
P - Position lights (navigation lights) An operational equipment list
S - Source of power (such as battery)

Yes
Minimum Required Equipment for Flying is NOT PERMITTED without
INSTRUMENT Flight a special flight permit
All day VFR (+ FLAPS if at night) “GRABCARD”
G - Generator/ alternator No
R - Radios (two way and nav.) Flying is PERMITTED, so long as:
A - Altimeter (pressure sensitive) equipment is removed
B - Ball (slip-skid indicator) - or -
C - Clock (Installed & shows hrs. min. and sec.) deactivated and placarded
A - Attitude Indicator “inoperative”
R - Rate of turn indicator pilot/mechanic determine safe to fly
D - Directional gyro (Heading indicator)
If the aircraft has a Minimum Equipment List
(MEL), refer to the MEL guidance.
Preflight Info Required for IFR
§ 91.103
“NW KRAFT”
IFR Minimum Fuel Requirements
N- NOTAMs § 91.167
W - Weather reports and forecasts
K - Known traffic delays Fuel from
departure
R - Runway length of intended use
to
A - Alternates
destination
F - Fuel Requirements
T - Takeoff and landing performance data +
Fuel from
Types of 30 Day VOR Checks Destination
§ 91.171 to most distant
(with acceptable tolerances)
Alternate
VOT - +- 4° (If alternate is required)
Repair Station - +- 4°
VOR Ground Checkpoint - +- 4° +
VOR Airborn Checkpoint - +- 6° 45 Minutes
Dual VOR Cross-Check - +- 4° calculated at
Above a Prominent Ground Landmark normal cruise
On a selected radial at least 20 NM from a VOR speed/ alt.
flying at a “reasonably low altitude” +- 6°

Page 4
 Do you need an Alternate?
§ 91.169

Does the forecasted weather at your destination airport

meet the 1-2-3 rule?

- 1 hour before your ETA and 1 hour after your ETA

- 2,000 ft ceilings or higher
- 3 SM visibilty or greater
- At least 1 Instrument approach

Yes
No

Alternate Required No alternate required

Does your chosen alternate have

non-standard alternate requirements
that can be complied with?
Yes
No

Choose different alternate Are forecasted weather minimumrequirements met

at your ETA?

- Precision Approach: 600’ ceiling, 2 SM visibility

No - Non-Precision Approach: 800’ ceiling, 2 SM visibility
- No Approach: Able to descend from MEA & land VFR
Yes

You may plan your flight

with RNAV approaches at No Is your airplane equiped
EITHER the destination OR with a WAAS GPS?
the alternate, but not both
Yes

You may plan your flight with RNAV approaches at

BOTH the destination AND the alternate

Page 5
 IFR Takeoff Minimums IFR Departure Clearance
§ 91.175 AIM 5-2-6
No T/O minimums mandated for Part 91. “CRAFT”
For Part 121, 125, 129, 135:

Published T/O minimums for the runway C - Clearance Limit

1-2 engines: 1sm visibility R - Route
More than 2 engines: 1/2 sm visibility A - Altitude
F - Frequency (for departure)
Non-Standard: T - Transponder “squawk” code
Non-Standard TO mins/ Departure Procedures
Clearance Void Time - Time in which your
Non-Standard alternate minimums
clearance becomes void. After which you may
NA Alternate minimums not authorized not takeoff. Notify ATC within 30 minutes after
void time has lapsed if you havn’t departed.
Because of unmonitored facility or
absence of weather reporting
Hold for release - You cannot depart until
released by ATC for departure.
Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) Release Time - Earliest time the aircraft may
Transition between the enroute and a point depart under IFR.
from which an approach to landing can be
Expected Departure Clearance Time (EDCT)-
Transition - Fix that connects enroute flight Runway release time assigned to aircraft for
plan to the beginning of the STAR. traffic management. May depart no earlier than
5 minutes before/ after EDCT time.
STARs require RNAV 1 navigation ability
Abbreviated Departure Clearance - Filed plan
You may state “NO STARs” in the remarks is approved with little or no revision. Cleared
section of a flight plan to avoid STAR “As Filed” plus transponder code.

Departure Procedures (DPs)

AIM 5-2-9
Ensures obstacle clearance, 2 Types of DPs
as long as: 1) Obstacle Departure Procedure (ODP)
The airplane crosses the departure end of Provides only obstacle clearance
the runway at least 35 ft AGL Printed either textually or graphically
The airplane reaches 400 ft AGL before 2) Standard Instrument Departure (SID)
turning Provides obstacle clearance and reduces pilot
and controller workload with published route
The airplane climbs at least 200 ft per NM, Always printed graphically
or as published
Some may also have published lost comms
Suggested to file a DP when departing at night, procedures
marginal VMC or IMC

Feet Per Minute (FPM) = Feet Per Nautical Mile (FPNM) x Groundspeed / 60W

Page 6
 Low Enroute Charts

MRA
Minimum Reception Altitude
Lowest altitude (in MSL) a nav. signal can be
received for the route. If higher than the MEA, the
MRA must be met to determine intersection.
Terminal VOR
The (T) indicates a VOR that has a lower service
volume than Low or High VORs. Terminal VORs
have a service voume of 1,000 - 12,000 feet AGL
GPS MEA up to a radial distance of 25 NM.
GPS Minimum Enroute Altitude
Lowest altitude (in MSL) between fixes with
standard MEA protection, while using approved
GPS navigation

DME Distance From Station

This is indicating that the BRAND intersection is
15 DME from the ARD VOR.

MEA
MOCA Minimum Enroute Altitude
Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude Lowest altitude (in MSL) between radio fixes
Provides obstacle clearance and nav. coverage assuring acceptable nav. signal coverage and
up to 22 NM from the station. obstacle clearance requirements

note:
If both MEA
and MOCA are
present, a pilot
may fly lower than
the MEA but not
lower than the
MOCA, provided
nav. signals are
available. OROCA
Off Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude
If using only VOR, Provides 1,000’ of clearance in non-mountainous
you may NOT areas and 2,000’ of clearance in mountainous
descend below areas
the MEA unless
you are within
22 NM from the
station.

Page 7
 No Voice Transmitted
VOR does not have voice transmission capablity.

Compulsary Reporting Point

Because of marginal radar coverage, pilots are
required to report when passing this position.

note:
Required position
report information:

- Identification
- Position
- Time
- Altitude
- Type of flight plan
(not required if IFR)
- ETA and name of
next reporting point
- Name of next point
on flight plan
MCA - Pertinent remarks
Minimum Crossing Altitude
Lowest altitude (in MSL) a fix must be crossed
when proceeding in the direction of a higher
MEA.

note:
Below the MCA
shows
MTR
Military Training Route
V134 11600W Routes established for the conduct of
low-altitude, high-speed miltary flight training.
This indicates
that when
flying on V134
Westbound, you
cannot cross the
MCA VORTAC any
lower than 11,600
ft MSL

DME Between Stations

This is indicating that the distance between the
two stations connected by airways is 70 DME.

Page 8
Mandatory IFR Reporting
Any unforecasted weather conditions § 91.183
When vacating any previously assigned altitude
or flight level AIM 5-3-3
The time, altitude or flight level upon reaching a Speed Review
holding fix AIM 5-3-3
When leaving any assigned holding fix AIM 5-3-3 Airspeed Indicator Markings
Compulsary Reporting Points § 91.183 White Arc - Flap operating range. Starts
When unable to climb/ descend at a rate of at at Vso and ends at Vfe
least 500 feet per minute AIM 5-3-3 Green Arc - Normal operating range.
When executing a missed approach AIM 5-3-3 Starts at Vs1 and ends at Vno
A change in average true airspeed (at cruise) Yellow Arc - Caution range. Fly only in
when it varies by 5% or 10 knots from the speed smooth air with caution. Realtive to Va
filed in the flight plan AIM 5-3-3 Red Arc - Warning range. Vne.
Loss of navigation AIM 5-3-3 Structural damage possible.
Any information relating to safety of flight § 91.183
V-Speeds
Va - Design maneuvering speed
Types of Altitudes Vs - Stall speed, clean configuration
Indicated Altitude - Uncorrected altitude Vso - Stall speed, landing configuration
indicated on the airspeed indicator when Vs1 - Stall speed, Specific configuration
barometric pressure is set to current pressure Vfe - Max flap extended speed
setting
Vno - Max structural cruise speed
Pressure Altitude - Altitude corrected for Vne - Never exceed speed
non-standard pressure Vx - Best angle of climb
Density Altitude - Pressure altitude corrected Vx - Best rate of climb
for non-standard temperature
True Altitude - Altitude above Mean Sea Level
Max Airspeeds in the United States
(MSL) § 91.117
Absolute Altitude - Altitude above ground level Mach 1.0 - (speed of sound) above
(AGL) 10,000 ft MSL
250 kts - Below 10,000 ft MSL
200 kts - Under Class B airspace, or
Types of Speeds inside a VFR cooridor through Class B
Indicated Airspeed (IAS) - Speed indicated on 200 kts - At or below 2,500 ft within
the airspeed indicator 4 NM of Class C or D airport
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) - Indicated airspeed
corrected for instrument and position errors
Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) - Calibrated
airspeed corrected for compressibility error
True Airspeed (TAS) - Actual speed through
the air. Equivalent Airspeed corrected for
non-standard temperature and pressure
Mach number - The ratio of True Airspeed
relative to the speed of sound
Groundspeed - Actual speed across the ground.
True Airspeed corrected for wind conditions.

Page 9
 IFR Flight Planning
§ 91.173

How to file a flight plan: Canceling a Flight Plan: AIM 5-1-15

Flight Service Station At a towered airport
By phone: 1-800-WX-BRIEF Automatically canceled by ATC upon
Over the radio through an RCO or GCO landing
In person At an untowered airport
Online Pilot must cancel through ATC or FSS by
radio or phone number
www.1800wxbrief.com In Flight
www.fltplan.com Pilot may cancel anytime if not in IMC or
Electronic Flight Bag Class A airspace
Apps like Foreflight etc...
With ATC Flight Plan Elements:
Over the radio or phone Aircraft Identification
“Pop-up Clearance” lets a pilot transition Flight rules and type of flight
from VFR to IFR with or without a Aircraft type
previously filed flight plan. Departure Airport
Subject to ATC workload and not Estimated departure time
guaranteed Cruising speed
Must be at or above the minimum IFR Cruising altitude
altitude Route of flight
Destination Airport
Flight Plan Requirements: § 91.173 Estimated time enroute
May not operate in controlled Alternate airport if required
airspace unless... Fuel endurance
Filed on a flight plan Total number or souls on board
Received appropriate ATC clearance Emergency equipment on board
It is LEGAL to fly in uncontrolled Remarks (Example: NO STAR)
airspace without a flight plan or Any other relevant information
clearance, but you MUST file a flight
plan to enter controlled airspace
Required IFR Filed Altitudes: § 91.177
You must file at least 30 minutes
Filed in even or odd altitudes
prior to estimated departure AIM 5-1-8
(Example: 10,000, 17,000, FL340)
Non-scheduled flights above flight
Even altitudes for West
level 230 should be filed at least 4
(Example: 8,000, 14,000, FL260)
hours before estimated departure
time. AIM 5-1-8 Odd altitudes for West
(Example: 9,000, 15,000, FL270)
May not be less than minimum
Route Planning: altitudes for published segments
AIM recommends filing a preferred Mountainous areas: 2,000 ft above
route if one is available AIM 5-1-8 the highest obstacle within 4 NM
Preferred IFR routes are published in from the planned course
the Chart Supplement Non-mountainous areas: 1,000 ft
above the highest obstacle within 4
NM from the planned course

Page 10
 Know Your Flight Instruments
§ 91.173

Gyroscopic Instruments: Pitot Static Instruments:

Two principles of a gyroscope
1 Rigidity in space Altimeter
2 Precession Operates an aneroid barometer
Shows the height above a given pressure
Attitude Indicator level, based on a standard pressure
Operates on rigidity in space lapse rate of 1,000 ft per 1 inch of
Shows bank and pitch information mercury
Should show correct attitude within 5 Aneroid wafers expand and contract
minutes of engine start with changes in atmospheric pressure
received by the static port
Could be vacuum driven or electrical
May have slight acceleration and Mechanical linkage between the wafers
deceleration errors and the display translate the sensed
Accelerate = Slight pitch up pressure into an altitude indication
Decelerate = Slight pitch down “Pressure Sensitive Altimeter” allows the
pilot to adjust the current pressure with
Heading Indicator the current altimeter setting
Operates on rigidity in space Adjusted pressure is shown through the
Only reflects changes in heading. Must “Kollsman Window” in either milibars (mb)
be calibrated with magnetic compass or inches of mercury (Hg)
May be “slaved” with a magnetic Above 18,000 ft MSL - the altimeter must
heading source, such as a flux gate, and be set to 29.92” Hg and altitudes are
automatically sync to present heading refered to as “flight levels”
Could be vacuum driven or electrical Regularly reset the altimiter to a station
within 100 NM of the aircrafts position.
Turn Coordinator
Operates on precession
Shows rate of turn and rate of roll
Helpful Tip
“High to low - Watch out below!”
Magnetic Compass Errors When flying from high pressure to low
“DV MONA” pressure areas, if altimeter setting is not
updated, indicated altitude will show higher
D - Deviation
than actual altitude.
V - Variation
M - Magnetic Dip Hot to cold areas result in the same error.
O - Oscillation
N - North/ South turn errors “UNOS”
Undershoot North/ Overshoot South Continued:
A - Acceleration errors “ANDS”
Accelerate North/ Decelerate South

Page 11
 Pitot Static Instruments (continued):

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) Airspeed Indicator

Indicates rate-of-climb in “feet per minute” Measures the difference between ram air
(fpm) pressure from the pitot tube and ambient
Has a “Calibrated Leak” with roughly a pressure from the static port, resulting in
5-9 second lag for correct indication “dynamic pressure” and corresponds to
Operates by responding to static airspeed
pressure change over time Dynamic Pressure = Ram Air Pressure - Static Pressure
As the diaphragm expands or contracts, A diaphragm in the instrument receives
a mechanical linkage moves the pointer ram air pressure from the pitot tube. The
needle up or down to display the current outside of the diaphragm is sealed and
rate of climb connected to the static port. A mechanical
Newer VSIs, Instantaneous VSI (IVSI), linkage converts the expansion and
have a vertical accelerometer which contraction of the diaphragm to airspeed
eliminates the lag shown on the instrument face

Pitot Static System Errors

Airspeed Vertical Speed

Indicator Altimeter Indicator

1. Pitot Tube blocked

Static Port open Reads 0 kts Functions Normally Functions Normally

2. Pitot Tube & Drain

Hole blocked,
Static Port open Acts as an altimeter Functions Normally Functions Normally

3. Static Port blocked Reads low in a climb

Pitot Tube open Reads high in a descent Stuck in place Reads 0 fpm

4. Using alternate Momentarily shows

cockpit Static Source Reads high Reads high a climb

Helpful Tip:
The most common reason for a Pitot Tube or Static Port blockage is icing,
so make sure to turn on your Pitot Heat or any other anti-icing measure
before flying into IMC.

Page 12
 Electronic Flight Instruments:
Attitude Heading Reference Systems (AHRS) Air Data Computers (ADC)
Operate on either solid state technologies or laser Replaces traditional Pitot-Static
gyros and flux valves instruments
Provide more accurate and reliable attitude and Still uses traditional Pitot Tube,
heading data than traditional gyros Static Port, & Temperature Probes
Found in “Glass Panel” instrumentations Distills information through computer(s)
and calculates airspeed, true airspeed,
Flight Management Systems (FMS) vertical speed, and altitude
Receives information from various sensors
Provides guidance to the autopilot and flight director
Flight Director (FD)
Continually monitors most appropriate navigation
Computes appropriate flight path for the
source for accurate aircraft position
set guidance parameters
Assists with turns, heading, course, pitch,
Primary Flight Display (PFD) and vertical speed
Displays information such as attitude, altitude,
airspeed, VSI, rate of turn, slip-skid information and
heading Helpful Tip:
It’s important to remember that even
though “Glass Panel” instrumentation
Multi-Function Display (MFD)
may seem more sophisticated, it
Displays information such as moving maps,
operates on all of the same principles
weather, aircraft systems, and traffic
and raw data as “Traditional”
May also act as a reversionary panel if the PFD fails instruments.
at any point

Instrument Landing system (ILS)

VHF Localizer
Provides horizontal guidance
Middle Marker
Indicates approximate decision height

Outer Marker
Indicates Final Approach Fix

UHF Glide Slope Transmitter

Provides vertical guidance

Page 13
Localizer: AIM 1-1-9
Area Navigation (RNAV)
108.1 - 111.95 MHz with odd tenths only.
90 and 150 Hz signals are sent over VHF
frequency and used by the receiver to Allows navigation on any desired path
interpret the plane’s lateral position without the need to overfly ground-based
facilities
Between 3 - 6 degrees left and right
calibrated to approximately 700 ft. wide at
Types:
the threshold
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
4 times more sensitive than a VOR
VOR/DME RNAV
DME/DME RNAV
Glide Slope: AIM 1-1-9 Inertial Reference Unit / System (IRU/ IRS)
329.3 - 335 MHz (UHF)
Automatically tuned with the localizer RNAV VNAV
Vertical position interpreted by the intensity RNAV with Vertical Guidance
of 90 - 150 Hz signals carried over the UHF
frequency BARO-VNAV
1.4 degrees in width RNAV system that uses the barometric
(full deflection is 0.7 degrees either direction) pressure to copute vertical guidance
Range of around 10 NM
Typically 3 degree slope Published RNAV routes include
“Q Routes” (FL180 - FL450) and
“T Routes” (1,200 ft AGL - 18,000 ft MSL)
Marker Beacons:
Provide range information over points These are designated as “RNAV 1” unless
Transmit at 75 MHz otherwise charted.
Outer Marker: 4-7 miles out. Indicates
position for glide slope intercept. Magnetic Reference Bearing (MRB) - The
Shows as BLUE published bearing between two waypoints on a
charted RNAV route.
Middle Marker: Approximately 3,500 ft. from
the runway.
Shows as AMBER
Indicates where Glide Slope meets
Decision Height
Usually 200 ft above touchdown
zone elevation
Inner Marker: Indicates point where the
Glide Slope meets the Decision Height on a
CAT II ILS approach
Shows as WHITE
Back Course Marker: Indicates Final
Approach Fix on a selected Back Course
approach
Shows as WHITE

Page 14
 Required Navigation Performance (RNP)

A statement of navigation equipment and

service performance
RNAV with navigation monitoring and alerting
Global Positioning System (GPS) All RNAV approaches are RNP approaches
A Global Navigation Satellite System Most are titled “RNAV (GPS)”
(GNSS) operated by the United States

Minimum of 24 satellites
At least 5 satellites are in view at any given
location
If the approach is titled “RNAV (RNP)”
3+ satellites are required for 2D positioning These are “Authorization Required”
4+ satellites are required for 3D positioning approaches
Inertial Reference Unit / System (IRU/ IRS) These require special FAA approval
for the crew, aircraft, and operation
Other countries all GPS approaches
RAIM have RNP in the title, even
“Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring” though they don’t require special
Requires a minimum of 5 satellites authorization
- or -
4 satellites + an altimeter input
Frequently monitor RAIM prediction if
available on your receiver
RNP approach minimums and equipment:
WAAS GLS DA minimums using GBAS
“Wide Area Augmentation System” (formerly LAAS)
Ground stations (Wide-area Reference LP MDA or LPV DA minimums require
Stations and Wide-area Master Stations) RNP achieved by WAAS
measure GPS errors and produce LNAV/ VNAV DA achieved by
correction signals. These corrections VNAV-approved WAAS, or BARO-VNAV
are broadcasted back to the satellite systems
segment from which they are bounced LNAV MDA achieved by a basic,
back to aircraft GPS WAAS receivers to unaugmented IFR-approved GPS
improve accuracy, integrity, and availability
monitoring for GPS navigation.
Facilitates APV approaches
LPV
LNAV/ VNAV
LP Approaches

Page 15
 Primary & Supporting Instruments
Theory that divides all cockpit instruments into Bank Instruments, Pitch Instruments,
and Power Instruments.

Pitch Bank Power

Attitude Indicator Attitude Indicator Airspeed Indicator
Altimeter Heading Indicator Tachometer
Airspeed Indicator Magnetic Compass Manifold Pressure
VSI Turn Coordinator Gauge

Vertical
Airspeed Attitude Turn Heading Tachometer
Altimeter Speed
Indicator Indicator Coordinator Indicator or MP
Indicator
Primary Supporting Pitch Primary Supporting Primary Supporting Supporting
Straight and Level
Power and Bank Pitch Bank Bank Pitch Power

Straight and Level Supporting Supporting Pitch Primary Supporting Primary Supporting Primary
(with speed change) Power and Bank Pitch Bank Bank Pitch Power

Starting a Climb Supporting Primary Pitch Supporting Supporting Primary Supporting Primary
or Descent Pitch Supporting Bank Pitch Bank Bank Pitch Power

Climbs and Descents Primary Supporting Pitch Supporting Supporting Primary Supporting Primary
(Constant Speed) Pitch Supporting Bank Pitch Bank Bank Pitch Power

Climbs and Descents Supporting Supporting Pitch Supporting Supporting Primary Primary Primary
(Constant Rate) Pitch Supporting Bank Pitch Bank Bank Pitch Power

Primary Primary Bank Primary Supporting Supporting Supporting Supporting

Starting a Turn
Power Supporting Pitch Pitch Bank Bank Pitch Power

Primary Supporting Pitch Primary Primary Supporting Supporting Supporting

Turns
Power Supporting Bank Pitch Bank Bank Pitch Power

Holding Proceedures
AIM 5-3-8
ATC may assign a holding instruction for a number of reasons. Most commonly a
hold is associated with traffic spacing, weather, or airport closures

Clearance Items Clearance Items

(Non-Published) (Published)

Direction of hold from the fix Holding Fix

(Example: N, S, E, NE etc...) Direction of turns
Holding Fix (right turns are standard)
Radial, course, airway, or route EFC “Expected Further Clearance Time”
(on which to hold)
Leg length in miles or minutes
Direction of turns
(right turns are standard)
EFC “Expected Further Clearance Time”

Page 16
 Holding Entries
AIM 5-3-8

Direct Entry
Upon crossing the fix, turn to follow
the holding pattern.
Parallel Entry
Upon crossing the fix, turn to a Direct Entry

heading parallel to the holding 180

course outbound for 1 minute. Then

turn into the hold pattern to intercept
the inbound course.
Teardrop Entry
Upon crossing the fix, turn outbound
to a heading 30 degrees into the
pattern. Fly for 1 minute, then turn
in the direction of the hold turns to
intercept the inbound course.

Helpful Tip
Altitude (MSL) Max Airspeed (kts)
There are speed
6,000’ or below 200 kts Remember the “5 Ts” limits, but you are
T - Turn always allowed to go
6,001’ - 14,000’ 230 kts slower. There is no
T - Time
14,001 and above 265 kts T - Twist reason to waste fuel
T - Throttle when holding in place.
May be restricted to 175 kts on approach T - Talk Consider slowing
down, conserving fuel,
Report when entering the hold and lightening the
workload.
Callsign
Position
Altitude
Time

Lost Communication Procedures

§ 91.185

The most important part of lost communication proceedures is to remain as

predictable as possible to ATC.
Altitude Route
Fly the highest of: “MEA” Select course in this order: “AVEF”

M - Minimum altitude prescribed for IFR A - Assigned route

E - Expected V - Vectored (fly to published airway/fix on plan)
A - Assigned (last assigned by ATC) E - Expected
F - Filed route

Page 17
 Leaving the Clearance Limit
§ 91.185

Is the clearance limit a fix from which an

approach begins?

NO YES

At EFC or clearance limit, proceed Start descent and approach

to fix from which an approach as close as possible to the
begins and start the approach EFC or ETA

Approach Procedures

Teardrop Entry
Procedure Turns (PTs)
§ 91.175, AIM 5-4-9

A maneuver that enables:

A course reversal
A descent from the IAF
Inbound course interception
Max Speed - 200 kts.
Remain within the charted distance
Complies with published altitudes
and obstacle clearances
The shape of the turn is mandatory
if a teardrop or holding-in-lieu of a If NO published IF - Intermediate segment
PT is published. Otherwise only the begins 10 miles prior to the final approach fix.
direction of the turn is required. NAV facility located at the airport - Final
approach is started at the completion of the
teardrop turn.

PT Not Authorized when

Straight-in approach clearance

Holding in lieu of procedure turn
DME Arc
Radar vectors to final
“NO PT” published on the chart
Timed approach from a hold fix
Teardrop course reversal

Page 18
 Types of Approaches

Non-Precision Precision

VOR ILS - Instrument Landing System

NDB MLS - Microwave Landing System
RNAV/ RNP to LNAV or LP PAR - Precision Approach Radar
LOC - Localizer GLS - GBAS Landing System
LDA - Localizer-type Directional Aid. TLS - Transponder Landing System
Same as a LOC, but not lined up with runway
SDF - Simplified Directional Facility
Similar to LOC with 6 - 12 degree width.
May or may not be aligned with the runway
ASR - Approach Surveillance Radar

When to descend below MDA/ DA

§ 91.175

1. The aircraft is continuously in a position from which a descent to a landing on the intended
runway can be made at a normal rate of descent using normal maneuvers
2. The flight visibility is not less than the visibility prescribed in the standard instrument
approach being used.
3. At least one of the following visual references for the intended runway is distinctly visible and
identifiable to the pilot: (Not including CAT II & III approaches)
i. The approach light system, except that the pilot may not descend below 100 feet
above the touchdown zone elevation using the approach lights as a reference
unless the red terminating bars or the red side row bars are also distinctly visible
and identifiable.
ii. The threshold
iii. The threshold markings
iv. The threshold lights
v. The runway end identifier lights
vi. The visual glideslope indicator
vii. The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings
viii.The touchdown zone lights
ix. The runway or runway markings
x. The runway lights

Page 19
 Visual Descent Point (VDP)
AIM 5-4-5

A defined point on the final approach course of a non-precision straight-in approach procedure
from which normal descent from the MDA to the runway touchdown point may begin, provided
adequate visual reference is established.
Identified as a “V” symbol on the descent profile.
If not equipped to identify the VDP, fly the approach as if no VDP was published
Do not descend below the MDA prior to reaching the VDP

Visual Descent Angle (VDA)

AIM 5-4-5

A computed glide path from the FAF to the runway’s TCH published for
non-precision approaches
FAA policy is to publish a VDA/ TCH on all non-precision approaches except those published
in conjunction with vertically guided minimums (Example: ILS or LOC RWY) or non FAF
procedures without a stepdown fix (Example: on-airport VOR or NDB). A VDA does not
guarantee obstacle protection below the MDA in the visual segment. The presence of a VDA
does not change any non-precision approach requirements.
VDAs are advisory only. Pilots must still comply with all published altitudes.

Page 20
 Approach Lighting Systems (ALS)
AIM 2-1-1

Approach lighting and visual glid slope systems are indicated on the airport sketch by an identifier.

A dot “ “ portrayed with approach lighting letter identifier indicates a sequence of flashing lights
(F) installed with the approach lighting system “Rabbit Trail” . Negative symbology indicates
Pilot Controlled Lighting (PCL).

500’
GREEN

1000’
RED

WHITE

2400’/3000’

Sequenced Flashing Lights

(High Intensity)
WHITE

RED
GREEN
1000’
2400’/3000’

Sequenced Flashing Lights

(High Intensity)

WHITE

Page 21
 WHITE GREEN

1000’
2400’/3000’
Sequenced Flashing Lights
(High Intensity)

Simplified Short
Approach Lighting System

GREEN
1000’
1400’

Medium Intensity (MALS and

Sequenced Flashing Lights
MALSF) or simplified short WHITE (for MALSF/ SSALF only)
400’

(SSALS and SSALF)

Approach Lighting Systems

WHITE GREEN
1000’
2400’/3000’

Sequenced Flashing Lights

(High Intensity)

Medium Intensity
Approach Lighting System Same as SSALR
(with Runway Alignment
Indicator Lights)

Page 22
 Terms and Defintions
AATD Advanced Aviation Training Device DH Decision Height
AAWU Alaskan Aviation Weather Unit DME Distance Measuring Equipment
AC Advisory Circular DP Departure Procedure
ACS Airman Certification Standards Expected Departure Clearance
EDCT
Time
AD Airworthiness Directive
EFB Electronic Flight Bag
ADC Air Data Computer
ELT Emergency Locator Transmitter
ADM Aeronautical Decision Making
ETA Estimated Time of Arrival
Automatic Dependent Surveillance
ADS-B
Broadcast FAA Federal Aviation Administration
AFM Airplane Flight Manual FAF Final Approach Fix
AGL Above Ground Level Federal Communications
FCC
Attitude Heading Reference Commission
AHRS
System FFS Full Flight Simulator
AI Attitude Indicator Fight Information
FIS-B
Services-Broadcast
AIM Aeronautical Information Manual
FL Flight Level
ALS Approach Light System
FPM Feet Per Minute
Approach Light System with
ALSF
Sequence Flashing Lights FPNM Feet Per Nautical Mile
APV Approach with Vertical Guidance FSS Flight Service Station
Air Route Traffic Control Center FTD Flight Training Device
ARTCC
(“Center”) Ground Based Augmentation
GBAS
ASI Airspeed Indicator System
Automated Surface Observation GP Glide Path
ASOS
System HFO Weather Forecast Office Honolulu
ASR Approach Surveillance Radar
HI Heading Indicator
ATC Air Traffic Control
IAF Initial Approach Fix
ATD Aviation Training Device International Civil Aviation
ICAO
Automatic Terminal Information Organization
ATIS
System IF Intermediate Fix
AWC Aviation Weather Center
IFR Instrument Flight Rules
Automated Weather Observation
AWOS ILS Instrument Landing System
System
IM Inner Marker
BATD Basic Aviation Training Device
Instrument Meteorological
DA Decision Altitude IMC
Conditions

From the library of www.GroundSchool.com

Page 23
Copyright 2021, Atlanta Flight, Inc.
IPC Instrument Proficiency Check MVFR Marginal VFR
KTAS Knots True Airspeed NDB Non-Directional Beacon
Kts Knots. NM / hour NHC National Hurricane Center
LAAS Local Area Augmentation System NMC National Meteorological Center
LDA Localizer Type Direction Aid. NOTAM Notice to Airmen
LIFR Low IFR Omni-Directional Approach
ODALS
Lighting System
LNAV Lateral Navigation
ODP Obstacle Departure Procedure
LOC Localizer
OM Outer Marker
Localizer Performance
LP
RNAV/ RNP Approach OPC Ocean Predication Marker
Localizer Precision with Vertical PAPI Precision Approach Path Indicator
LPV
Guidance approach
PAR Precision Approach Radar
MAA Maximum Authorized Altitude
PFD Primary Flight Display
Medium Intensity Approach
PIC Pilot-in-Command
MALSR Lighting System with Runway
Alignment Indicator Lights PIREP Pilot Report
Receiver Autonomous Integrity
MAP Missed Approach Point RAIM
Monitoring
MCA Minimum Crossing Altitude REIL Runway End Identifier Lights
MDA Minimum Descent Altitude RNAV Area Navigation
MDH Minimum Descent Height RVR Runway Visual Range
MEA Minimum Enroute Altitude Reduced Vertical Separation
RVSM
MEL Minimum Equipment List Minimum
MFD Multi Function Display Satelite-based Augmentation
SBAS
System (e.g., WAAS)
MLS Microwave Landing System
SDF Simplified Dierectional Facility
MM Middle Marker
SID Standard Instrument Departure
Minimum Obstruction Clearance
MOCA STAR Standard Terminal Arrival
Altitude
VOR Minimum Operational STC Supplemental Type Certificate
MON
Network program SVFR Special VFR
Minimum Off Route Altitude TCH Threshold Crossing Height
MORA
(Jeppesen charts)
TDZL Touchdown Zone Lights
MRA Minimum Reception Altitude
Telephone Information Briefing
Mean Sea Level TIBS
MSL Service

Page 24
TLS Transponder Landing System
TOC Top Of Climb
TOD Top Of Descent
TWEB Transcribed Weather Broadcast
UAT Universal Access Transceiver
VASI Visual Approach Slope Indicator
VFR Visual Flight Rules
VIP Video Integrator Processor
VMC Visual Meteorological Conditions
VNAV Vertical Navigation
VOR VHF Omnidirectional Range
VHF Omnidirectional Range
VORTAC Tactical Air Navigation
(VOR + TACAN)

VS Vertical Speed
VSI Vertical Speed Indicator
WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System
WPC Weather Prediction Center
WX Weather

Page 25