SALTS

Table of Contents
Organizer 📌
Types of Salts.................................................................................................... - 2 -
Solubility of Salts and Bases in Water.................................................................- 2 -
Methods of Preparing Salts.................................................................................- 4 -
Preparation of Soluble salts..........................................................................- 4 -
Preparation of insoluble salts........................................................................- 8 -
Effects of exposing salts to the
atmosphere........................................................................................................ - 10 -
Action of heat on salts......................................................................................- 10 -
Action of Heat on Carbonates......................................................................- 10 -
Action of Heat on Nitrates...........................................................................- 11 -
Effect of heat on sulphates.........................................................................- 12 -
Uses of Salts.................................................................................................... - 13 -
Review Exercises..................................................................................- 14 -

Chapter objectives
By the end of this chapter, the
learner should be able to:
(a) Define a salt.
(b)State and describe the types of
salts.
(c) Identify soluble and insoluble
salts.
(d)State the methods of preparing
soluble and insoluble salts.
(e) Define the terms: saturated
solution, crystallisation,
neutralisation and precipitation.
(f) Write ionic equations for the preparation of insoluble salts.
(g)State the effect of heat on salts.
(h)State the uses of some salts.

(20 Lessons)
2 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

SALTS

A salt is a substance that is formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are
wholly or partially replaced by a positive ion.

Types of Salts
There are four types of salts namely; normal salts, acid salts, basic salts and double
salts.
Normal salts
A normal salt is a salt that does not contain any replaceable hydrogen atom.
Some examples of normal salts are sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium sulphate
(K2SO4) sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and calcium nitrate (Ca(NO 3)2). These salts are
neutral in aqueous state.
Acid salts
Acid salts are salts that contain a replaceable hydrogen atom.
Some examples are sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO 3), potassium hydrogen
sulphate (KHSO4) and sodium dihydrogen phosphate (NaH 2PO4). They have acidic
properties due to the presence of replaceable hydrogen.
Basic salts
Basic salts are salts that contain hydroxyl (OH–) ions.
It is the presence of hydroxyl ions in these salts that is responsible for the basic
properties. Examples are basic magnesium chloride (Mg(OH)Cl, basic lead (II)
carbonate (Pb(OH)2.PbCO3), basic zinc chloride (Zn(OH)Cl) and basic copper (II)
carbonate (CuCO3).Cu(OH)2).
Double salts
Double salts are salts in which there are two different anions or cations.
Examples are hydrated potassium aluminium sulphate (KAl(SO 4)2.12H2O) hydrated
ammonium iron (II) sulphate (Fe(NH4)(SO4).6(H2O) and trona (Na2CO3. NaHCO3.2H2O).

Solubility of Salts and Bases in Water

Solubility of Salts in Water

• All potassium, sodium and ammonium salts are soluble in water.
• All nitrates are soluble.
• All sulphates are soluble except those of barium and lead. Calcium sulphate is
slightly soluble.
 SALTS 3
• All chlorides are soluble except lead (II) chloride and silver chloride. Lead (II)
chloride is insoluble in cold water but soluble when hot.
• All carbonates are insoluble except those of Group I metals and ammonium.
Carbonates of aluminium and iron do not exist.

SALTS SOLUBILITY IN WATER

Carbonat All are insoluble except potassium sodium and ammonium
es carbonate.
Chloride All are soluble except silver and lead (II) chloride.
s Lead (II) chloride is soluble in hot water.
Nitrates All are soluble
Sulphate All are soluble except barium sulphate and lead(II) sulphate.
s Calcium sulphate is slightly soluble.
All potassium, sodium and ammonium salts are soluble in water

Solubility of Bases in Water

(i) Oxides
The oxides of potassium and sodium are soluble in water while those of
calcium and magnesium are slightly soluble.
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) →
2NaOH (aq)

K2O(s) + H2O(l) →
2KOH (aq)

CaO(s) + H2O(l) →
Ca(OH)2 (aq)

MgO(s) + H2O(l) →
Mg(OH)2 (aq).

The solutions formed are alkaline and turns red litmus paper blue.
The oxides of zinc, aluminium, lead, iron and copper are insoluble in
water.
Ammonium oxide does not exist.
(ii) Hydroxides
Potassium and sodium hydroxides are soluble in water while the
hydroxides of calcium and magnesium are slightly soluble. The resulting
solutions are alkaline and turn red litmus blue.
The hydroxides of zinc, aluminium, iron, lead and copper are insoluble
in water.
(iii) Ammonia is a base and dissolves in water to form aqueous ammonia.

Crystallization
Crystallisation is the process of obtaining crystals of a salt from a saturated
solution.
4 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Crystals are solid particles with a regular shape. They are formed when a hot
saturated solution cools. A saturated solution is one that cannot dissolve any
more solute at a given temperature.
During crystallization;
 Evaporation of the saturated solution is not done to dryness so that larger
crystals may form. Slow cooling allows the salt to form large crystals. Otherwise
the crystals formed would be small.
 Crystals of hydrated salts e.g copper (II) sulphate are not dried by heating
because heating would drive out water of crystallisation to leave behind a
powder, anhydrous copper (II) sulphate.

Water of crystallisation is the fixed amount of water incorporated within

the crystal structure of a salt. Water of crystallisation is important in the
formation of crystals for hydrated salts.

Hydrated salts are salts which contain water of crystallization. Examples of

hydrated salts include; sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na 2CO3.10H2O), Iron (II)
sulphate heptahydrate (FeSO4.7H2O).

For example, to obtain crystals of copper (II) sulphate obtained from a

saturated solution of copper (II) sulphate, the following procedure is used:

(i) Decant a portion of the saturated

solution into an evaporating dish. Place
the evaporating dish on a water bath
and heat.
(ii) Evaporate the solution until it is about to
form crystals. Continue heating until
crystals are seen on a glass rod when
the rod is dipped in the solution. Allow the solution to cool slowly to form
crystals. Observe the crystals with a hand lens.
(iii) To obtain larger crystals, cover the evaporating dish with a perforated paper.
Leave the set-up undisturbed and observe after 12 hours. Filter off the crystals
and dry them between filter papers.

Methods of Preparing Salts

The method chosen for preparation a specific salt may depend on the solubility of the
salt in water.
Preparation of Soluble salts
Soluble salts can be prepared in many ways.
Reaction of an acid and a metal.
The reaction of an acid and a metal is suitable for the preparation of soluble salts
such as zinc sulphate, magnesium nitrate, zinc chloride and calcium chloride. The
metals are reacted with suitable acids.
Procedure:
 SALTS 5
 A small volume, say 20cm 3 of a dilute acid is measured and transferred into a
beaker. The metal powder or granules are then added to the acid a little at a
time as the solution is being stirred until the metal powder or granules is in excess
such that there is no more effervescence to ensure that all the acid has
reacted. A salt is formed and the effervescence is due to the production of
hydrogen gas.

Metal + Dilute acid →

Salt + Hydrogen gas

 The resulting solution is filtered to remove the excess metal and evaporated to
saturation. The saturated salt solution is then allowed to cool for salt crystals to
form.

NB: To find out if the saturation point of a solution has been reached, a glass
rod is dipped into the solution and held up in air to cool. If cystals form on the
tip of the rod, the solution is ready to form crystals and heating can be stopped.

The procedure below can be used to prepare dry crystals of zinc (II)
sulphate.

Measure about 20 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid (VI) acid and transfer it into a beaker.
Add zinc powder a little at a time as you stir with a glass rod. Continue adding zinc
powder until the zinc is in excess and effervescence stops, meaning that all the acid
has reacted.

Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) →
ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Filter the solution to remove excess zinc and evaporate the filtrate to saturation. Allow
the saturated solution to cool and evaporate slowly. Filter and dry the crystals
between filter papers to obtain dry crystals of zinc sulphate.
Other salts that can be prepared this way are:
(i) Magnesium nitrate from the reaction between magnesium metal and
nitric acid.
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) →
Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2 (g)

(ii) Zinc chloride by reacting zinc with dilute hydrochloric acid.

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

(iii) Calcium chloride from the reaction of calcium metal with dilute
hydrochloric acid.
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
6 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Neutralization reactions.
A Neutralisation reaction is a reaction in which only a salt and water is formed.
The reactions between both soluble and insoluble bases with dilute acids are
examples of neutralization reactions.
Reaction of acids on insoluble bases
The reaction of acids on insoluble bases is ideal for preparation of soluble salts
such as copper (II) sulphate. Other salts that can be prepared in a similar way are lead
(II) nitrate, magnesium sulphate and calcium chloride.
Procedure
 A small volume, say 20cm3 of a dilute acid is measured and transferred into a glass
beaker and warmed. The base is then added to the acid a little at a time using a
spatula as the solution is being stirred until the base is in excess such that it can
no longer dissolve in the acid to ensure that all the acid has reacted.
Warming the acid speeds up the reaction.
Acid + Base →
Salt + Water
 The resulting mixture is filtered to remove the excess base and evaporated to
saturation. The saturated salt solution is then allowed to cool for salt crystals to
form. The crystals are finally dried between filter papers.
The procedure below can be used to prepare copper (II) sulphate.
Measure about 20 cm3 of dilute sulphuric (VI) acid and pour it into a glass beaker.
Warm the acid in the beaker. Using a spatula, add copper (II) oxide to the warm acid a
little at a time while stirring with a glass rod until no more oxide can dissolve.

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) →
CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Filter the mixture to obtain the excess copper(II) oxide as the residue and collect the
filtrate copper(II) sulphate. Transfer the filtrate to the evaporating basin. Evaporate
the filtrate over a water bath to saturation. Stop heating and allow the saturated
solution to cool to form crystals of copper(II) sulphate. Dry the crystals between filter
papers.

Other salts that can be prepared this way are:

(i) Lead nitrate from lead (II) oxide and dilute nitric (V) acid
PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) →
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)

(ii) Magnesium sulphate from magnesium oxide and dilute sulphuric (VI)
acid.
MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) →
MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

(iii) Calcium chloride from calcium oxide and dilute hydrochloric acid.
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) →CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

Reaction of acids on soluble bases

The action of acids on soluble bases is another example of a neutralization reaction
and is used to prepare some soluble salts. Sodium chloride, potassium nitrate,
 SALTS 7
ammonium chloride, ammonium sulphate and sodium sulphate are prepared by this
method.
Procedure
A solution of a suitable dilute acid is added slowly to a known volume, say 25cm3 of
an appropriate alkali in which an indicator such as phenolphthalein or methyl orange
has been added to. Once the indicator is about to change colour, the acid is added
dropwise until a permanent colour is obtained. This is the end point. The volume of
the acid used is recorded. The procedure is then repeated without the indicator to
avoid contaminating the salt. The volume of the acid used in the first reaction is
added to the alkali and then the pH of the resultant solution is tested with universal
indicator.

Acid + Alkali →
Salt + Water

A sample of the solution is then evaporated to crystallization and the crystals are
allowed to cool.
The procedure below can be used to prepare sodium chloride.
Fill a burette with dilute hydrochloric acid. Measure 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide
and pour it into a beaker. Add 2–3 drops of phenolphthalein into the sodium
hydroxide. Run the hydrochloric acid slowly into the beaker containing sodium
hydroxide until the pink colour just disappears. Test the resultant solution with
universal indicator paper. Record the volume of hydrochloric acid used. Discard the
contents of the beaker and rinse it then repeat the procedure, without the indicator,
adding the same volume of HCl to the alkali as in the first experiment. Sodium
chloride and water are formed from the reaction that takes place.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) →
NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Pour about 25 cm3 of the resultant solution into a clean evaporating basin, evaporate
the solution until it is saturated. Allow the saturated solution to cool for crystals to
form.

Other salts that can be prepared this way are:

(i) Potassium nitrate from the reaction of potassium hydroxide with dilute
nitric(V) acid.

KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) →
KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

(ii) Ammonium chloride from ammonium hydroxide and dilute hydrochloric acid

NH4OH (aq) + HCl(aq) →

NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l)

(iii) Sodium sulphate from sodium hydroxide and dilute sulphuric (VI) acid.

2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) →
Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Reaction of acids with carbonates

The reaction of acids with carbonates is another suitable method for preparing
soluble salts such as lead nitrate, calcium chloride, sodium nitrate, zinc nitrate and
ammonium sulphate by reacting suitable acids with their corresponding carbonates.
8 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
The procedure
A known volume of a dilute acid is warmed and then the carbonate is added to the
acid a little at a time until effervescence stops. The unreacted carbonate is then
filtered off and the filtrate is evaporated to saturation and left to form crystals.

Acid + Carbonate →
Salt + Carbon(IV) oxide + Water

The procedure below can be used to prepare lead nitrate.

Measure about 25 cm3 of dilute nitric (V) acid and pour it into a glass beaker. Warm
the acid in the beaker gently. Add lead (II) carbonate to the warm acid, a little at a
time and stir. Continue adding the carbonate while stirring until effervescence stops.
Lead nitrate, carbon(IV) oxide and water is formed.

PbCO3(a) + 2HNO3(aq) →
Pb(NO3)2 + CO2(g) + H2O (l)

Stop warming and filter off the unreacted carbonate. Evaporate the filtrate to
saturation and allow it to form crystals of lead nitrate.

Other salts can be prepared this way, for example:

(i) Zinc nitrate: Prepared by reacting zinc carbonate with dilute nitric (IV) acid

ZnCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) →
Zn(NO3)2 (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

(ii) Calcium chloride: Prepared by reacting calcium carbonate with dilute

hydrochloric acid.

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

(iii) Ammonium sulphate: Prepared by reacting ammonium carbonate with dilute

sulphuric (VI)acid

(NH4)2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) →
(NH4)2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

(iv) Sodium nitrate from the reaction of sodium carbonate with dilute nitric (IV)
acid
Na2CO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) →
2NaNO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Preparation of salts by Direct Combination of Elements

Salts can also be prepared by reacting a metal with a non-metal. This method is called
direct synthesis and is suitable for preparing both soluble and insoluble salts.
The procedure:
Generally, the two substances are mixed and heated strongly in a crucible. If the non-
metal used is gaseous, a combustion tube is used. The gas is passed over the heated
solid for some time.

For example, iron (II) sulphide can be prepared by reacting iron with sulphur
using the procedure below:
 SALTS 9
Put a spatulaful of iron filling in a crucible. To the same crucible add a spatulaful of
sulphur. Mix them well. Heat the mixture strongly. When the reaction is complete,
allow the products to cool.

When the mixture of sulphur and iron fillings is strongly heated, it glows red even
when the source of heat is removed. This shows that the reaction between iron and
sulphur produces heat.

Iron + Sulphur →
Iron (II) sulphide

Fe (s) + S(s) →
FeS(s)

Other salts that can be prepared by this method are sodium chloride and iron (III)
chloride.

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) →
2NaCl(s)

2Fe(s) + 3 Cl2(g) →
2FeCl3(s)

Preparation of insoluble salts

Precipitation reactions are suitable for preparing insoluble salts.
 Reactions in which solids are formed from aqueous solutions are called
precipitation reactions. The solids formed are referred to as precipitates.
In a precipitation reaction, the two reactants must be soluble salts and one of
the products must be insoluble.
In these reactions, the metal ions of the salts simply exchange their anions. This
type of reaction is called double decomposition.
 In precipitation reactions, some ions undergo changes in their physical state ie
from solid to aqueous or aqueous to solid. However, the state of other ions remains
unchanged.
The ions that remain unchanged during a chemical reaction are called
spectator ions and are omitted when writing ionic equations.
The equation obtained by writing only those ions that undergo change
during a chemical reaction is called an ionic equation.
For example, the reaction between barium nitrate and zinc sulphate leads to
the formation of the insoluble salt, barium sulphate. The equations for the
reactions are:

Barium nitrate + Zinc sulphate →

Barium sulphate + Zinc nitrate

Ba(NO3)2(aq) + ZnSO4(aq) →
BaSO4(s) + Zn(NO3)2(aq)

When the equation is broken down into all the ions that take part, the
following equation is obtained. Note that ions only exist in aqueous
state.
Ba2+(aq) + 2NO3– (aq) + Zn2+(aq) +SO2–4(aq)→ BaSO4(s) + Zn2+(aq) + 2NO3–
(aq)
10PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Only the Ba2+ and SO42- ions undergo a change is state during the reaction.
The rest of the ions are spectator ions. Thus, the ionic equation is:
Ba2+(aq) + SO2–4 (aq) →
BaSO4(s)

The procedure
Two suitable salts are used to prepare an insoluble salt. A given volume of the salt
containing the cation of the expected salt is placed in a beaker. The other salt is then
added in excess. The solution is stirred and the solid is left to settle at the bottom. The
is finally decanted or filtered off and the solid is washed with distilled water, then the
water is filtered off and the solid dried between filter papers. For more solid to be
formed, a higher concentration of the two soluble salts should be used.
Example: Describe a procedure that can be used to prepare lead sulphate.
Put 10 cm3 of lead (II) nitrate in a beaker. To the same beaker, add excess magnesium
sulphate solution. Stir the solution using a glass rod. Let the solid settle then decant
the liquid. Wash the solid with distilled water. Filter and dry the solid between filter
papers.

The chemistry
When lead (II) nitrate and magnesium sulphate solutions are mixed, a white solid is
formed. When the two salt solutions react, lead sulphate and magnesium nitrate salts
are formed.
Lead (II) nitrate + Magnesium sulphate →
Lead (II) sulphate + Magnesium
nitrate

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + MgSO4(aq) →
PbSO4(s) + Mg(NO3)2(aq)

Ionic equation: Pb2+(aq) + SO2–4(aq) →

PbSO4(s)

In this reaction, the metal ions of the salts simply exchange their anions. Lead
sulphate is formed as a white solid (precipitate).

Many insoluble salts are prepared this way.

Lead iodide, silver chloride and lead carbonate can be prepared the
following precipitation reactions.

1. Lead nitrate + Potassium iodide →

Lead iodide + Potassium nitrate.

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) →
PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

Pb2+(aq) + 2NO–3(aq) + 2K+(aq) + 2I–(aq) →

PbI2(s) + 2K+(aq) + 2NO–3(aq)

Ionic equation: Pb2+(aq) + 2I–(aq) →

PbI2(s)

2. Silver nitrate + Sodium chloride →

Silver chloride + Sodium nitrate
 SALTS 11

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) →
AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

Ag+(aq) + NO–3(aq) + Na+ + Cl–(aq) →

AgCl(s) + Na+ (aq) + NO–3(aq)

Ionic equation: Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) →

AgCl(s)

3. Copper chloride + Sodium carbonate →

Copper carbonate + Sodium
chloride
CuCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) →
CuCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

Cu2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq) + 2Na+(aq) +CO32–(aq) →

CuCO3(s) + 2Cl–(aq) + 2Na+(aq)

Ionic equation: Cu2+(aq) + CO2–3(aq) →

CuCO3(s)

Effects of exposing salts to the atmosphere

Salts undergo some changes after some time when left in the open.
1. Salts that absorb water from the atmosphere and form solutions are said to
be deliquescent and the process is called deliquescence.
When anhydrous calcium chloride is exposed to the atmosphere overnight, it
forms a colourless solution. The shiny black crystals of iron (III) chloride also
form a yellow solution. This is because they absorb so much water from the
atmosphere that they form solutions. Other deliquescent substances are sodium
hydroxide, calcium chloride, iron (II) chloride, potassium hydroxide and
zinc chloride.

2. Salts that absorb water from the atmosphere but do not form solutions are
said to be hygroscopic and the process is called hygroscopy.
When anhydrous copper (II) sulphate is exposed to the atmosphere, the white
solid turns blue and becomes damp. This is because it absorbs water from the
atmosphere but does not dissolve. Examples of hygroscopic salts are
anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride, potassium nitrate and common table salt.
NB: Pure sodium chloride is not hygroscopic, but common table salt is
hygroscopic because it contains other salts such as magnesium chloride
which makes it behave like a hygroscopic salt. It is the magnesium chloride, that
absorbs water and makes the salt damp.

3. Salts which lose some of their water of crystallisation when exposed to the
atmosphere are said to be efflorescent. The process is called efflorescence.
When crystals of hydrated sodium carbonate (Na2CO3.10H2O) are exposed to
the atmosphere over-night a white powder is formed. This, is because the crystals
lose some water of crystallisation to form a white powder, sodium carbonate
monohydrate. (Na2CO3.H2O). Other examples of efflorescent salts include
iron(II) sulphate heptahydrate, (FeSO4.7H2O) and Sodium sulphate deca-
hydrate (Na2SO4.10H2O)
12PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Action of heat on salts

Heat energy can bring about changes in substances when applied to them. Some salts
undergo thermal decomposition when they are heated.
All ammonium salts decompose on heating.

Action of Heat on Carbonates

Pure carbonates of sodium and potassium are not affected by heat. Carbonates of
these metals are stable because of the high position of the metals in the
reactivity series.
If hydrated, the salts only lose their water of crystallisation. The water vapour
condenses on the sides of the test tube as a colourless liquid. The residue is a white
solid.
Sodium carbonate decahydrate heat sodium carbonate + water of
→
crystallization.
Na2CO3.10H2O heat Na2CO3 + 10H2O
→

The other metal carbonates decompose on heating to give off a colourless gas and the
corresponding metal oxide. On testing the gas with calcium hydroxide, a white
precipitate is formed confirming the gas to be carbon (IV) oxide.
The general equation is;
Metal carbonate heat
→
metal oxide + carbon (IV) oxide.

CaCO3(s) heat
→
CaO(s) + CO2(g)

ZnCO3(s) heat
→
ZnO(s) + CO2(g)

PbCO3(s) heat PbO(s) + CO2(g)

→

CuCO3(s) heat CuO(s) + CO2(g)

→

The position of a metal in the reactivity series determines the ease of

decomposition of its carbonate.
Ammonium carbonate decomposes to form ammonia gas, carbon (IV) oxide and
steam. Presence of ammonia is confirmed by the turning of moist red litmus paper to
blue.
(NH4)2CO3(s) heat NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
→

Hydrogen carbonates of metals high in the reactivity series decompose on

heating to produce the corresponding metal carbonates, carbon (IV) oxide and water.
NaHCO3(s) heat Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
→

KHCO3(s) heat
→
K2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

The hydrogen carbonates of calcium and magnesium exist only in solution whereas
hydrogen carbonates of aluminium and iron do not exist.
 SALTS 13

Action of Heat on Nitrates

All nitrates decompose on heating.
Potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate decompose to form oxygen and a white
residue which is potassium nitrite and sodium nitrite respectively.
KNO3(s) heat
→
KNO2(s) + O2(g)

NaNO3(s) heat
→
NaNO2(s) + O2(g)

The nitrates of calcium, zinc, lead and copper decompose on heating to form the
metal oxide, nitrogen (IV) oxide and oxygen gas.
The general equation for the decomposition of nitrates is shown below;
Metal nitrate heat Metal oxide + Nitrogen(IV) oxide + Oxygen gas.
→

2Ca(NO3)2(s) heat
→
2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(white) (White) (Brown gas)
2Pb(NO3)2(s) heat
→
2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(white) (orange when hot) (Brown gas)
(yellow when cold)
2Zn(NO3)2(s) heat
→
2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(white) (yellow when hot) (Brown gas)
(white when cold)
2Cu(NO3)2(s) heat
→
2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(blue) (black) (brown gas)
The nitrates of silver and mercury decompose to give nitrogen (IV) oxide, oxygen
and the corresponding metal.
The general equation for the decomposition of these nitrates is:
Metal nitrate heat Metal + Nitrogen (IV) oxide +
→
Oxygen
2AgNO3(s) heat 2Ag(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
→

(silver nitrate) (Silver)

Hg(NO3)2(s) heat Hg(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
→

(Mercury(II) nitrate) (Mercury)

The ease with which metal nitrates decompose on heating increases down the
reactivity series of metals.
Ammonium nitrate decomposes to give steam and nitrogen (I) oxide.
NH4NO3(s) heat N2O(g) + H2O (g)
→

(Ammonium nitrate) (Nitrogen (I) oxide) (steam)

Effect of heat on sulphates.

The sulphates of potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium are stable and are
not affected by heat. However, if hydrated they lose water of crystallisation on
heating which condenses high up in the test tube.
14PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Hydrated sodium sulphate heat sodium sulphate + water of crystallization.

→

Na2SO4.10H2O(s) heat
→
Na2SO4(s) + 10H2O(l)
Zinc sulphate and copper (II) sulphate decompose on strong heating to form the metal
oxide, water and sulphur (VI) oxide gas which is colourless. The gas turns moist blue
litmus paper red.
ZnSO4.7H2O (s) heat
→
ZnO(s) + SO2(g) + 7H2O(l)
(white) (yellow when hot)
(white when cold)
CuSO4.5H2O (s) heat CuO(s) + SO2(g) + 5H2O(l)
→
(blue) (black)

Iron (II) sulphate crystals decompose to give iron (II) oxide, sulphur (IV) oxide, sulphur
(VI) oxide and water.
FeSO4.5H2O (s) heat FeO(s) + SO2(g) + 5H2O(l)
→
(green) (black)

Uses of Salts
Salts have several uses. Some of the uses are:
1. Fertilizers contain sodium nitrate, potassium sulphate and ammonium salts such as
ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulphate and ammonium phosphate.
2. Sodium chloride is used as a food additive while sodium hydrogen carbonate is
used in baking powder.
3. Calcium sulphate (Plaster of Paris) is used in hospitals on people with fractures or
dislocations.
4. Calcium chloride is used in road surfacing to keep the road moist due to its
deliquescent nature, moisture absorbs dust.
5. Calcium chloride is used in the extraction of sodium metal by electrolysis.
6. Potassium nitrate is used for making fireworks and gunpowder.
7. Sodium carbonate is used in the softening of hard water, making of glass and
detergents.
8. Many salts are used for de-frosting snow in cold countries during winter by
lowering its freezing point. Calcium chloride is applied on roads to melt snow.
 SALTS 15

Review Exercises

1. Starting with copper metal, describe how a sample of crystals of copper (II)
chloride may be prepared in the laboratory.
(3 marks)
2. Starting with 50 cm3 of 2.8M sodium hydroxide, describe how a sample of pure
sodium sulphate crystals can be prepared.
(3 marks)

3. (a) Distinguish between a deliquescent and a hygroscopic substance. (2

marks)
(b) Give one use of hygroscopic substances in the laboratory. (1
mark)

4. Describe how a solid sample of the double salt, ammonium iron (II) sulphate,
can be prepared using the following reagents; Aqueous ammonia, sulphuric (VI)
acid and iron metal.
(3 marks)
5. Distinguish between the terms deliquescent and efflorescent as used in
chemistry.
(2 marks)

6. (a) When excess calcium metal was added to 50 cm 3 of 2 M aqueous copper

(II) nitrate in a beaker, a brown solid and bubbles of gas were
observed.
(i) Write two equations for the reactions which occurred in the beaker.
(2 marks)
(ii) Explain why it is not advisable to use sodium metal for this reaction.
(2 marks)

(b) The resulting mixture in (a) above was filtered and aqueous sodium
16PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
hydroxide added to the filtrate drop wise until in excess. What
observations were made?
(1 mark)

(c) (i) Starting with calcium oxide, describe how a sample of calcium
carbonate can be prepared. (3
marks)
(ii) Name one use of calcium carbonate. (1 mark)

7. Describe how a solid sample of potassium sulphate can be prepared starting

with 200cm3 of 2M potassium hydroxide.
(3 marks)
8. Write equations to show the effect of heat on each of the following:
(a) Sodium hydrogen carbonate (1
mark)
(b) Silver nitrate (1 mark)
(c) Anhydrous iron (II) sulphate (1
mark)

9. The diagram below illustrates a method of preparing salts by direct synthesis

(a) This method can be used to prepare either aluminium chloride or iron (III)
chloride. Explain why it cannot be used to prepare sodium chloride.
(2 marks)
(b) Describe how a sample of sodium chloride can be prepared in the
laboratory by direct synthesis.
(2 marks)

10. (a) Describe one method that can be used to distinguish between sodium
sulphate and sodium hydrogen sulphate.
(2 marks)
(b) Describe how a pure sample of lead (II) sulphate can be prepared in the
laboratory starting with lead metal. (2
marks)

11. When dilute hydrochloric acid was reacted with solid B, a colourless gas which
extinguished a burning splint was produced. When an aqueous solution of solid
B was tested with a blue litmus paper, the paper turned red / pink.
(a) Identify the anion present in solid B. (1 mark)
(b) Write an ionic equation for the reaction between solid B and dilute
hydrochloric acid.
(1 mark)
12. Describe how samples of lead (II) sulphate, ammonium chloride and sodium
chloride can be obtained from a mixture of the three.
(3 marks)

13. Starting with barium nitrate solution, describe how a pure sample of barium
carbonate can be prepared in the laboratory.
(3 marks)
 SALTS 17

14. Starting with sodium metal, describe how a sample of crystals of sodium
hydrogen carbonate may be prepared.
(3 marks)

15. Starting with copper, describe how a pure sample of copper (II) carbonate can
be prepared. (3
marks)

16. You are provided with solid potassium hydrogen carbonate. Describe how a
solid sample of potassium nitrate can be prepared.
(3 marks)

17. Starting with copper turnings, describe how a sample of copper (II) Sulphate
crystals can be prepared in the laboratory.
(2 marks)

18. An experiment was carried out to prepare crystals of magnesium sulphate.

Excess magnesium powder was added to 100 cm 3 of dilute sulphuric(VI) acid in
a beaker and warmed until no further reaction took place.
The mixture was filtered and the filtrate evaporated to saturation, then left to
cool for crystals to form.
(i) Write an equation for the reaction. (1
mark)
(ii) Explain why excess magnesium powder was used. (1
mark)
(iii) State how completion of the reaction was determined. (1
mark)
(iv) What is meant by a saturated solution? (1
mark)
(v) Explain why the filtrate was not evaporated to dryness. (2
mark)

19. Salts may be classified as soluble or insoluble.

(a) Select from the following list a pair of compounds that can be used to
prepare a soluble and an insoluble salt.
HNO3, Pb(NO3)2, KN03, BaO, NaCl

(i) Soluble salt (1 mark)

(ii) Insoluble salt. (1

mark)

(b) Describe how a soluble salt is obtained from its solution. (1

mark)