Created by Turbolearn AI
Computer System Overview
Hardware
Hardware refers to the physical parts of a computer that can be touched.
Hardware components include:
Input Devices (e.g., Keyboard, Touch screen, Scanner)
Output Devices (e.g., Laser printer, Speakers, Plotter)
CPU
Memory
CPU – The Computer’s Brain
The CPU (Central Processing Unit):
Performs all 'thinking' and 'controlling' actions in processing.
Directs other computer parts.
Also called the microprocessor or processor.
Connects to other components via the system bus.
Consists of:
ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit)
Control Unit
Registers
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
The ALU performs computing functions:
Arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.
Logic operations: comparisons such as less than, greater than, or equal to.
Results are stored in registers, memory, or sent to output devices.
Registers
Page 1
Created by Turbolearn AI
Registers:
Temporarily store data during program execution.
Offer fast memory but are limited in size.
Common registers include:
MAR (Memory Address Register): Contains the address in main memory for
read/write operations.
MDR (Memory Data Register): Holds data fetched from or waiting to be stored
in memory.
IR (Instruction Register): Contains the instruction being executed.
PC (Program Counter): Contains the address of the next instruction to be
executed.
Accumulator: A register in which intermediate arithmetic and logic results are
stored.
Control Unit
The Control Unit:
Directs the entire computer system to execute stored program instructions.
Functions like a "police officer" directing traffic.
CPU instruction execution steps:
1. Fetches instructions from memory.
2. Decides the meaning of the instruction and directs data to the ALU.
3. ALU performs the operation on the data.
4. Result is stored in memory or a register.
Key terms:
Instruction time: Steps 1 and 2.
Execution time: Steps 3 and 4.
Machine cycle: Combination of instruction and execution time.
Memory
Page 2
Created by Turbolearn AI
Primary Memory
Primary Memory is also known as main or internal memory. It allows quick
access by the processor.
Consists of:
RAM (Random Access Memory)
ROM (Read-Only Memory)
Both RAM and ROM are referred to as Immediate Access Storage (IAS).
RAM (Random Access Memory)
RAM:
System memory or main memory.
Short-term memory that stores data temporarily.
Can be read from and written to.
Volatile: data disappears when power is off.
Capacity measured in MBs and GBs.
ROM (Read-Only Memory)
ROM:
Information stored remains fixed and cannot be changed.
Can only be read and used.
Contains start-up instructions (e.g., what to do when the computer is turned
on).
Non-volatile: content remains stored even when power is off.
RAM vs. ROM
Page 3
Created by Turbolearn AI
Feature RAM (Random Access Memory) ROM (Read Only Memory)
Data storage accessed randomly Data storage that stores hardwired
Definition
by the CPU. instructions for the computer to start.
Contents can be changed or
Alterations Cannot be altered or reprogrammed.
altered as required.
Allows the computer to read Stores the program required to boot or
Use
data quickly to run applications. reboot the computer.
Operations Reading and writing. Only reading.
Volatile. Contents are lost when Non-Volatile. Contents are retained
Volatility
the device is powered off. even when the device is powered off.
Size Larger than ROM. Smaller.
Speed Faster. Slower compared to RAM.
Types of RAM and ROM
RAM
SRAM (Static RAM): Retains data as long as power is supplied. Fast and
expensive, used for CPU cache.
DRAM (Dynamic RAM): Stores bits in cells consisting of a capacitor and a
transistor; requires periodic refreshing.
ROM
PROM (Programmable ROM): Can be written to once.
EPROM (Erasable PROM): Can be erased with ultraviolet light and reused.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM): Erased electrically.
Flash EPROM: Most recent type of EPROM, erased electrically, always in
plastic cases.
Cache & Registers
Registers:
Small, fast memory areas on the CPU, either dedicated or general purpose.
Cache:
Memory areas on the CPU used to store the next instructions to be executed.
Memory Hierarchy
Page 4
Created by Turbolearn AI
Memory hierarchy from fastest to slowest, smallest to largest, and most expensive to
least expensive:
1. Registers
2. Cache
3. RAM
Secondary Memory
Secondary memory has a large storage capacity and is permanent.
Examples:
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Disk
Floppy Disks (Diskettes)
Hard Disk
Optical Disk (CD, DVD, BRD)
Memory Storage Devices (Pen Drive, Memory Card)
Storage Devices (Secondary Memory Devices)
Due to the limited and non-permanent nature of primary memory, secondary storage
devices are used to store large amounts of data permanently.
Page 5
Created by Turbolearn AI
Hard Disks: Use magnetic media to store information on spinning circular
platters.
Floppy Disks (Diskette): Old portable storage devices (up to 1.44MB) that are
now obsolete.
Compact Disks (CDs): Optical media with a storage capacity of up to 700 MB.
CDROM (CD – Read-Only Memory)
CD-R (CD – Recordable)
CD-RW (CD-Rewritable)
Digital Video/Versatile Disks (DVDs): Optical storage that can hold about 15
times as much information as CDs.
DVD – ROM (DVD – Read-Only Memory)
DVD – R (DVD – Recordable)
DVD - RW (DVD-Rewritable)
Pen/Thumb Drives – Flash Memories: Use flash memory, which is a solid-state
memory.
Blu-Ray Disc: Uses a blue laser and can store much more data.
Memory Stick: Removable memory card used in digital cameras, smartphones,
etc.
Cloud Storage: A mechanism, not a physical device, that backs up files to a
secure server over the Internet.
Primary vs. Secondary Memory
Feature Primary Storage Secondary Storage
Connection to Directly connected to the Not directly connected, accessed by the
CPU CPU. CPU.
Volatility Volatile (RAM). Non-volatile.
Access by CPU Direct access. Indirect access.
Data Access Faster data access. Slower data access.
Use For processing data. For storing data.
Size Small size. Large size.
The System Bus
The System Bus is an electronic pathway that connects the major components of a
computer system. It passes data and instructions among these components.
Page 6
Created by Turbolearn AI
Data bus: Carries data.
Control bus: Carries control instructions.
Address bus: Carries memory addresses.
I/O Bus: Connects input, output, and other external devices to the system.
Mobile System Organization
A mobile system is a portable computer in hand with a touch screen, call
management system, camera, memory, SIM card, battery, speaker, and processor.
Key aspects:
Processors have less power compared to computer systems.
Major components are often integrated on a single chip called System on a
Chip (SoC).
SoC chips consume less power.
Functional components:
1. Mobile Processors: The brain of a smartphone.
2. Display Subsystem: Provides display facilities.
3. Camera subsystem: Delivers image processing.
4. Mobile System memory: For data storage.
5. Storage: External or expandable storage.
6. Power management System: Supplies power.
A mobile system has the following components:
CPU: Handles instructions.
GPU: Assists the CPU to handle visuals.
Camera ISP: Provides and handles camera functions.
Radio & 3G/4G Modem: Receives and transmits voice connections and digital
signals.
Memory controller: Provides a direct link to memory.
Battery system: Supplies power.
Page 7
