Technology in Society 81 (2025) 102843

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Technology in Society
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/techsoc

Modelling health implications of extreme PM2.5 concentrations in Indian

sub-continent: Comprehensive review with longitudinal trends and deep
learning predictions
Kuldeep Singh Rautela * , Manish Kumar Goyal **
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Simrol, Indore, 453552, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Air pollution poses a critical global challenge, disproportionately impacting public health and the environment in
Air pollution developing nations like India. The review suggests rapid urbanisation, industrialization, and increased energy
CNN consumption have worsened air quality, where average annual PM2.5 concentration far exceeds World Health
Disease mortality
Organisation (WHO) guidelines of 5 μg/m3, leading to high mortality and increased disability-adjusted life years.
PM2.5
Regression analysis
Indoor air pollution from biomass burning exacerbates the issue, affecting millions of populations in India who
Spatiotemporal variation rely on traditional fuels. Despite strides in air quality monitoring through National Mission on Air Pollution
(NMAP), challenges such as uneven data coverage and limited ground stations for entire country, especially in
rural areas, and outdated emission standards hamper effective policy implementation. Therefore, this study
utilizes MERRA-2 reanalysis and Global Burden of Disease datasets, this study analysed disease-related mortality
influenced by pollution extremes [MPM2.5 (Mean Annual Pollution through PM2.5), PM2.5D (Polluted days
through PM2.5), MAPM2.5 (Maximum 1-day pollution amount), and PM2.599p (Heavily polluted regions)]. Single
and multilinear regression analyses were conducted between pollution extremes and disease-related mortality,
followed by a Convolution Neural Network (CNN) to predict mortality by disease, state, and gender based on
pollution extremes. The study revealed significant spatiotemporal variation in PM2.5 concentrations across India,
with northern states exceeding air quality guidelines and PM2.5 levels more than doubling in the Indo-Gangetic
Plains between 1980-1990 and 2010–2020. Regression analysis showed correlation between PM2.5 and neuro-
logical disorders and chronic respiratory diseases, while respiratory infections and tuberculosis had the weakest
correlation. Further a dense CNN model improved predictive accuracy, achieving R2 values between 0.84 and
0.94 across states, diseases, and genders. The study will provide a valuable insight to air quality and health
monitoring programme (AQHMP) through suggesting stricter pollution standards, expanded rural monitoring,
sector-specific policies, improved emission inventories, and advanced technologies with AI&ML and remote
sensing for better data and reduced health risks.

1. Introduction include industrial emissions, vehicular exhaust, power generation,

agricultural activities, and residential heating and cooking (Tomasi &
Air pollution refers to harmful substances in the Earth’s atmosphere, Lupi, 2017). Natural sources such as wildfires, volcanic eruptions, and
resulting from both natural processes and human activities (Kuniyal & dust storms also contribute to air pollution, but the significant rise in
Guleria, 2019). These pollutants can be solid particles, liquid droplets, pollution levels is largely attributable to anthropogenic activities,
or gases, and they include particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5 and PM10), particularly since the Industrial Revolution (Thangavel et al., 2022).
nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), However, continuous urbanisation, industrialization, and increased en-
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and heavy metals such as lead (Pb) ergy consumption in developing countries such as India have exacer-
and mercury (Hg) (Kumar et al., 2023). Primary sources of air pollution bated the concentration of pollutants in the air, posing a severe threat to

This article is part of a special issue entitled: Managing Disasters published in Technology in Society.
* Corresponding author.
** Corresponnding author. Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Simrol, Indore, 453552, India.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (K.S. Rautela), [email protected] (M.K. Goyal).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2025.102843
Received 16 November 2024; Received in revised form 6 January 2025; Accepted 14 February 2025
Available online 17 February 2025
0160-791X/© 2025 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
K.S. Rautela and M.K. Goyal Technology in Society 81 (2025) 102843

human health and the environment (Pandey et al., 2021a). improve health outcomes and comprehensively manage diverse sources
In 2019, a CNN report showed that 21 out of the 30 most polluted of air pollution.
cities in the world were in India, with the capital, New Delhi, being the Assessing air pollution exposure and its health impacts is challenging
most polluted city globally (CNN and India has 21 of, 2020). Given the due to significant spatial variability and differences in pollution sources
regulatory challenges, the surge in economic activities, and rapid between urban and rural areas (Dias & Tchepel, 2018). In India, while
industrialization, the ambient air pollution exposure (AAPE) in Indian air quality monitoring predominantly focuses on urban centres, rural
cities is expected to deteriorate further (Gordon et al., 2018). However, areas, which also experience high pollution from sources like biomass
approximately 40% of India’s population will continue to face hazard- cooking and trash burning, are often overlooked. This discrepancy
ous indoor air pollution exposure (IAPE) far exceeding the World Health complicates the understanding of nationwide exposure patterns. Addi-
Organization (WHO) Air Quality Guidelines (AQG) resulting from tionally, the composition of pollutants, such as PM2.5, differs between
traditional cooking fuels (Mottaleb et al., 2022). A recent study also urban and rural areas, influencing the health effects observed in each
reveals that over 140 million people in India are exposed to air quality setting. Urban areas may have higher levels of additional pollutants,
that exceeds the WHO safe limit of 5 μg/m3 (Yu et al., 2023). including air toxics and heavy metals, further exacerbating health risks
The 2019 subnational burden of disease study estimated that over (Li et al., 2022). Additionally, both short- and long-term exposure to
10.4% of all deaths in India, roughly 980,000 individuals, and 6.7% of AAPE and IAPE can result in a variety of health issues, such as stroke,
total disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), about 31.1 million, are chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cancers of the trachea, bronchi,
attributable to exposure to ambient PM2.5 (Balakrishnan et al., 2019; de and lungs, exacerbated asthma, and lower respiratory infections
Bont et al., 2024). Although, a recent city-wise study in India found that (Ghorani-Azam et al., 2016). Therefore, comprehensive health assess-
the risk of death doubles for every 10 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 levels (de ment must consider both long- and short-term effects of pollutants,
Bont et al., 2024; The Wire: The Wire News India). When examining data emission volumes, exposed populations, and exposure pathways to
below the Indian air quality standard and utilizing the integrated accurately gauge health outcomes and address the diverse impacts of air
exposure-response curve, the study observed that 7.2% of all daily pollution.
deaths could be attributed to PM2.5 concentrations exceeding revised This review and meta-analysis aim to provide a comprehensive
WHO guidelines of 5 μg/m3 (Brown et al., 2022; de Bont et al., 2024; analysis of air pollution, its sources, and its impact on health from an
Pandey et al., 2021b). This positions air pollution as one of the leading Indian perspective (Fig. 1). Furthermore, the study will examine the
risk factors for ill health in the country, potentially surpassing high evolution, implementation, and effectiveness of air quality regulations
blood pressure, smoking, child and maternal malnutrition, and diabetes across various regions and recommend new policies to mitigate the ef-
risk factors (de Prado-Bert et al., 2022; Kalra et al., 2023). Given India’s fects of air pollution. It will define pollution extremes for both long- and
current demographic trend, which is skewed towards a younger popu- short-term exposures in India, and based on this data, regression anal-
lation, the cumulative cardiovascular and pulmonary effects of air ysis and deep learning models will be developed to predict mortality
pollution may be masked and only become apparent as latent effects in rates due to four diseases, categorized by state and gender. The review
future decades (Gordon et al., 2018). If PM2.5 levels remain at their will also explore major international measures adopted by developed
current levels, it is projected that per-capita mortality attributable to countries, including the United States, the European Union, China, and
PM2.5 in India could increase by 21% by 2030, largely due to the sub- India. This research will provide valuable insights into the effectiveness
stantial growth in the population over the age of 50 (Apte et al., 2015, of existing policies and guide the development of more targeted and
2018). A study on non-smokers has determined that Indians exhibit 30% effective strategies to improve public health and air quality in India.
weaker lung function compared to Europeans (Nandan, 2013). To
maintain current achieving a significant reduction in PM2.5-attributable 2. Sources of air pollution and exposure scenarios in India
mortality rates, especially among the elderly, necessitates a 20–30%
decrease in average PM2.5 levels over the next 15 years (Xu et al., 2023; This section offers a background summary of AAPE and IAPE in
Zhang et al., 2022). This ambitious goal underscores the need for sub- India, focusing on their major sources and emissions. Gaining insight
stantial improvements in both indoor and outdoor air quality. into these unique exposure profiles is essential for understanding the full
Addressing this challenge requires a multifaceted approach to tackle extent of air pollution’s health effects and formulating effective policies.
pollution sources and enhance air quality standards effectively. Imple-
menting comprehensive strategies is crucial for mitigating the health 2.1. Ambient air pollution exposure (AAPE)
impacts of fine particulate matter and safeguarding vulnerable pop-
ulations from increased mortality rates associated with PM2.5 exposure. The rapid expansion of industrial, transportation, and power sectors
Efforts to enhance air quality in India face notable obstacles due to in India, coupled with both planned and unplanned urbanisation, has led
insufficient emission inventories and uncertainty about the composition to a significant increase in AAPE (Kaur & Pandey, 2021; Parveen et al.,
of pollutants in the air (Garaga et al., 2018). Unlike developed Western 2021). The surge in vehicle numbers and reliance on coal-based power
countries, the nature of pollution in India is influenced by unique fac- generation are expected to exacerbate this trend in the coming decade
tors, including different emission sources and compositions (Beig et al., (Shakya et al., 2023). Many cities across India are experiencing air
2021; Gordon et al., 2018). There is limited research on how various pollution levels that frequently surpass the revised WHO’s Interim
sources and compositions of PM2.5 affect health in the Indian context. Target-1 thresholds for PM2.5 (annual mean < 5 μg/m3; 24-h mean < 25
Early studies suggest that pollutants from fossil fuel combustion may μg/m3) and PM10 (annual mean < 15 μg/m3; 24-h mean < 45 μg/m3)
have a more severe health impact per unit of PM2.5 compared to those and NAAQs threshold’s for PM2.5 (annual mean < 40 μg/m3; 24-h mean
from biomass or windblown sources (Rahman et al., 2021; Yin et al., < 60 μg/m3) and PM10 (annual mean < 60 μg/m3; 24-h mean < 100
2024). However, IAPE from biomass cooking contributes significantly to μg/m3), indicating a severe and worsening air quality crisis (de Bont
the country’s PM2.5 levels, accounting for about one-fourth of the total et al., 2024; Singh et al., 2021a; Yu et al., 2023). Furthermore, despite a
ambient pollution in India (Sharma & Jain, 2019). This highlights the decline in sulphur dioxide (SO2) levels in some urban areas, pollutants
need for targeted strategies addressing indoor and outdoor pollution such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO) still need to be
sources. In India, indoor and outdoor air pollution are interconnected more adequately monitored, leaving critical data gaps, particularly in
due to the infiltration of outdoor pollutants indoors and vice versa rural regions (Gordon et al., 2018).
(Thakur & Patel, 2023). Thus, it is crucial to approach air quality To address this pressing issue, the use of remote sensing technologies
management holistically, considering indoor and outdoor sources has become increasingly vital (Rautela et al., 2024a). Satellite-based
together. Effective solutions must address this continuum of pollution to measurements of aerosol optical depth (AOD) (Stirnberg et al., 2018)

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K.S. Rautela and M.K. Goyal Technology in Society 81 (2025) 102843

Fig. 1. Comprehensive workflow diagram representing the process for assessing the health impacts of air pollution, integrating data sources, modeling techniques,
and mortality estimation.

and reanalysis datasets (Randles et al., 2017) offer a valuable tool for comprehensive national data available. Over 200+ studies have inves-
creating national air pollution maps, filling the monitoring gaps in many tigated IAPE in developing countries, with a significant majority focused
parts of the country. The Indo-Gangetic Plain, characterised by a mean on India. These studies have utilized various methodologies for exposure
PM2.5 concentration of 50–100 μg/m3 and PM2.5D (days when PM2.5 assessment, including questionnaire surveys, long-term field measure-
levels exceed 35.5 μg/m3) ranging from 200 to 250 days annually, ex- ments, and personal exposure monitoring for women, men, and children
periences alarming pollution levels. With maximum PM2.5 concentra- (Balakrishnan et al., 2014). Comprehensive quantitative data on IAPE,
tions between 300 and 400 μg/m3, the region endures moderate including findings from India, is compiled in the WHO Global Household
pollution days (PM2.5 concentration between 35.5 and 150.4 μg/m3) and Air Pollution Database (Balakrishnan et al., 2014; Chowdhury et al.,
extreme pollution days (PM2.5 levels exceeding 150.4 μg/m3), high- 2023).
lighting its severity as a public health concern (Rautela & Goyal, 2025; Due to the lack of direct studies quantifying the mortality effects of
Yu et al., 2023). This severe pollution is attributed to various sources, IAPE, researchers have employed modeling approaches like Integrated-
including biomass and coal combustion, as well as agricultural residue Exposure-Response Curves to connect population-level IAPE exposure
burning. However, leveraging satellite data could significantly enhance estimates with health outcomes (de Bont et al., 2024). However, these
efforts to tackle air pollution and its adverse effects on public health and models still require validation in real-world settings, as the composition
the environment. and levels of IAPE in developing countries are distinct from those in
developed countries (Gordon et al., 2018). The Global Burden of Disease
2.2. Indoor air pollution exposure (IAPE) (GBD) assessment estimated global exposure levels for solid fuel users
using a model developed in India (McDuffie et al., 2021; Yin et al.,
Household practices especially cooking from solid biomass and fuel 2024). This model, which integrated PM2.5 measurements from rural
emissions resulting primarily from incomplete combustion, are the households with data from the National Family Health Survey, found
major sources of indoor air pollution. Progress in providing clean and that PM2.5 concentrations could reach up to 337 μg/m3 (Gordon et al.,
modern cooking fuels for all remains limited. While 57% of the global 2018). These levels far exceed the WHO Air Quality Guidelines Interim
population had access to clean and modern cooking technologies in Target-1 (35 μg/m3) and the Indian standard (40 μg/m3), indicating a
2010, this figure rose only slightly to 66% by 2019 (Küfeoğlu, 2022, pp. severe air quality issue (WHO, 2014).
305–330). However, 20% of rural households and 2% of urban house-
holds in India rely on biomass burning and soil fuels through traditional 2.3. Sources of air pollution in India
stoves, typically operated under insufficient combustion conditions,
releasing hazardous substances during burning (Mani et al., 2021). Air pollution in India stems from a complex mix of sources, both
Additionally, as of now, 19% of rural households and 14% of urban urban and rural, with significant regional variations. In urban areas,
households continue to use a mix of traditional biomass and cleaner vehicular emissions are rapidly becoming the dominant contributor,
cooking options such as LPG stoves (Mani et al., 2021). While India’s driven by increasing ownership of motor vehicles and the expansion of
National Air Quality Monitoring Program offers routine air pollution highway transport using diesel. The transport sector is estimated to
data for numerous urban centres, information on IAPE primarily comes contribute 66% of emissions in Delhi, 52% in Mumbai, and 33% in
from individual research studies and scientific publications, with limited Kolkata, highlighting its significant impact on air pollution in these

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K.S. Rautela and M.K. Goyal Technology in Society 81 (2025) 102843

major Indian megacities (Dandapat et al., 2020; MoEF, 2010, p. 3). research institutions such as IITs and NITs contribute to air quality as-
Additionally, Mogno et al.(Mogno et al., 2023) found the contribution of sessments. However, their efforts are generally on a smaller scale. In
local transport rises 10%–17% to the daily mean PM2.5 over Delhi. megacities such as Delhi and Pune, dedicated citywide air quality
However, Delhi, where a large portion of the population lives near major monitoring networks have been established and are administered by the
roads, the impact of traffic pollution is particularly severe. According to Ministry of Earth Sciences (Board, 2014). These networks operate
Sahu et al.(Sahu et al., 2023) from 2010 to 2020, there was a marginal independently of the NAMP but provide crucial localised data on air
decadal growth of 31% in PM2.5 and 3% in PM10 emissions, with the pollution levels.
highest growth observed in BC (57%), OC (34%), and NOx (91%), pri-
marily driven by the transport sector in the Delhi and NCR region. A 3.1. Air quality standards and monitoring
recent study also found that the primary sources of PM2.5 pollution
include vehicle exhaust, road and construction dust, and industrial ac- The CPCB revised the National Ambient Air Quality Standards
tivities, each contributing 10–30% while other contributors are resi- (NAAQS) in 2009 to include a range of pollutants, including sulphur
dential activities (under 10% in summer and under 30% in winter), open dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), particulate matter (PM10 and
waste burning (5–15%), power plants outside the city limits (under 7%), PM2.5), ozone, lead, arsenic, nickel, carbon monoxide (CO), ammonia
dust storms (under 5%), and agricultural residue burning (under 3%) (NH3), benzene, and benzo-a-pyrene (BaP) (Gulia et al., 2022; Rautela &
(Guttikunda et al., 2019, 2023a). The eastern states of India, with their Goyal, 2024). The NAAQS set limits for these pollutants to safeguard
extensive coal mines and power plants, are among the most polluted due public health and environmental quality. However, monitoring and
to a combination of industrial and biomass combustion activities (Tyagi reporting practices have been uneven. While the NAMP consistently
et al., 2021). monitors SO2, NO2, and PM10, the monitoring of ozone is limited to a
Meteorological factors, including seasonal variations in temperature, few major cities (CPCB and National Ambient Air Quality Status &
humidity, and rainfall, play a crucial role in the distribution and severity Trends, 2019, 2020; Singh et al., 2021b). Pollutants such as air toxics
of air pollution across the country. Maltare et al. (Maltare et al., 2024) (benzene, toluene, and xylene), BaP, arsenic, and nickel are monitored
found that both PM2.5 and PM10 strongly correlated with the dew point on a more restricted scale, though efforts to expand these capacities are
temperature. Additionally, use of biomass for heating during winter, underway (Gordon et al., 2018). The limited monitoring of ozone,
along with agricultural burning and atmospheric inversions, can lead to despite its inclusion in the NAAQS, reflects the broader challenges in
significantly increased the concentration of pollutants in large cities like comprehensively tracking air quality across all pollutants. India’s air
Delhi in Indo-Gangetic Plains (Sahu et al., 2024; Tripathi et al., 2024). quality standards, as revised by the CPCB, include annual average limits
Indoor sources, particularly in rural and semi-urban areas, also for PM10 and PM2.5 that are higher than the guidelines recommended by
contribute substantially to outdoor air quality, as pollutants generated the World Health Organization (WHO) (de Bont et al., 2024). The
indoors can escape and add to ambient pollution levels (Nassikas et al., CPCB’s annual average limit for PM10 is set at 60 μg/m3, compared to
2024). However, various past studies shows the average PM2.5 con- WHO’s Interim Target 1 guideline of 70 μg/m3. The annual average limit
centrations across various Indian cities reveal significant variability, for PM2.5 is 40 μg/m3, while WHO recommends a lower value of 35
with Delhi having notably high concentrations of AAPE (PM2.5 up to140 μg/m3. These higher limits reflect the severe air pollution challenges
μg/m3) compared to cities like Shimla and Pune, which exhibit lower faced in India. The discrepancy between national standards and WHO
concentrations (around 25 μg/m3). This indicates substantial regional guidelines underscores the need for more localized research to better
differences in air quality, likely influenced by local sources of pollution understand the specific sources and composition of air pollution in
and atmospheric conditions (Table 1). The interplay of these various India. This includes evaluating the health impacts of different pollutants
factors makes air pollution in India a multifaceted challenge that re- and their sources, which may differ from those in Europe and North
quires comprehensive and region-specific strategies to mitigate its America. Collaborative studies between Indian and international re-
impact on public health. searchers are essential to develop effective strategies for managing air
pollution and mitigating its health impacts.
3. Air quality monitoring in India: status and challenges
3.2. Data gaps and challenges
India’s air quality monitoring landscape has evolved significantly in
recent years, reflecting the growing recognition of air pollution as a Despite these efforts, there are significant data gaps and challenges in
major public health and environmental issue. India’s air quality moni- air quality monitoring in India. One major issue is the time lag in data
toring network includes 1296 stations that cover 473 cities and 7 union reporting, which can delay the availability of crucial information for
territories in 28 states (MoEF&CC, 2022). The country’s air quality public health assessments and policy interventions (Nair, 2023). Addi-
monitoring efforts are coordinated primarily through the National Air tionally, the capacity for monitoring PM2.5, a critical pollutant due to its
Quality Monitoring Program (NAMP), managed by the Central Pollution health impacts, remains limited in many areas (Agrawal et al., 2021;
Control Board (CPCB), which operates under the Ministry of Environ- Thangavel et al., 2022). To address these gaps, hybrid models that
ment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEF&CC)(MoEF&CC, 2022). combine satellite data with emissions inventories have been developed
Despite these advancements, several challenges remain in achieving to estimate ground-level PM2.5 concentrations (Rahman & Thurston,
comprehensive and effective air quality assessments in the low and 2022; Randles et al., 2017; Shin et al., 2020). These models have pro-
low-middle income counties (Pinder et al., 2019). These challenges vided valuable insights into regional air pollution patterns, instated of
include uneven distribution of monitoring stations, gaps in data cities, particularly for the Indo-Gangetic Plains (Mathew et al., 2023).
coverage, lack of real-time data availability in some regions, and the However, these satellite-based estimates come with their own un-
need for improved data integration and analysis to inform policy de- certainties, as the resolution of satellite data is relatively coarse
cisions and public awareness. (approximately 10 km), which can affect the precision of the estimates
In India, CPCB plays a central role in air quality monitoring at the (Alvarado et al., 2019; Ford & Heald, 2016; Gerboles & Reuter, 2010,
national level, while State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) and Pollu- pp. 1–40; Sorek-Hamer et al., 2020).
tion Control Committees in Union territories are responsible for state-
level monitoring. This multi-tiered approach ensures that air quality 3.3. Personal monitoring and emerging technologies
data is collected from various geographic and administrative levels. In
addition to these institutions, organizations like the National Environ- Personal exposure monitoring is an area of growing interest and
mental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) and certain academic development, driven by the need to capture more accurate and

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Table 1 Table 1 (continued )

Summary of PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations (μg/m3) in various Indian cities Study Area PM Values (μg/m3) References
from different studies; The table includes 24-h mean, average, and annual
average concentrations, highlighting significant variations across locations. City PM1, average mass Rajput et al.
concentration (2018)
Study Area PM Values (μg/m3) References Kanpur During non-foggy conditions =
Cities 24-h mean concentration Gupta and Kumar 247 ± 113
Delhi (Najafgarh, PM10 = 188.12, 178.10, 148.77 (2006) During foggy conditions = 107
Sarojani, Townhall) ± 58
Mumbai (Parel, PM10 = 109.01, 88.49, 120.22 City 24 h mean concentration Islam and Saikia
Kalbadevi, Bandra) Jorhat, Northeast India PM2.5 = 121 ± 49 (2020)
Kolkata (Cossipore, PM10 = 180.24, 134.18, 93.04 PM10 = 153 ± 45
Dalhousi, Kasha) City 24-h mean concentration Shaw and Gorai
Chennai (Thiruvottiyar, PM10 = 66.29, 65.66, 42.18 Delhi (ITO) PM2.5 = 71.9 (2020)
Gen Hospital, PM10 = 11.90
Taramani) Cities 24-h mean concentration Yadav et al.
City Average concentration Karar and Gupta Jaipur PM2.5 = 51 ± 10 (2022)
Kolkata PM10 = 140 (2006) Jodhpur PM2.5 = 78 ± 21
City Average concentration Kulshrestha and Kota PM2.5 = 45 ± 13
Agra PM2.5 = 104.9 Mishra (2021) Udaipur PM2.5 = 49 ± 12
PM10 = 154.2 Ajmer PM2.5 = 47.3 ± 13
City Average concentration Kothai et al. Alwar PM2.5 = 47.2 ± 8
Mumbai PM2.5 = 42 (2011) Cities Average concentration Guttikunda and
City Average mass concentration Yadav and Jammu PM2.5 = 39.1 KA (2022)
Pune PM2.5 = 72.3 ± 31.3 Satsangi (2013) Srinagar PM2.5 = 25.8
PM10 = 113.8 ± 51.6 Shimla PM2.5 = 25.7
Barapani, foot-hills of NE- Wintertime PM2.5 = 39–348 Rajput et al. Dehra Dun PM2.5 = 35.2
Himalaya (2013) Amritsar PM2.5 = 66.2
City Annual average Deshmukh et al. Ludhiana PM2.5 = 68.7
concentrations (July 2009 to (2013) Gurgaon PM2.5 = 93
June 2010) Meerut PM2.5 = 68.1
Raipur PM2.5 = 150.9 ± 78.6 Delhi PM2.5 = 102.1
PM10 = 270.5 ± 105.5 Agra PM2.5 = 92.6
PM1 = 72.5 ± 39.0 Allahabad PM2.5 = 76.9
City PM2.5 = 120.0 ± 103.0 Tiwari et al. Ghaziabad PM2.5 = 79.1
Delhi PM10 = 222.0 ± 142.0 (2014) Noida PM2.5 = 92.3
City Annual mean concentration Murari et al. Kanpur PM2.5 = 92.6
Varanasi PM2.5 = 100.0 ± 29.6 (2015) Lucknow PM2.5 = 93
PM10 = 176.1 ± 85.0 Varanasi PM2.5 = 84.5
Monthly average Patna PM2.5 = 75.8
concentration Kolkata PM2.5 = 47.3
PM2.5 = 43.6–318.5 μg/m3 Asansol PM2.5 = 55.8
PM10 = 50.1–154.0 μg/m3 Ahmedabad PM2.5 = 44.6
City Mean mass concentrations Tiwari et al. Rajkot PM2.5 = 36.2
Delhi PM2.5 = 118.3 ± 81.7 (2015) Surat PM2.5 = 32
PM10 = 232.1 ± 131.1 Vadodara PM2.5 = 39.4
Vishakhapatnam Annual average concentration Guttikunda et al. Udaipur PM2.5 = 40.2
​ PM10 = 70.4 ± 29.7 (2015) Jaipur PM2.5 = 58.6
City Annual average concentration Jodhpur PM2.5 = 58.2
Chennai PM2.5 = 121.5 ± 45.5 Kota PM2.5 = 54.6
Patiala PM2.5 mass concentration = Rajput et al. Kohima PM2.5 = 23.2
60–390 (October–November) (2016) Aizawl PM2.5 = 29.4
PM2.5 mass concentration = Imphal PM2.5 = 27.4
18–123 (April–May) Agartala PM2.5 = 59.5
City Average concentration Sen et al. (2016) Dispur PM2.5 = 29.2
Patiala PM2.5 = 55.4 ± 13.5 Shillong PM2.5 = 25.2
City Average concentration Raipur PM2.5 = 53.4
Lucknow PM2.5 = 51.5 ± 17.7 Durg-Bhilai PM2.5 = 59.4
PM10 = 182.2 ± 58.0 Ranchi PM2.5 = 44.3
City Average concentration Dhanbad PM2.5 = 54.1
Kolkata PM2.5 = 47.6 ± 9.3 Bokaro PM2.5 = 55.6
PM10 = 66.7 ± 17.0 Jamshedpur PM2.5 = 51.5
City Average concentration Nagpur PM2.5 = 40.6
New Delhi PM2.5 = 61.8 ± 18.6 Nashik PM2.5 = 26.2
PM10 = 127.4 ± 62.2 Pune PM2.5 = 25.2
City Average concentration Cities Average concentration de Bont et al.
Nagpur PM2.5 = 35.2 ± 18.4 Ahmedabad PM2.5 ≈ 50 ± 10 μg/m3 (2024)
PM10 = 53.9 ± 23.7 Bangalore PM2.5 ≈ 35 ± 10 μg/m3
City Average concentration Chennai PM2.5 ≈ 40 ± 10 μg/m3
Varanasi PM2.5 = 52.5 ± 28.6 Delhi PM2.5 ≈ 140 ± 50 μg/m3
PM10 = 139.6 ± 68.0 Hyderabad PM2.5 ≈ 60 ± 20 μg/m3
Mid-IGP region Annual mean PM10 = 206.2 ± Sharma et al. Kolkata PM2.5 ≈ 90 ± 30 μg/m3
77.4 (2016) Mumbai PM2.5 ≈ 40 ± 10 μg/m3
City 24-h mean concentration Mahapatra et al. Pune PM2.5 ≈ 30 ± 10 μg/m3
Kolkata PM10 = 97.00 (2018) Shimla PM2.5 ≈ 25 ± 10 μg/m3
City Annual mean concentration Varanasi PM2.5 ≈ 90 ± 40 μg/m3
Bhubaneswar PM2.5 = 30.6 ± 22.1
PM10 = 83.3 ± 30.6

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K.S. Rautela and M.K. Goyal Technology in Society 81 (2025) 102843

individualized data on air pollution exposure (Colvile et al., 2001). amounts of observational data into a coherent framework (Rautela et al.,
Traditional fixed-location monitors, while useful for assessing general 2024b; Rautela & Goyal, 2024; Singh et al., 2023). They use assimilation
air quality, often fail to account for the variability in personal exposure techniques to combine satellite observations with numerical weather
resulting from proximity to pollution sources. This limitation can lead to prediction models, resulting in high-resolution datasets that can be used
exposure misclassification, which may bias the results of epidemiolog- to study air quality trends, identify pollution sources, and assess the
ical studies and affect the accuracy of health impact assessments (Brauer effectiveness of regulatory measures. The integration of satellite moni-
et al., 2002). For example, people living near heavy traffic or industrial toring and reanalysis datasets with personal exposure data enhances the
areas might experience much higher pollutant levels than what is understanding of air pollution impacts. By linking individual exposure
recorded by stationary monitors in the same region (Brauer et al., 2002; assessments from wearable sensors with broad-scale satellite and rean-
IARC, 2016; Watson et al., 1988). alysis data, researchers can gain insights into how localized pollution
Recent advancements in microelectronics and manufacturing tech- sources contribute to overall exposure and health outcomes. This
nologies, such as 3D printing, have facilitated the development of low- comprehensive approach can inform more targeted and effective air
cost, wearable air pollution sensors (Bas et al., 2024; Hernández-Gor- quality management strategies.
dillo et al., 2021). These sensors represent a significant leap forward in
personal exposure monitoring by providing a more personalized 4. Impact of air pollution on public health in India
approach. Wearable sensors are less burdensome for participants
compared to older methods and can more accurately assess individual In recent years, India has consistently ranked among the countries
exposure by accounting for the time-weighted proximity to emission with the highest levels of air pollution globally (Yu et al., 2023). Ac-
sources (Lin et al., 2022; Tryner et al., 2023; Yun & Licina, 2023). They cording to the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study, air pollution is a
can track pollutants such as PM2.5, volatile organic compounds, NO2, leading risk factor for disease burden in India, contributing to millions of
and ozone in real-time, offering valuable insights into how individuals deaths annually (McDuffie et al., 2021). The GBD 2019 report estimated
experience air pollution in their daily lives. These sensors have become that over 1.67 million deaths in India were attributable to air pollution,
available from various manufacturers across North America, Europe, including ambient (outdoor) and household air pollution, making it the
and China. Although their reliability and data quality can vary, they second leading risk factor for mortality in the country, after high blood
mark a substantial improvement in monitoring personal exposure to air pressure (Yadav et al., 2021).
pollutants. Notably, these advancements have also made it feasible to Epidemiological studies in India have provided substantial evidence
include younger populations, such as children, in exposure studies linking air pollution to a wide range of health effects, particularly res-
(Chaudhary et al., 2023). Given that children are particularly vulnerable piratory and cardiovascular diseases (Lee et al., 2014; Yadav et al.,
to the adverse health effects of air pollution, including them in moni- 2021). Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is of particular concern due to its
toring efforts is crucial for understanding and mitigating the impacts on ability to penetrate deep into the lungs and enter the bloodstream,
their health. leading to systemic inflammation and oxidative stress (Behinaein et al.,
2023; Jiang et al., 2016; Larkin & Hystad, 2017; Yadav et al., 2021). The
3.4. Satellite monitoring and reanalysis datasets high levels of PM2.5 in Indian cities, often exceeding the WHO guide-
lines, are associated with increased rates of respiratory infections,
Satellite monitoring has emerged as a valuable tool in the assessment chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, and lung can-
of air quality, complementing traditional ground-based measurements cer. A recent study showed Delhi was one of the most polluted cities in
and personal monitoring (Zhu et al., 2023). Satellites provide a broad, the world, found that long-term exposure to high PM2.5 levels was
global perspective on air pollution, allowing for the observation of associated with a 54% increase in the risk of all-cause mortality, a 43%
large-scale patterns and trends. This capability is particularly useful for increase in cardiovascular mortality, and a 58% increase in respiratory
areas where ground-based monitoring infrastructure is sparse or mortality. Additionally, a city-level health assessment in India reveals
non-existent. Satellites equipped with sensors can measure various at- that 7.2% of daily deaths in these urban areas are attributable to PM2.5
mospheric components, including aerosol optical depth (AOD), which levels exceeding the WHO guidelines, with Delhi experiencing the
serves as a proxy for particulate matter concentrations, particularly highest fraction of deaths linked to PM2.5 pollution (de Bont et al.,
PM2.5 (Filonchyk et al., 2019; Goyal & Rautela, 2024; Handschuh et al., 2024). The impact of air pollution on cardiovascular health is particu-
2022; Nair et al., 2005). Analysis of these products can estimate larly alarming, as numerous studies have established a strong connec-
ground-level concentrations of pollutants with reasonable accuracy, tion between high air pollution exposure and an elevated risk of heart
even in regions with limited monitoring networks (Duc et al., 2022; Li & attacks, strokes, hypertension, and other cardiovascular diseases (Jalali
Zhang, 2019; Zhu et al., 2023). However, satellite measurements come et al., 2021; Palacio et al., 2023; Pope et al., 2004). Fine particulate
with their own set of challenges. The resolution of satellite data, typi- matter, such as PM2.5, can provoke cardiovascular events by causing
cally around 0.1◦ (~10 km), introduces uncertainty in the estimates systemic inflammation, oxidative stress, and endothelial dysfunction
(Ford & Heald, 2016; Gerboles & Reuter, 2010, pp. 1–40). This spatial (Krittanawong et al., 2023). A large cohort study found that long-term
resolution may not capture localized pollution hotspots, especially in exposure to PM2.5 significantly increased the risk of ischemic heart
densely populated urban areas or industrial zones. disease, stroke, and heart failure, with every 10 μg/m3 rise in PM2.5
To address these challenges, satellite data are often combined with concentration leading to a 12–14% increase in the risk of cardiovascular
ground-based observations and advanced statistical models to improve mortality (Alexeeff et al., 2021; Hayes et al., 2020; Krittanawong et al.,
accuracy. For example, the reanalysis datasets (Chakraborty et al., 2021, 2023).
2022; Randles et al., 2017; Rautela et al., 2024a), which integrate ob- In addition to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, air pollution
servations from various sources, including satellites, ground-based has been linked to adverse pregnancy outcomes. Pregnant women
measurements, and meteorological models, offer a more comprehen- exposed to high levels of air pollution are at an increased risk of com-
sive view of air quality. These datasets provide historical and plications such as low birth weight, preterm birth, and developmental
near-real-time estimates of atmospheric conditions and pollutant con- delays (Fu et al., 2024). These adverse outcomes are believed to result
centrations, allowing for more detailed spatial and temporal analyses. from the effects of pollutants like PM2.5 and NO2 on placental function
Reanalysis datasets, such as those produced by the European Centre for and fatal development (Fussell et al., 2024). A study conducted in Tamil
Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), the National Oceanic and Nadu state found that pregnant women exposed to high levels of PM2.5
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and NASA Goddard Earth Sciences were more likely to give birth to infants with decrease in low birth
Data and Information Services Centre (GES DISC), incorporate vast weight of 4g per 10-μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 exposures (Balakrishnan

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K.S. Rautela and M.K. Goyal Technology in Society 81 (2025) 102843

et al., 2018). Similarly, a study in China found that for each interquartile health organizations.
range (IQR) increase in PM2.5 exposure, the risk of preterm birth rose by In recent years, there have been several initiatives aimed at reducing
4.84%, while the excess risk associated with SO2 exposure was 3.65% air pollution in India and mitigating its health impacts. The National
(Liu et al., 2018). Clean Air Programme (NCAP), launched by the MoEF&CC in 2019, aims
The burden of air pollution is not evenly distributed across the to reduce PM2.5 and PM10 levels by 20–30% by 2024, relative to 2017
population, with certain groups being more vulnerable to its effects. levels (Dahiya & Sivalingam, 2023). The NCAP includes measures such
Children, the elderly, and individuals with pre-existing health condi- as strengthening the air quality monitoring network, promoting cleaner
tions are particularly susceptible to the adverse effects of air pollution technologies, and raising public awareness about the health risks of air
(Pandey et al., 2021a). Children are at a higher risk due to their devel- pollution. However, the effectiveness of these measures will depend on
oping respiratory systems and higher rates of physical activity, which their implementation and the level of commitment from all stake-
increase their exposure to air pollutants (Aithal et al., 2023). Studies holders. Despite these efforts, significant challenges remain in address-
have shown that children living in highly polluted areas are more likely ing the health impacts of air pollution in India. One of the key challenges
to suffer from respiratory infections, asthma, and impaired lung function is the enforcement of existing regulations and policies. While there are
(Aithal et al., 2023; Esposito et al., 2014). A recent study conducted in strict emission standards for industries and vehicles, compliance with
Lanzhou, China found that 1 μg/kg-d increase in the 5-year average these standards is often weak, particularly in smaller cities and rural
daily dose (ADD) of PM2.5 was associated with significant decreases in areas. Strengthening the enforcement of environmental regulations and
forced vital capacity (FVC) by 10.49 mL and in forced expiratory volume ensuring that industries and vehicles adhere to emission standards is
in 1 s (FEV1) by 7.68 mL, with the strongest impact observed in the year crucial for reducing air pollution levels and protecting public health.
immediately preceding the lung function tests, particularly among girls
(Li et al., 2020). 5. Case study on the health assessment through short- and long-
The Global Burden of Disease (GBD) datasets have played a crucial term air pollution in India
role in quantifying the health impacts of air pollution in India (Pandey
et al., 2021a). The GBD project, a comprehensive effort led by the 5.1. Datasets
Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME), provides estimates
of mortality and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) attributable to This study leverages MERRA-2 reanalysis data obtained from the
various risk factors, including air pollution (GBD & Global Burden of NASA GESDISC DATA ARCHIVE application (Randles et al., 2017;
Disease, 2021). The GBD 2019 report estimated that air pollution was Rautela & Goyal, 2024), focusing on datasets with spatial-temporal
responsible for 17.8% of all deaths in India, with ambient PM2.5 being resolutions of 0.5◦ × 0.625◦ and an hourly interval, spanning from
the leading contributor (Pandey et al., 2021a). The report also high- January 1, 1980, to December 31, 2023. The analysis includes fifty
lighted the significant burden of household air pollution, particularly in distinct variables related to atmospheric aerosols, encompassing three
rural areas where biomass fuels are commonly used for cooking. dimensions with time, latitude, and longitude. Specifically, dimensions
Household air pollution was estimated to contribute to 26.4% of all such as time (t), latitude (ϕ), longitude (λ), and variables such as black
deaths in children under five years old, primarily due to lower respira- carbon surface mass concentration (BCSMASS), dust surface mass con-
tory infections. centration-PM2.5 (DUSMASS25), organic carbon surface mass concen-
The health impacts of air pollution in India are not limited to urban tration (OCSMASS), sea salt surface mass concentration-PM2.5
areas. Rural areas, where a significant portion of the population resides, (SSSMASS25), and SO4 surface mass concentration (SO4SMASS) were
also face substantial exposure to air pollutants, particularly from extracted using a climate data operator (CDO). To adapt the data for
household sources (Manisalidis et al., 2020). The use of solid fuels such daily analysis, the mean of 24-h observations was computed, converting
as wood, dung, and crop residues for cooking and heating is a major the original hourly temporal resolution into a daily temporal resolution.
source of household air pollution in rural India. Recent studies found The PM2.5 concentration (μg/m3) for each grid cell was then calculated
that 0.5 to 1.35 million deaths are attributed to IAPE globally as per Buchard et al. (Buchard et al., 2016) and Provençal et al.,
(Chowdhury et al., 2023), with approximately 0.8 million of these (Provençal et al., 2017) (Eq. (1)):
deaths occurring in India (CAPC, 2019). The health effects of household
PM2.5 = (BCSMASS + DUSMASS25 + OCSMASS + SSSMASS25
air pollution are particularly severe for women and children, who spend (1)
more time indoors and are therefore more exposed to indoor air pollu- + 1.375 × SO4 SMASS) × 109
tion. However, death rate is decrease due to IAPE is decrease by 64⋅2%
from 1990 to 2019 (Pandey et al., 2021a) Where, BCSMASS, DUSMASS25, OCSMASS, SSSMASS25, and SO4SMASS
One of the major challenges in addressing the health impacts of air represent the surface mass concentrations of black carbon, dust, organic
pollution in India is the lack of comprehensive and reliable data on air carbon, sea salt, and sulfates, respectively, in kg/m3. The multiplication
quality and health outcomes (Gurjar et al., 2016). While air quality by 109 is applied to convert these mass concentrations from kg/m3 to
monitoring networks have been established in several cities, there is still μg/m3, as the variables’ concentration values are fractional. The result,
a significant gap in data coverage, particularly in rural and remote areas PM2.5, represents the particulate matter concentration in μg/m3,
(Guttikunda, Ka, et al., 2023). This lack of data makes it difficult to providing a critical measure for assessing air quality.
accurately assess the exposure of different populations to air pollution The Global Burden of Disease (GBD) data, an extensive and
and to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions. Moreover, health data comprehensive source for assessing global health trends, was utilized in
in India is often incomplete or not systematically collected, which limits this study to analyse the prevalence and impact of several critical health
the ability to conduct robust epidemiological studies (Narain, 2016; conditions across India (GBD & Global Burden of Disease, 2021). The
Selvaraj et al., 2022). To address these challenges, there is a need for data was thoroughly sourced from the Global Health Data Exchange
greater investment in air quality monitoring and health data collection (GHDx) platform, specifically from the GBD 2021 dataset (GBD and
in India. Expanding the network of air quality monitoring stations to Global Burden of Disease, 2021) (https://ghdx.healthdata.org/g
cover more regions, including rural areas, would provide a more accu- bd-2021). The focus of this analysis was on four significant categories
rate picture of air pollution levels and their spatial distribution. Addi- of mortality due to ’respiratory infections and tuberculosis,’ ’neuro-
tionally, integrating air quality data with health data would enable logical disorders,’ ’cardiovascular diseases,’ and ’chronic respiratory
researchers to conduct more detailed and comprehensive studies on the diseases’ (Fig. S1). These categories were selected due to their sub-
health impacts of air pollution. This would require collaboration be- stantial burden on public health and their relevance to ongoing
tween different government agencies, research institutions, and public healthcare challenges in India. The dataset spans a comprehensive

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Table 2 addressing PM2.5-related health risks.

Definition of extreme pollution indices (Rautela & Goyal, 2025).
Indicator Indicator name Indicator definitions Units 5.4. Deep learning model for the modelling of mortality
MPM2.5 Mean Annual Pollution Mean annual total pollution μg/
through PM2.5 through PM2.5 m3 Deep learning models, such as CNNs and LSTMs, can predict or
PM2.5D Polluted days through Number of days when PM2.5 > days forecasting variables by learning complex, non-linear patterns and de-
PM2.5 40 μg/m3 pendencies within data, enabling them to effectively handle high-
MAPM2.5 Maximum 1-day pollution Annual maximum 1-day μg/ dimensional inputs, temporal sequences, and spatial relationships
amount pollution through PM2.5 m3
PM2.599p Heavily polluted regions When total annual pollution μg/
(Shaikh et al., 2022a, 2022b). These models are mostly used in the
>99th percentile m3 healthcare sector for disease prediction, patient outcome forecasting,
medical image analysis, drug discovery, and personalized treatment
planning, leveraging their ability to analyse complex datasets with high
period from 1980 to 2021, allowing for an in-depth longitudinal analysis accuracy (Ayub Khan Benazir Bhutto Shaheed University Lyari Karachi
of these health conditions over more than four decades. This temporal et al., 2022; Shaikh et al., 2022c). This study used, a CNN model to
range is crucial for understanding the trends, improvements, or de- predict mortality through various diseases by the extremes based on
teriorations in public health over time, and how various socio-economic, PM2.5 data. It merges state-wise PM2.5 statistics and health data,
environmental, and healthcare interventions may have influenced these focusing on four diseases: cardiovascular diseases, neurological disor-
trends. The data encompasses all states and union territories of India, ders, respiratory infections, and chronic respiratory diseases. The data is
ensuring a wide geographical coverage that includes diverse population filtered for each disease, and features (MPM25, PM25D, MAPM25 and
groups with varying socio-economic statuses, healthcare access levels, PM2599p) are standardised. A sliding window approach generates data
and environmental conditions. This granularity is essential for identi- sequences, which are then split into training and testing sets. The model,
fying state-specific health challenges and formulating targeted public a combination of a 1D Convolutional Neural Network (Conv1D) and a
health interventions. Moreover, the analysis was conducted separately Dense layer, is trained to predict mortality for each disease and for males
for both male and female populations, acknowledging the and females, respectively (Fig. 2). The convolutional layer captures
gender-specific health disparities within these disease categories. temporal patterns by applying filters across sequences of 5 consecutive
data points, followed by a max-pooling layer that reduces the data’s
5.2. Computation of short- and long-term pollution extremes dimensionality while preserving important features. After the convolu-
tional operations, the flattened output is passed through a fully con-
The present study proposed novel four major air pollution extremes nected Dense layer with 50 units, allowing the model to learn complex
(APE) to address the short and long-term effects of air pollution on relationships between the features. The final output layer is a single
health (Rautela & Goyal, 2025). The proposed APEs are mean annual neuron that predicts the mortality value for each state-year pair, cor-
PM2.5 concentrations (MPM2.5) and days when PM2.5 concentrations are responding to the specific disease and gender. After training, the model’s
greater than 40 μg/m3 (PM2.5D) for long-term and maximum annual predictions are scaled back to their original values, and the absolute
PM2.5 concentrations (MAPM2.5) and 99th percentile for PM2.5 concen- values are used to ensure non-negative predictions (Rautela et al.,
trations (PM2.599p) for short term over India during 1980–2023 2024a).
(Table 2). These APEs provide a comprehensive framework to evaluate Further, a different CNN architecture used in this study is designed to
the health impacts of air pollution by distinguishing between long-term effectively model the complex relationships between environmental
and short-term exposure effects. MPM2.5 and PM2.5D focus on sustained factors and health outcomes (Fig. 2). It begins with a series of 1D con-
exposure, which is critical for understanding chronic respiratory and volutional layers, each designed to capture local patterns within the
cardiovascular diseases, while MAPM2.5 and PM2.599p capture acute data. The first convolutional layer utilizes 64 filters, followed by batch
exposure episodes, aiding in the assessment of short-term health crises, normalisation to stabilise the training process and dropout to mitigate
such as respiratory distress and hospital admissions. Further, PM2.5 overfitting (Meghani et al., 2023; Singh & Goyal, 2023). The second
statistics and filtering the data for 1980–1990 and 2010–2020. Ten-year block contains 128 filters, continuing the process of learning more ab-
rolling averages for PM2.5 extremes (MPM2.5, PM2.5D, MAPM2.5 and stract features, with additional dropout layers to enhance model
PM2.599p) are calculated for each state and UTs. These averages are then robustness (Rautela et al., 2024a). A max-pooling layer follows, which
compared between the two periods to determine percentage changes. helps reduce the dimensionality of the feature maps while preserving
important information. The third convolutional layer, with 256 filters,
5.3. Interrelationships between pollution extremes and mortality through deepens the model’s ability to learn intricate patterns in the data. After
diseases the convolutional layers, the model is flattened, transforming the output
into a format suitable for dense layers. The dense layers employ L2
To examine the relationship between PM2.5 extremes and mortality regularization and dropout to prevent overfitting, providing a more
through these diseases’ linear regression and multi-linear analysis were generalised model that can adapt to new data (Rautela et al., 2024b).
carried out. The analysis is conducted separately for male and female The model is compiled with the Adam optimizer, known for its adaptive
populations to account for potential gender-specific differences in dis- learning rate, and trained using the mean squared error loss function,
ease susceptibility. For each disease, the methodology explores its which is appropriate for regression tasks. The training process runs for
relationship with 4 p.m.2.5 variables: MPM25, PM25D, MAPM25 and ~150 epochs with a batch size of 16, during which the model’s per-
PM2599p. Linear regression models are then fitted for each gender and formance is continually assessed using a validation split of 10%
mortality through various disease combinations. However multi-linear (Table 3). This ensures the model’s weights are optimised for training
regression uses the combined impact of these PM2.5 variables on data and generalisation to unseen data.
disease-specific mortality rates for each gender. The regression models
used the PM2.5 metrics as independent variables and mortality rates as 5.5. Model evaluation
the dependent variable. The model’s fit was evaluated using the R2
statistic, which measures the proportion of variance in mortality The evaluation of models is conducted through a detailed process
explained by PM2.5 variables. This approach provides insights into the that involves calculating and analysing several key performance metrics:
complex interactions between air pollution and public health, high- Mean Squared Error (MSE: loss function), R-squared (R2), Nash-Sutcliffe
lighting the necessity of gender-specific and disease-specific strategies in Efficiency (NSE), and Percent Bias (PBIAS) (Rautela et al., 2022; Sofi

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Fig. 2. CNN architecture for the prediction of mortality.

et al., 2023). These metrics are computed for both training and testing 5.6. Results and discussion
datasets to assess the model’s accuracy and predictive performance. The
MSE measures the average error magnitude between observed and 5.6.1. Extreme pollution indices
predicted values, while the R2 indicates the proportion of variance In the Indian subcontinent, there is significant spatiotemporal vari-
explained by the model. NSE evaluates the model’s predictive power ation in PM2.5 concentrations (Fig. 3). From 1980 to 2023, the MPM2.5
relative to a mean-based model, with values closer to 1 indicating better concentrations across all Indian states exceeded the World Health Or-
performance. PBIAS quantifies the overall bias of the predictions, with ganization (WHO) revised guidelines of 5 μg/m3 and the U.S. Environ-
positive values suggesting underestimation and negative values indi- mental Protection Agency (USEPA) guidelines of 12 μg/m3 (EPA, 2020;
cating overestimation. IHME, 2018; van Donkelaar et al., 2010; van Donkelaar et al., 2015; Yu
et al., 2023). However, according to the Central Pollution Control Board
Table 3 (CPCB) and National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) guide-
Hyperparameters used in the CNN model for disease prediction. lines, only the northern states exceeded the threshold of 40 μg/m3
S. Hyperparameters Description Value used
(Board, 2014). In terms of population exposure, 99.36% of the Indian
No. population is exposed to MPM2.5 levels above WHO recommendations.
The rolling averages between 1980-1990 and 2010–2020 indicate a
1 Batch size The number of images 16
processed per training rapid increase in PM2.5 concentrations across India, especially in the
iteration. Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) and eastern states (Fig. 4a). In these regions,
2 Kernel size The size of the convolutional 3 PM2.5 concentrations have more than doubled, showing an increase of
filter for the Conv1D layers.
over 200% compared to the 1980–1990 decade (Guttikunda & KA,
3 Learning rate Step size for weight updates 0.0002
during training.
2022). The higher PM2.5 concentrations are primarily due to a combi-
4 Optimizer Algorithm refining model Adam nation of anthropogenic activities and regional meteorological condi-
parameters based on tions (Bran & Srivastava, 2017). Northern India, particularly the
gradients. Indo-Gangetic Plain, suffers from severe air pollution due to dense in-
5 Controls the decay rate for 0.9
dustrial activities, high vehicular emissions, extensive agricultural
β1
the first moment estimate of
the gradient. stubble burning, and widespread biomass use for cooking, driven by the
6 β2 Controls the decay rate for 0.99 region’s high population density (Tripathi et al., 2024). Additionally,
the second moment estimate the topography and meteorological conditions, such as low wind speeds
of the gradient. and winter temperature inversions, trap pollutants close to the ground,
7 Loss function Measures prediction Mean Squared Error
accuracy. (MSE)
worsening air quality (Zhou et al., 2024). States like Delhi, Uttar Pra-
8 Number of hidden Depth of the neural network 6 (3 Conv1D layers desh, Punjab, and Haryana are particularly affected by these factors.
layers architecture. + 1 Flatten layer + Conversely, southern and northeastern states generally show lower
2 Dense layers) PM2.5 concentrations, likely due to lower levels of industrialization,
9 Activation function Introduces non-linearity. ReLU (in Conv1D
better air circulation, and more extensive green cover, which aids in
and Dense layers)
10 Pooling size The size of the pooling 2 dispersing pollutants. However, in rural areas, indoor air pollution from
window in the MaxPooling1D biomass burning still significantly contributes to overall PM2.5
layer. concentrations.
11 Regularization Regularization technique to L2(0.01) Similarly, the MAPM2.5 exhibits greater variations than MPM2.5
reduce overfitting.
12 Epochs Number of training 150
(Fig. 3b). States with higher forest cover, such as Madhya Pradesh and
iterations. the northeastern states, show MAPM2.5 levels between 300 and 400 μg/
13 Validation split Fraction of data to be used for 0.1 m3, likely due to wildfires. The study also observed a drastic change in
validation during training. rolling average MAPM2.5 between the two decades, with increases of up

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Fig. 3. State-wise pollution extremes (a) Mean Annual PM2.5 (b) Maximum Annual PM2.5 (c) 99th Percentile of PM2.5 and (d) Number of days when PM2.5 > NAAQS
limit (40 μg/m3).

to 400% in the eastern and northeastern regions of India (Fig. 4b). In concentrations, particularly in the IGP and eastern states, underscores
terms of extreme polluted days, PM2.599p shows higher values in central the interplay between anthropogenic activities and climatic factors,
and northern to northeastern regions compared to southern states necessitating region and sector-specific policy responses as highlighted
(Fig. 3c). Similarly, the rolling average changes are also higher in these by Ganguly et al. (Ganguly et al., 2020).
states (Fig. 4c). Regarding exposure (PM2.5D), the IGP and eastern re-
gions experience 120–150 days annually where PM2.5 levels exceed the 5.6.2. PM2.5 effect on health
NAAQS limit, while central regions have 80–100 days, and southern and The regression analysis of the MPM2.5 reveals that neurological dis-
northern states have 20–40 days (Fig. 3d). However, there has been a orders and chronic respiratory diseases exhibit the strongest correlations
drastic increase in polluted days across India, with a sixfold rise from with R2 values ranging from 0.18 to 0.21 for both males and females
1980 to 1990 to 2010–2020 (Fig. 4d). The rising number of extreme (Fig. S2). Conversely, respiratory infections and tuberculosis show the
polluted days, predominantly in central and northern states, demon- weakest correlations, with R2 values between 0.07 and 0.09. Cardio-
strates the growing public health risk from sustained air quality dete- vascular diseases fall in between, displaying a moderate correlation with
rioration (Yu et al., 2023). The substantial increase in PM2.5 R2 values of 0.15–0.16 (Fig. S2). However, the R2 values for the

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Fig. 4. State-wise decadal rolling averages [(1980–1990) and (2010–2020)] of various PM2.5 extremes and their percentage change.

MAPM2.5 suggest generally weak relationships across all health out- Combining all indices through multivariate analysis reveals some
comes, ranging from 0.01 to 0.06 (Fig. S3). Chronic respiratory diseases improvements in R2 values but still indicates limited predictive accuracy
present the highest correlation with R2 = 0.06, while cardiovascular (Fig. S6). Specifically, respiratory infections and tuberculosis exhibit
diseases show the lowest, with R2 values between 0.01 and 0.02 weak predictive relationships with R2 values of 0.17 for males and 0.15
(Fig. S3). For PM2.599p, R2 values suggest weak to moderate correlations for females. Neurological disorders show a slightly better performance,
across all health outcomes for both genders (Fig. S4). Chronic respira- with R2 values of 0.32 for males and 0.30 for females. Cardiovascular
tory diseases show the strongest relationship with R2 values between diseases and chronic respiratory diseases exhibit moderate predictive
0.09 and 0.10, while respiratory infections and tuberculosis display the power, with R2 values of 0.30 and 0.24 to 0.26, respectively, for both
weakest correlation with R2 values between 0.02 and 0.03 (Fig. S4). The genders. The red diagonal line in each plot illustrates the ideal scenario
wide scattering of data points underscores significant variability, with where predicted values perfectly match actual values. However, the data
minimal gender differences observed in R2 values and trend line slopes points’ spread around this line highlights the model’s limited predictive
across health outcomes. In the case of PM2.5D, the R2 values indicate accuracy, particularly for respiratory infections and tuberculosis. To
moderate correlations, with chronic respiratory diseases and neurolog- enhance predictive accuracy, we developed a CNN model with one
ical disorders showing better relationships (R2 = 0.14 to 0.16) (Fig. S5). dense layer. This model achieved an impressive R2 value of 0.776 across
Cardiovascular diseases and respiratory infections/tuberculosis exhibit all plots, demonstrating robust predictive capability (Fig. 5). The
weaker correlations with R2 values from 0.04 to 0.10 (Fig. S5). Despite model’s performance is stratified by state, gender, and individual dis-
this, the trend lines display a positive slope throughout all the extremes ease, with data points generally clustering along the diagonal. This in-
are associated with increased rates of these health conditions. The data dicates a reasonable fit across various regions, though some regional
points, although scattered, generally follow the upward trend, with disparities in prediction accuracy remain.
consistent relationships observed between males and females. Furthermore, we developed denser CNN model with 3 layers to

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Fig. 5. Observed and Predicted values of mortality based on CNN model (a) State-wise (b) Gender-wise and (c) Disease-wise.

predict spatio-temporal gender-wise mortality rate through various prevalence. Similar findings have been reported in several studies con-
disease for each state. For all the disease the model shows R2 value ducted across India and its surrounding regions, highlighting that
ranges in between 0.84-0.94 and 0.84–0.94 for males and females exposure to PM2.5 poses a significant mortality risk, contributing to
respectively. Figs. S6–S9 shows scatter plots and temporal variations for approximately one million deaths annually (Chatterjee et al., 2023; de
each disease and respective gender. The time series graphs reveal fluc- Bont et al., 2024). However, a positive correlation was also observed
tuations in mortality rates, with some notable spikes, particularly in between specific disease-related mortality rates and air pollution, with a
recent years. There are slight differences between training and testing 9% increase in stroke mortality for every 10 μg/m3 rise in PM2.5 levels
data predictions, especially visible in the females. However, the spatial (Adar & Pant, 2022). The multivariate analysis, despite modest im-
variations showed a clear north south divide with northern states, provements in R2 values, highlights the complexity of predicting health
particularly Uttar Pradesh, consistently showing higher mortality rates outcomes solely based on pollution indices. The development and
(dark red) compared to southern states for respiratory infections and deployment of CNN models have significantly enhanced predictive ca-
tuberculosis and chronic respiratory for both training and testing phase pabilities, achieving strong R2 values in most cases. A denser CNN model
(Fig. 6). Additionally, neurological disorders and cardiovascular mor- further refines predictions, demonstrating high accuracy for spatio-
tality patterns show a more complex distribution. Several states, temporal, gender-specific mortality forecasts.
including Uttar Pradesh in the north, Maharashtra in the west, and Tamil Assessing the health impacts of air pollution, discrepancies in esti-
Nadu in the south, consistently display high mortality rates. The model’s mates are often observed due to the continuous evolution of data,
predictions closely match the observed data for both genders and in both methodologies, and exposure assessment techniques (Rautela & Goyal,
training and testing sets, indicating good performance. There are slight 2025). These discrepancies, arising from changes in population dy-
variations between genders, with some states showing different in- namics, exposure levels, and epidemiological evidence, can lead to
tensities of mortality rates. The consistency in patterns between genders confusion and a lack of credibility in the findings (Evangelopoulos et al.,
implies that geographical factors may play a significant role in mortality 2020). Such variations in estimates highlight the challenges that poli-
rates. While subtle differences exist between observed and predicted cymakers, governments, and the public face when interpreting air
maps, especially for smaller states, the overall spatial distribution re- pollution data. For example, the approaches taken by major institutions
mains consistent. such as the WHO and the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation
Apart from the visual interpretations we have also used the statistical (IHME) to estimate exposure and health outcomes have evolved over
indices to judge the model efficiency of dense CNN using, R2, NSE and time (IHME, 2018; WHO, 2021). These agencies are working towards
PBIAS respectively. The R2 values, ranging from 0.84 to 0.96, indicate a producing a unified Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study, with a more
strong fit between the predicted and actual values, with particularly consistent methodology to reduce confusion and improve clarity.
high accuracy in the testing phase for Respiratory Infections and However, these discrepancies underline the need for transparent
Tuberculosis in males (R2 = 0.96) and females (R2 = 0.95). The NSE communication of new methods and updates, ensuring that they are
(Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency) values mirror the R2, reinforcing the model’s presented at a level of detail accessible to all stakeholders. Recent
strong predictive performance (Table 4). However, the PBIAS values studies have pointed out the uncertainties in the current risk functions
reveal some biases: negative PBIAS for males in the testing phase of used in the GBD estimates, highlighting areas where further improve-
Respiratory Infections and Tuberculosis (− 1.94 %) suggests slight ment is needed (Burnett & Cohen, 2020; Pope et al., 2018; Shaffer et al.,
overestimation, while a positive PBIAS in other cases, like 15.54 % for 2019). These studies identified the limitations in existing methods and
females in Neurological Disorders, indicates underestimation (Table 4). provided suggestions for refining risk assessments (Amnuaylojaroen &
The moderate to high PBIAS in certain cases, such as Chronic Respira- Parasin, 2023; de Bont et al., 2024; GBD & Global Burden of Disease,
tory Diseases in males during training (12.31%), suggests that while the 2021; Pandey et al., 2021a). While significant progress has been made,
model is generally accurate, there is room for improvement in reducing these uncertainties continue to challenge the accuracy of health esti-
bias and achieving better balance between underestimation and over- mates linked to air pollution (de Bont et al., 2024). Despite these chal-
estimation (Table 4). lenges, DL models offer a promising solution to enhance the predictive
The health impacts of PM2.5 are evident through its correlation with power of mortality and disease outcomes. DL’s ability to handle large
various diseases, where chronic respiratory conditions and neurological and complex datasets enables the generation of more precise pre-
disorders exhibit the strongest relationships. Although individual dictions, which can play a crucial role in developing effective strategies
pollution indices like MPM2.5, MAPM2.5, and PM2.599p show varying for mitigating the health impacts of air pollution. In this context, uti-
degrees of association with health outcomes, the overall trends indicate lizing DL models to assess mortality rates can offer new insights into the
a direct link between high pollution levels and increased disease relationship between air pollution and health outcomes, aiding the

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Fig. 6. Observed and predicted mortality rates for various diseases in India (1980–2021). Panels show results for respiratory infections and tuberculosis: (a) training,
(b) testing for males, (c) training, and (d) testing for females; neurological disorders: (e) training, (f) testing for males, (g) training, and (h) testing for females; chronic
respiratory diseases: (i) training, (j) testing for males, (k) training, and (l) testing for females; and cardiovascular diseases: (m) training, (n) testing for males, (o)
training, and (p) testing for females. Colour intensity indicates mortality rates, with darker red representing higher rates. (For interpretation of the references to
colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

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Fig. 6. (continued).

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K.S. Rautela and M.K. Goyal Technology in Society 81 (2025) 102843

Table 4
Model performance metrics for various diseases by gender for training and testing phase.
Disease Gender Set R2 NSE PBIAS (%)

Respiratory infections and tuberculosis Male Training 0.84 0.84 − 3.74

Respiratory infections and tuberculosis Male Testing 0.96 0.96 2.60
Respiratory infections and tuberculosis Female Training 0.95 0.95 9.45
Respiratory infections and tuberculosis Female Testing 0.86 0.86 − 1.94
Neurological disorders Male Training 0.93 0.93 7.14
Neurological disorders Male Testing 0.93 0.93 1.83
Neurological disorders Female Training 0.91 0.91 10.98
Neurological disorders Female Testing 0.87 0.87 15.54
Cardiovascular diseases Male Training 0.91 0.91 8.39
Cardiovascular diseases Male Testing 0.85 0.85 15.09
Cardiovascular diseases Female Training 0.91 0.91 7.60
Cardiovascular diseases Female Testing 0.88 0.88 9.13
Chronic respiratory diseases Male Training 0.94 0.94 12.31
Chronic respiratory diseases Male Testing 0.93 0.93 7.78
Chronic respiratory diseases Female Training 0.94 0.94 9.90
Chronic respiratory diseases Female Testing 0.89 0.89 11.60

Table 5
Overview of air pollution prevention policies, year of implementation, key details, and advantages in various countries.
Country Air Pollution Prevention Year of Details Advantages
Policies Implementation

United Clean Air Act 1970 Sets regulations to control air pollution Reduces emissions of harmful pollutants, protects public
States health, improves air quality, supports innovation in clean
energy technologies
​ National Ambient Air Quality 1970 Establishes limits for common pollutants Provides clear standards for compliance, facilitates
Standards (NAAQS) monitoring and enforcement, guides pollution control
efforts
​ Acid Rain Program 1990 Addresses acid rain through emissions Achieves pollution reductions cost-effectively, fosters
trading program innovation in emissions reduction strategies
​ Clean Power Plan (now 2015 (repealed in Aimed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions Encouraged transition to cleaner energy sources,
repealed) 2019) from power plants (repealed, but influenced promoted investment in renewable energy and energy
industry practices) efficiency measures
China Air Pollution Action Plan 2013 Targets specific pollutants and regions Addresses severe pollution issues, promotes regional
cooperation, encourages technology innovation, enhances
public awareness
​ National Ambient Air Quality 1982 Sets standards for air quality Establishes benchmarks for pollution control, guides
Standards (NAAQS) regulatory actions, protects public health
​ Air Pollution Control Zones 2000 Designates areas for focused pollution Enables targeted interventions, optimizes resource
control measures allocation, mitigates localized pollution impacts
India National Clean Air Programme 2019 Aims to reduce air pollution in urban areas Focuses on source-specific action plans, integrates air
(NCAP) quality monitoring, facilitates timely response to pollution
events, promotes public awareness
​ Air Quality Index (AQI) 2014 Provides real-time air quality information Raises public awareness, enables informed decision-
making, promotes behavior changes towards pollution
reduction
​ Graded Response Action Plan 2017 Implements actions based on severity of air Enhances emergency preparedness, ensures coordinated
(GRAP) pollution levels response to pollution episodes, minimizes health impacts
European Ambient Air Quality Directive 1996 Sets limits for pollutants Harmonizes air quality standards across member states,
Union supports transboundary cooperation, drives innovation in
clean technologies
​ National Emission Ceilings 2001 Establishes emission reduction targets Guides emission reduction efforts, ensures progress
Directive (NECD) towards pollution reduction goals, supports international
commitments
​ Clean Vehicle Directive 2009 Regulates emissions from vehicles Promotes adoption of cleaner vehicle technologies,
reduces transportation-related pollution emissions
Japan Air Pollution Control Law 1968 Regulates emissions from specified sources Strengthens regulatory framework, enhances data
availability, promotes pollution prevention, fosters
corporate accountability
​ Pollutant Release and Transfer 2001 Increases transparency of emissions Empowers public and stakeholders, promotes corporate
Register (PRTR) responsibility, facilitates pollution reduction planning
Canada Canadian Environmental 1999 Regulates air pollutants Facilitates multi-stakeholder collaboration, supports
Protection Act evidence-based policymaking, promotes public
participation, drives continuous improvement
​ National Air Pollution 1969 Monitors air quality across the country Provides data for informed decision-making, supports
Surveillance Network (NAPS) targeted pollution control measures, enables trend
analysis
​ Clean Air Regulatory Agenda 2012 Sets out a comprehensive framework for air Streamlines regulatory processes, ensures consistency in
quality management pollution control efforts, facilitates stakeholder
engagement
Australia National Clean Air Agreement 1992 Coordinates air quality management Promotes national consistency in air quality management,
provides legal framework for pollution control, protects
human health and environment
​ National Environment 1998 Sets standards for pollutants Safeguards public health, guides pollution control efforts,
Protection (Ambient Air ensures compliance with international obligations
Quality) Measure

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formulation of targeted policies that aim to reduce air pollution expo- form of PM2.5, has emerged as a significant environmental health haz-
sure and its associated health risks. ard, exacerbated by rapid urbanization, industrialization, and vehicular
emissions. The analysis, using MERRA-2 reanalysis data and Global
6. Global policies to reduce the air pollution Burden of Disease (GBD) data from 1980 to 2021, reveals pronounced
spatial and temporal variations in air pollution levels across India.
Several air pollution prevention policies across several countries, Northern and eastern regions experience the highest concentrations and
highlighting their implementation years, objectives, and benefits in the most polluted days, with drastic increases in PM2.5 levels over the
Table 5. The United States’ Clean Air Act and NAAQS, established in decades, especially in the Indo-Gangetic Plains and eastern states. The
1970, set the foundation for controlling harmful emissions and setting correlation analysis between PM2.5 levels and health outcomes show
clear air quality standards, influencing global practices (Summary of the moderate to strong associations for neurological disorders and chronic
Clean Air). China’s National Air Quality Action Plan (2013) and similar respiratory diseases, while weaker correlations are observed for respi-
standards focus on targeted regional interventions and technological ratory infections and tuberculosis. The deep learning models, including
innovation to combat severe pollution. India’s NCAP (2019) emphasizes the CNN architecture, demonstrate robust predictive capabilities with
urban air quality with source-specific action plans and integrates high R2 values for forecasting disease-related mortality. Regional dis-
real-time monitoring through AQI and emergency measures like GRAP parities are evident, with northern states like Uttar Pradesh exhibiting
(China: National Air Quality Action). The European Union’s directives persistently high rates of respiratory infections and cardiovascular dis-
harmonize air quality standards across member states, promoting eases. The enhanced CNN model, with improved accuracy and reduced
innovation and transboundary cooperation (EU, 2020). Japan’s Air bias, offers valuable insights into spatiotemporal disease mortality pat-
Pollution Control Law (1968) (Ministry of the Environment, 1968) and terns across India, highlighting the need for targeted public health in-
PRTR enhance regulatory frameworks and corporate accountability, terventions. The findings underscore the urgency of implementing
while Canada’s Environmental Protection Act (1999) and monitoring comprehensive air quality management policies to mitigate health im-
networks support collaborative, evidence-based policymaking pacts, focusing on emission reduction, cleaner technologies, and
(Barton-Maclaren et al., 2022). Australia’s National Clean Air Agree- enhanced public awareness.
ment (1992) coordinates air quality management nationwide, ensuring
consistency in pollution control (Chiodo, 2015). Each country designs its CRediT authorship contribution statement
approach to local challenges, balancing regulation, innovation, and
public engagement to improve air quality and protect public health. Kuldeep Singh Rautela: Writing – review & editing, Writing –
India introduced its air pollution policies relatively late compared to original draft, Visualization, Software, Methodology, Investigation,
other nations, largely due to rapid industrialization, urbanization, and Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Manish Kumar
economic growth that outpaced environmental regulations (Guttikunda, Goyal: Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Validation, Supervi-
Ka, et al., 2023). Findings of this study also underline the urgent need for sion, Resources, Methodology, Data curation, Conceptualization.
policymakers to implement region-specific and sector-targeted policies
to mitigate the growing health impacts of PM2.5 pollution in India. The
NCAP should be strengthened by integrating stricter air quality stan- Declaration of competing interest
dards, particularly in the Indo-Gangetic Plains and northern states,
where pollution levels are highest. Policy frameworks like the State The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
Action Plans for Air Quality Management (SAPs) must be tailored to interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
address localized sources such as agricultural stubble burning and in- the work reported in this paper.
dustrial emissions, particularly in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana.
To address the health impacts, the National Health Policy (NHP) should Acknowledgement
incorporate air pollution mitigation as a core element, with special
emphasis on chronic respiratory diseases, neurological disorders, and We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the Department of
cardiovascular health. This includes ensuring access to early diagnostics Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Indore, for their sup-
and treatments in highly polluted areas. In the agriculture sector, the port and resources, which have been instrumental in the successful
Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) could be enhanced by completion of the present study. We also extend our heartfelt thanks to
promoting cleaner, sustainable farming practices and the reduction of the DST-Centre for Policy Research, IIT Indore, for their invaluable
biomass burning, which is a significant contributor to PM2.5 levels. guidance and contributions, particularly in reviewing existing air
Urban planning policies under the Smart Cities Mission should integrate pollution policies, which have significantly enriched the quality of this
green infrastructure, public transport expansion, and industrial reloca- research.
tion to reduce urban air pollution. Regional policies focusing on the
northeastern and central states should incorporate better forest fire Appendix A. Supplementary data
management practices under the National Afforestation Programme to
curb wildfires, a significant source of pollution. Furthermore, the Inte- Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
grated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) must prioritize air org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2025.102843.
pollution-related health conditions, with guidelines for monitoring and
reporting morbidity and mortality linked to PM2.5 exposure. However, Data availability
there is a need to establish clear guidelines for public awareness cam-
paigns under the Swachh Bharat Mission, focusing on educating the Data will be made available on request.
population about the dangers of indoor air pollution and promoting the
use of cleaner cooking technologies.
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