SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology

Manish Kumar Goyal · Kuldeep Singh Rautela

Aerosol Atmospheric
Rivers
Availability, Spatiotemporal
Characterisation,
Predictability, and Impacts
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Manish Kumar Goyal · Kuldeep Singh Rautela

Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers

Availability, Spatiotemporal Characterisation,
Predictability, and Impacts
Manish Kumar Goyal Kuldeep Singh Rautela
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Indore Indian Institute of Technology Indore
Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India

ISSN 2191-530X ISSN 2191-5318 (electronic)

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Preface

Aerosol pollution, with its diverse sources and significant impacts on climate,
weather, and health, poses a complex environmental challenge. Among the various
phenomena contributing to this issue, Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers (AARs) have
emerged as a critical area of study. AARs, similar to atmospheric rivers (ARs)
that transport moisture, carry concentrated aerosols across vast distances, affecting
regions far beyond their origin. Understanding the dynamics and impacts of AARs is
essential for improving our predictive capabilities and developing effective mitigation
strategies.
In recent years, integrating data mining, artificial intelligence (AI), and machine
learning (ML) into environmental science has revolutionized our ability to study
and assess aerosol pollution. These advanced computational techniques enable us to
process large datasets, uncover hidden patterns, and create robust predictive models.
This book explores this cutting-edge intersection, showcasing the potential of AI and
ML in enhancing our understanding towards the transportation of aerosols.
The book provides a comprehensive overview of aerosol science, starting with the
fundamental concepts and moving into the specifics of AARs, including their detec-
tion, monitoring, and impacts on air quality and health. Through detailed discus-
sions and case studies, it highlights the transformative role of AI and ML in fore-
casting aerosol concentrations, identifying pollution hotspots, and predicting the
spatio-temporal patterns of AARs.
This book aims to equip researchers, policymakers, and practitioners with the
knowledge and tools to tackle aerosol pollution. Harnessing the power of arti-
ficial intelligence and fostering interdisciplinary collaboration, accurate predic-
tions, effective mitigation strategies, and ultimately safeguarding public health and
environmental quality may be developed.

Indore, India Manish Kumar Goyal

Kuldeep Singh Rautela

v
Contents

1 Understanding the Significance of Aerosol Pollution and Aerosol

Atmospheric Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Aerosol Pollution: Sources and Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Natural Sources of Aerosols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Anthropogenic Sources of Aerosols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.3 Composition of Aerosols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Impacts of Aerosol Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 Direct Effects of Aerosol Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Indirect Effects of Aerosol Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Impacts on Air Quality and Public Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.1 Respiratory Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.2 Cardiovascular Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.3 Premature Mortality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Mitigation Strategies for Aerosol Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.1 Regulatory Measures: Clean Air Act in the United States . . . 8
1.5.2 Technological Innovations: Electrostatic Precipitators
in Industrial Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.3 Behavioural Changes: Public Awareness Campaigns
on Clean Cooking Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers (AARs): Formation and Dynamics . . . . 10
1.6.1 Formation Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.2 Dynamics of Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Detection and Spatio-Temporal
Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 Formation and Dynamics of Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.1 Factors Contributing to the Formation of AARs . . . . . . . . . . . 21

vii
viii Contents

2.2.2 Role of Aerosols in AAR Formation and Transport . . . . . . . . 22

2.2.3 Interaction Between AARs and Meteorological
Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 Aerosols Atmospheric Rivers (AARs): Types and Sources . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 Health Impacts of Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5 Monitoring of Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5.1 Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5.3 Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5.4 Reconstruction of Past Events and Checking
the Availability of AARs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5.5 Analysis of AAR-Induced Air Quality Deterioration
and Associated Health Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6 Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.7 Future Directions and Research Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3 Application of Data Mining and AI&ML in Aerosol Pollution
and Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2 Data Mining Techniques for Aerosol Pollution Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2.1 Data Sources for Aerosol Pollution Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2.2 Overview of Data Mining Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 Application of Data Mining in Analysing Aerosol Pollution Data . . . 46
3.3.1 Clustering Algorithms for Identifying Aerosol Pollution
Hotspots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3.2 Classification Algorithms for Predicting Aerosol
Pollution Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3.3 Association Rule Mining for Identifying Correlations
Between Aerosol Pollution and Meteorological Variables . . . 47
3.4 AI&ML Applications in Aerosol Pollution Monitoring
and Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4.1 Overview of AI&ML Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4.2 Application of AI&ML in Aerosol Pollution Monitoring . . . . 48
3.4.3 Time Series Analysis for Predicting Future Aerosol
Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.4.4 Neural Networks for Forecasting Aerosol Concentration
Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.4.5 Fuzzy Logic (FL) for Air Pollution Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.4.6 Support Vector Machines (SVM) for Classifying
Aerosol Pollution Severity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4.7 Deep Learning Techniques for Image-Based Aerosol
Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.5 Case Study on Prediction of AARs Using AI&ML . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Contents ix

3.5.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.5.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.5.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.6 Challenges and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Impacts on Particulate Matter
Concentrations and Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.2 Overview of Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) and Particulate
Matter (PM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.3 Remote Sensing Data for AOD Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.4 Satellite-Based Particulate Matter (PM) Concentration
Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.5 Estimation of Particulate Matter Concentrations from Satellite
Reanalysis Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.5.1 Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.5.2 PM2.5 Concentration and Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.6 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers and Particulate Matter (PM) . . . . . . . . . 73
4.6.1 Correlation and Spatial Selectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.6.2 PM2.5 Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5 Mitigation, Adaptation, and Resilience Strategies for Extreme
Aerosol Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.2 Mitigation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.2.1 Reduction of Anthropogenic Aerosol Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.2.2 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) Technologies . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.2.3 Nature-Based Solutions to Enhance Natural Aerosol
Removal Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.3 Adaptation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.3.1 Urban Planning and Design to Minimize Aerosol
Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.3.2 Health and Education Programs for Vulnerable
Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.3.3 Climate-Resilient Agriculture Practices to Mitigate
Aerosol Impacts on Crop Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.4 Resilience Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.4.1 Early Warning Systems for Extreme Aerosol Events . . . . . . . 92
5.4.2 Community-Based Resilience Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Chapter 1
Understanding the Significance
of Aerosol Pollution and Aerosol
Atmospheric Rivers

Abstract The air quality, weather patterns, and temperature of Earth are all signif-
icantly impacted by aerosols, which are tiny particles suspended in the atmosphere.
Aerosols come in a wide range of sizes and compositions from both natural and
man-made sources, ranging from mineral dust to pollutants released during indus-
trial processes. Aerosols have a significant impact on ecosystems, local air quality,
and climate trends due to their complex transport mechanisms, which include turbu-
lent mixing and atmospheric circulation patterns. Aerosol pollution also affects
clouds in a variety of ways, causing changes in their characteristics, absorbing,
and reflecting solar energy, and aggravating respiratory and cardiovascular condi-
tions. Mitigation solutions for this ubiquitous environmental concern include tech-
nology advancements, governmental initiatives, and behavioural changes. Aerosol
emissions have been notably reduced by laws like the Clean Air Act in the United
States, and particulate matter from industrial pollutants can be effectively removed by
devices like electrostatic precipitators. Clean cooking techniques are also promoted
by public awareness efforts, which help to lower aerosol pollution both indoors and
outdoors. Additionally, the recently developed idea of aerosol atmospheric rivers
(AARs) reveals lengthy, narrow passageways of concentrated aerosol particles that
are driven by complex atmospheric dynamics and synoptic-scale circulation patterns
through the atmosphere. AARs are crucial for advancing predictive capabilities
and implementing effective mitigation strategies to combat aerosol pollution and
its far-reaching impacts on climate, weather, and public health.

Keywords Aerosol pollution · Air quality · Aerosol atmospheric rivers (AARs) ·

Public health

1.1 Introduction

Aerosols, tiny particles suspended in Earth’s atmosphere, play a pivotal role in

shaping our planet’s climate, weather patterns, and air quality (Kuniyal and Guleria
2019). Aerosols are extremely diverse in terms of their sources and composition,

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2 1 Understanding the Significance of Aerosol Pollution and Aerosol …

and they range in size from a few nanometres to several micrometres (Pryor et al.
2015). Aerosols encompass various particle types, each with distinct characteristics
and origins (Seinfeld 2015). Primary aerosols, which come from natural sources
such as mineral dust particles carried by wind from arid regions and sea salt aerosols
produced by ocean spray, are released directly into the atmosphere (Tomasi and
Lupi 2017). Air pollutants like sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate
matter are released into the atmosphere by human activities like industrial processes,
burning fossil fuels, and agricultural practices (Amann et al. 2020). These activities
are known as anthropogenic primary aerosols. Ammonia, nitrogen oxides, sulphur
dioxide, volatile organic compounds, and other precursor gases react chemically in
the atmosphere to produce secondary aerosols (Chen et al. 2019). These processes
result in the production of organic, secondary organic, nitrate, and sulphate aerosols,
which add to a load of anthropogenic and natural aerosols. Aerosols travel through a
variety of intricate processes once they are released, such as turbulent mixing, atmo-
spheric convection, and large-scale circulation patterns, all of which are impacted by
atmospheric dynamics. Long-term suspension in the atmosphere allows fine aerosol
particles to travel great distances over continents and even oceans (Adebiyi et al.
2023). Jet streams and trade winds are examples of atmospheric circulation systems
that are important for the global redistribution of aerosols, which impacts ecosystem
dynamics, regional air quality, and climate trends (Goyal et al. 2012; Chakraborty
et al. 2016). Weather events like dust storms, volcanic eruptions, and wildfires can
also increase aerosol transport because they release a lot of aerosol particles into
the atmosphere, which promotes long-distance movement and extensive dispersion
(Wang and Strong 2019; Sarkar et al. 2019). Accurately evaluating aerosol trans-
portation processes is necessary to determine their effects on local and global climate,
weather, and air quality.
Aerosol pollution has a wide range of diverse effects (Goyal and Ojha 2011;
Koplitz et al. 2016; Sarkar et al. 2019). Aerosol particles scatter and absorb solar
radiation, causing changes to the Earth’s energy balance and local temperature trends
(Pöschl 2005). These are known as direct impacts. Aerosol-cloud interactions have
indirect impacts that affect precipitation processes, cloud formation, and character-
istics (Silva et al. 2020). Aerosols can also deteriorate the quality of the air, which
increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, respiratory ailments, and early death
(Southerland et al. 2022). Aerosols and atmospheric processes interact in a compli-
cated way, which emphasizes how crucial it is to comprehend their origins, composi-
tions, and effects on weather, climate, and public health (Hidy 2019; Jha et al. 2019;
Sharma and Goyal 2020; Kuniyal et al. 2021; Kumar et al. 2021b, a; Poonia et al.
2021).
Furthermore, atmospheric scientists are becoming increasingly interested in the
idea of aerosol atmospheric rivers (AARs) (Chakraborty et al. 2021, 2022; Rautela
et al. 2024a). Aerosol atmospheric rivers are extended passageways of concentrated
aerosol particles that travel great distances across the atmosphere (Chakraborty et al.
2022). While sharing characteristics with moisture-based atmospheric rivers, aerosol
atmospheric rivers are distinct in their composition and impacts on atmospheric
1.2 Aerosol Pollution: Sources and Composition 3

dynamics and weather patterns (Singh et al. 2023; Singh and Goyal 2023a, b). Under-
standing the formation, dynamics, and implications of aerosol atmospheric rivers is
crucial for advancing our knowledge of atmospheric processes and their interactions
with aerosol particles.
Aerosol pollution mitigation calls for coordinated efforts on several fronts,
including governmental interventions, technology developments, and behavioural
adjustments (Burns et al. 2019). Anthropogenic aerosol emissions from the trans-
portation, energy, and industrial sectors can be decreased with the support of regula-
tory measures including pollution controls, emissions standards, and incentives for
the adoption of clean energy (Aminzadegan et al. 2022). Investments in sustain-
able practices and cleaner technology research and development are crucial for
reducing aerosol pollution while fostering economic expansion and environmental
sustainability.

1.2 Aerosol Pollution: Sources and Composition

Aerosol pollution is a result of both natural and human activities, and it poses a
major threat to the environment because of its wide-ranging effects on the climate, air
quality, and human health (Li et al. 2017). Understanding the origins and makeup of
aerosols is imperative in evaluating their impacts and executing efficacious measures
to mitigate them (Fig. 1.1). An extensive examination of aerosol pollution is given
in this part, which also clarifies its complicated composition and range of causes.

Aerosols Sources and

Composition
Anthropogenic Sources
Natural Sources

Fig. 1.1 Aerosols, their sources and composition

4 1 Understanding the Significance of Aerosol Pollution and Aerosol …

1.2.1 Natural Sources of Aerosols

Aerosols are released into the atmosphere by natural events such as dust storms,
wildfires, volcanic eruptions, and biogenic emissions (Fig. 1.1). Massive amounts
of mineral dust particles are produced by dust storms, which are caused by wind
erosion of dry and semi-arid terrain (Qian et al. 2011). Long-distance transport by
these particles can have an impact on visibility and air quality in areas distant from
their source (Nair et al. 2005). The atmospheric composition and regional climate
patterns are impacted by the emissions of smoke particles, organic carbon, and other
aerosols caused by wildfires (Talukdar et al. 2021). Volcanic eruptions release ash,
sulphur dioxide, and other volcanic aerosols into the atmosphere, which change air
circulation and scatter sunlight, so affecting the global climate (Langmann 2014).

1.2.2 Anthropogenic Sources of Aerosols

Aerosol pollution is largely caused by human activity in several ways, such as energy
generation, transportation, industrial processes, and agricultural practices (Haywood
2021) (Fig. 1.1). Industrial aerosols are created when pollutants like sulphur dioxide
(SO2 ), nitrogen oxides (NOx ), and particulate matter (PM) are released during
activities including mining, manufacturing, and burning (He et al. 2014). These
aerosols, which contain sulphate, nitrate, and black carbon particles, are responsible
for the development of smog, acid rain, and respiratory ailments (Speight 2017).
Transportation-related activities create exhaust emissions that contain aerosol parti-
cles and greenhouse gases, especially when fossil fuels are burned in cars, aeroplanes,
and ships (Aakko-Saksa et al. 2023; Rönkkö et al. 2023). Vehicle exhaust produces
fine particulate matter (PM2.5 ), which is a component of urban air pollution that has an
impact on ecosystems and human health (Board 2014). Sulphur dioxide and particu-
late matter are also released during the power-generating process in coal-fired power
plants, which adds to local air pollution and atmospheric deposition. However, some
aerosols and greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere because of agricul-
tural activities such as burning biomass, managing crop residue, and raising animals
(Lima et al. 2022). Burning biomass releases organic carbon, smoke particles, and
trace gases that change the composition of the atmosphere and local air quality.
Ammonia emissions from cattle farming can combine with other contaminants to
create secondary aerosols like ammonium nitrate (Wyer et al. 2022).

1.2.3 Composition of Aerosols

The variety of sources and atmospheric processes that contribute to the creation of
aerosols is reflected in their compositions (Pöschl 2005). Apart from the primary
1.3 Impacts of Aerosol Pollution 5

aerosols that are released into the atmosphere directly, precursor gases such as
ammonia, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, and volatile organic compounds also
play a role in the formation of secondary aerosols (SOAs) (Tomasi and Lupi 2017).
Secondary organic aerosols, nitrate aerosols, organic aerosols, and sulphate aerosols
are all produced by these reactions and add to a load of anthropogenic and natural
aerosols (Srivastava et al. 2022). Aerosol compositions show the diversity of atmo-
spheric processes and sources that contribute to their formation. Sulphate aerosols
are a significant element of fine particulate matter and play a role in acid deposition,
aerosol pollution, and climate forcing. Sulphate aerosols are produced when sulphur
dioxide (SO2 ) emissions oxidise (Hirdman et al. 2010). Nitrogen oxides (NOx ) and
ammonia (NH3 ) emissions oxidise to produce nitrate aerosols, which are involved
in atmospheric chemistry and regional air quality (Pai et al. 2021). Complex mixes
of carbonaceous molecules released from both natural and man-made sources, such
as burning biomass, burning fossil fuels, and biogenic emissions, make up organic
aerosols (Qian et al. 2011). Black carbon absorbs sunlight and contributes to global
warming and localized air pollution (Ajay et al. 2021). It is a part of the particulate
matter released by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biomass, and biofuels.
Mineral dust aerosols are produced as rocks and soil mechanically weather (Nair
et al. 2005). They are common in dry and semi-arid areas and add to atmospheric dust
loading, which has an impact on ecosystem dynamics, air quality, and temperature
(Ajay et al. 2021).

1.3 Impacts of Aerosol Pollution

The Earth’s climate system, atmospheric processes, air quality, and public health are
all significantly impacted by aerosol pollution (Zhou et al. 2017; Li et al. 2017). These
effects can be divided into two categories: aerosol-sun radiation interactions, or direct
effects, and aerosol-cloud interactions, or indirect effects. Aerosols also contribute to
the deterioration of air quality, which has a negative impact on health and increases
the risk of early death, cardiovascular problems, and respiratory ailments.

1.3.1 Direct Effects of Aerosol Pollution

1.3.1.1 Scattering of Solar Radiation

Aerosols change the way solar energy is distributed in the atmosphere by diffracting
incoming solar radiation both directly through reflection and indirectly through
diffraction (Table 1.1). The Earth’s energy budget is impacted by this scattering
mechanism, which alters radiative forcing and regional temperature patterns (Quaas
and Gryspeerdt 2022). Aerosols with light colours, like sulphate particles, tend to
scatter more solar radiation, which cools the Earth’s surface (Zhang 2020).
6 1 Understanding the Significance of Aerosol Pollution and Aerosol …

Table 1.1 Direct and indirect effects of aerosol pollution on atmospheric processes
Direct effects Impact
Scattering of solar radiation Reduces incoming solar radiation, leading to cooling of the
atmosphere and surface temperatures
Absorption of solar radiation Warms the atmosphere locally, especially in regions with
high concentrations of absorbing aerosols such as black
carbon
Changes in radiative forcing Aerosols contribute to both positive (warming) and negative
(cooling) radiative forcing depending on their composition,
concentration, and altitude in the atmosphere
Indirect Effects Impact
Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) Aerosols act as CCN, influencing cloud droplet formation
and cloud albedo
Cloud microphysics Aerosols can alter cloud droplet size distribution, cloud
optical properties, and cloud lifetime
Precipitation processes Aerosols may enhance or suppress precipitation, depending
on factors such as aerosol type, concentration, and cloud
dynamics

1.3.1.2 Absorption of Solar Radiation

Certain aerosol particles absorb incoming solar radiation, especially black carbon,
and some forms of organic carbon, which causes the atmosphere to warm locally (Li
et al. 2022) (Table 1.1). In locations with significant concentrations of black carbon
aerosols, for example, in densely populated regions such as the Indo-Gangetic Plains,
eastern China region, this absorption can cause the formation of urban heat islands
and contribute to regional climate patterns (Wu et al. 2017).

1.3.2 Indirect Effects of Aerosol Pollution

1.3.2.1 Aerosol-Cloud Interactions

Aerosols provide surfaces for water vapour condensation and ice crystal production
within clouds by acting as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) and ice nuclei (IN)
(Rosenfeld et al. 2016). Cloud longevity, precipitation processes, and droplet size
distribution are all impacted by this process, which modifies cloud microphysics.
Higher aerosol concentrations could produce higher cloud droplet concentrations,
which may limit rainfall by causing smaller cloud droplets to form (Barthlott et al.
2022).
1.4 Impacts on Air Quality and Public Health 7

1.3.2.2 Modification of Cloud Properties

Cloud characteristics including albedo, optical thickness, and cloud fraction can also
be influenced by aerosols (Barthlott et al. 2022). Cloud albedo and reflectivity can
be increased by aerosol particles acting as CCN, which can result in the creation
of more numerous but smaller cloud droplets (Quaas and Gryspeerdt 2022). The
Earth’s surface may cool because of this increase in cloud albedo reflecting more
solar radiation back into space.

1.4 Impacts on Air Quality and Public Health

1.4.1 Respiratory Diseases

Breathing in fine particulate matter (PM2.5 ) from aerosol pollution can irritate and
inflame the respiratory system, making respiratory disorders including bronchitis,
asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease worse (COPD) (Table 1.2)
(Murray et al. 2020; Southerland et al. 2022). Lung cancer, decreased lung function,
and respiratory infections have all been related to long-term high PM2.5 exposure
(Turner et al. 2011).

Table 1.2 Impacts of aerosol pollution on human health

Impacts Consequences Case study
Respiratory PM2.5 can exacerbate respiratory Studies have shown that each 10 µg/m3
diseases conditions such as asthma, increase in PM2.5 concentration is
bronchitis, and chronic obstructive associated with a 4% increase in
pulmonary disease (COPD) hospital admissions and 10–17%
increase in mortality for respiratory
diseases (Xing et al. 2016)
Cardiovascular Long-term exposure to PM2.5 is Research indicates that long-term
disorders associated with an increased risk exposure to elevated PM2.5 levels is
of cardiovascular diseases, linked to a 12–14% higher risk of
including heart attacks, strokes, cardiovascular mortality (Jalali et al.
and hypertension 2021)
Premature Air pollution-related illnesses Globally, air pollution is estimated to
mortality contribute to premature deaths, cause over 5 million premature deaths
particularly among vulnerable annually, with PM2.5 being a significant
populations such as children, the contributor (Thangavel et al. 2022)
elderly, and individuals with
pre-existing health conditions
8 1 Understanding the Significance of Aerosol Pollution and Aerosol …

1.4.2 Cardiovascular Disorders

An increased risk of cardiovascular conditions such as hypertension, heart attacks,

strokes, and arrhythmias are linked to aerosol pollution (Lee et al. 2014) (Table 1.2).
Through the lungs, fine particulate matter can enter the bloodstream and cause oxida-
tive stress, endothelial dysfunction, and systemic inflammation (Jalali et al. 2021).
These factors all have a role in the onset and progression of cardiovascular illnesses.

1.4.3 Premature Mortality

An increased risk of premature death is associated with long-term exposure to high

aerosol pollution levels, especially fine particulate matter (Park et al. 2020). Aerosol
pollution affects more than just respiratory and cardiovascular illnesses; it also affects
other organ systems and increases the risk of premature death, particularly in vulner-
able groups like the elderly, children, and people with underlying medical disorders
when expose to longer periods such as months or years (Thangavel et al. 2022).

1.5 Mitigation Strategies for Aerosol Pollution

Public health, economic development, and environmental sustainability are all seri-
ously threatened by aerosol pollution. Aerosol pollution must be addressed with a
multimodal strategy that includes legislative actions, technology advancements, and
behavioural adjustments (Fig. 1.2). This section examines the many mitigation tech-
niques used throughout the world to lower aerosol emissions and enhance air quality,
demonstrating their efficacy with case studies and real datasets.

1.5.1 Regulatory Measures: Clean Air Act in the United

States

One of the most extensive legislative frameworks for managing air quality in the US
is the Clean Air Act (CAA) (“Summary of the Clean Air Act | US EPA,”). The Clean
Air Act (CAA), which was passed in 1970 and later updated, sets national air quality
requirements for specific pollutants such as lead, carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur
dioxide (SO2 ), nitrogen oxides (NOx ), and particle matter (PM2.5 and PM10 ) (Hopke
2009). By means of emissions regulations, pollution controls, and permit require-
ments, the CAA gives the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to
limit emissions from automobiles, power plants, and other sources (McCarthy et al.
2014). The CAA has significantly improved air quality and public health outcomes
1.5 Mitigation Strategies for Aerosol Pollution 9

Fig. 1.2 Mitigation strategies for reducing air pollution

by lowering aerosol pollution levels across the country over the years. Emissions
of major air pollutants covered by the Clean Air Act have significantly decreased,
according to EPA data. The Clean Air Act regulates some air pollutants, and from
1970–2019, emissions of these pollutants have significantly decreased, according to
EPA data. For instance, emissions of particulate matter (PM2.5 ) dropped by 43%,
sulphur dioxide (SO2 ) by 91%, and nitrogen oxides (NOx ) by 74% between 1970
and 2019 (Ross et al. 2012). These decreases show how successful regulatory actions
have been in reducing aerosol pollution and raising national air quality.

1.5.2 Technological Innovations: Electrostatic Precipitators

in Industrial Settings

Particulate matter is extracted from industrial exhaust streams using electrostatic

precipitators (ESPs), a type of air pollution control technology (Vallero 2024). Elec-
trostatically charged aerosol particles are attracted to electrodes or collection plates
via electrostatic attraction, which is how ESPs work (Miller 2005). To lower emis-
sions of fine particulate matter, such as fly ash and black carbon, this technique
is commonly used in steel mills, cement kilns, coal-fired power stations, and other
10 1 Understanding the Significance of Aerosol Pollution and Aerosol …

industrial facilities (Kim et al. 2012). Research has indicated that electrostatic precip-
itators (ESPs) can effectively remove aerosol contaminants (up to 91.5%) with high
removal efficiency, hence reducing air pollution and its associated environmental
implications (Zhou et al. 2022). Electrostatic precipitators placed in coal-fired power
stations can achieve particulate matter removal efficiency surpassing 99% (White
2013). Significant reductions in fine particulate matter emissions are achieved with
this high degree of control, improving local populations’ public health and air quality.

1.5.3 Behavioural Changes: Public Awareness Campaigns

on Clean Cooking Practices

People are exposed to high concentrations of aerosol pollutants in many developing

nations because domestic cooking and heating using solid fuels such as biomass, coal,
and wood contributes to indoor and outdoor air pollution (Smith and Pillarisetti 2017).
Household emissions of aerosols and other pollutants can be decreased with the
support of public awareness campaigns and behavioural interventions that promote
clean cooking methods including the use of clean fuels (such as liquefied petroleum
gas) and upgraded cookstoves. To encourage the use of cleaner technology, these
activities frequently include community engagement, educational initiatives, and
financial incentives. WHO discovered that replacing conventional solid fuel cook-
stoves with cleaner models might significantly lower indoor air pollution levels and
the health concerns that go along with them (WHO 2014). Adoption of better cook-
stoves, for instance, has been demonstrated to reduce carbon monoxide emissions
by up to 50% and particulate matter emissions by up to 90%, improving respiratory
health outcomes and lowering the prevalence of respiratory disorders in women and
children (Phillip et al. 2023).

1.6 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers (AARs): Formation

and Dynamics

Aerosol atmospheric rivers (AARs) are elongated and narrow corridors of concen-
trated aerosol particles traversing the atmosphere over long distances (Chakraborty
et al. 2022; Rautela et al. 2024a). The AARs shows similar characterises as Atmo-
spheric Rivers (ARs) in shape but their transportation patterns are different (Singh
and Goyal 2023b). Since AARs carry a dense payload of aerosol particles, influencing
atmospheric dynamics, weather patterns, and regional climate variability (Rautela
et al. 2024b).
1.6 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers (AARs): Formation and Dynamics 11

1.6.1 Formation Mechanisms

AARs typically originate from regions with intense aerosol sources, such as industrial
zones, densely populated regions, biomass burning areas, and dust-prone regions
(Fig. 1.3) (Chakraborty et al. 2022). The formation of AARs involves several key
processes.

1.6.1.1 Aerosol Emission Sources

AARs often originate from regions with high aerosol emissions, including
urban areas, industrial complexes, greater sea depths, and agricultural activities
(Chakraborty et al. 2022). Aerosols emitted from these sources, such as black carbon,
dust, organic carbon, sea salts, and sulphates contribute to the formation of AARs
(Chakraborty et al. 2018).

1.6.1.2 Atmospheric Transport

Once emitted, aerosol particles are transported by atmospheric circulation patterns,

including wind currents and boundary layer dynamics (Yang et al. 2018; Yu et al.
2021). Long-range transport mechanisms, such as atmospheric jets and cyclonic
systems, can carry aerosols over thousands of kilometres, facilitating the formation
of AARs (Takahashi et al. 2018; Gallo et al. 2023).

Black and Organic Carbon Dust Sulphates Sea Salt

Fig. 1.3 Major Aerosols and their pathways over the globe
12 1 Understanding the Significance of Aerosol Pollution and Aerosol …

1.6.1.3 Concentration and Dispersion

As aerosols are transported through the atmosphere, they undergo processes of

concentration and dispersion (von Schoenberg et al. 2021). Factors such as atmo-
spheric stability, turbulence, and mixing processes influence the spatial distribution
and concentration of aerosol particles within AARs (Chakraborty et al. 2018).

1.6.2 Dynamics of Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers

The dynamics of AARs are governed by a complex interplay of atmospheric

processes, including synoptic-scale circulation patterns, boundary layer dynamics,
and aerosol sources and sinks (Kulmala et al. 2023). Key aspects of AAR dynamics
include:

1.6.2.1 Synoptic-Scale Circulation Patterns

AARs are often associated with large-scale weather systems, such as atmospheric
ridges, troughs, and frontal boundaries (Michel et al. 2021). These synoptic-
scale features provide the atmospheric dynamics necessary for the formation and
propagation of AARs across different regions.

1.6.2.2 Boundary Layer Processes

The planetary boundary layer plays a crucial role in the vertical transport and disper-
sion of aerosol particles within AARs (Volná and Hladký 2020). Vertical mixing
processes, including turbulence, convective currents, and stable stratification, influ-
ence the vertical distribution and residence time of aerosols within the boundary
layer (Chakraborty et al. 2022).

1.6.2.3 Aerosol Sources and Sinks

Variations in aerosol sources and sinks influence the composition and characteristics
of AARs. Anthropogenic sources, such as industrial emissions and vehicular exhaust,
contribute to the formation of urban AARs, whereas natural sources, such as wildfires
and dust storms, can generate regional-scale AARs with distinct aerosol compositions
(Rautela et al. 2024a).
References 13

1.7 Conclusion

Air quality, human health, and climate are all significantly impacted by aerosol
pollution, which is a complex environmental issue. The various aerosol sources and
compositions highlight how complicated this problem is, calling for in-depth knowl-
edge and practical mitigation measures. Even while laws like the US Clean Air Act
have been successful in lowering aerosol emissions, technological advancements
like electrostatic precipitators and alterations in behaviour like encouraging clean
cooking methods are essential for reducing aerosol pollution even more. Further-
more, the appearance of AARs offers a fresh perspective on aerosol dynamics, with
ramifications for weather patterns, atmospheric processes, and regional climate vari-
ability. Creating predictive tools and focused mitigation techniques require an under-
standing of the dynamics and formation mechanisms of AARs. To improve predictive
accuracy and our capacity to predict the effects of AARs on atmospheric dynamics
and air quality, future research in this field should concentrate on advanced detection
techniques for AARs. For prediction of these, AARs should make use of machine
learning algorithms and numerical weather prediction models. Efforts to mitigate the
harmful effects of aerosol pollution and advocate for a cleaner, healthier environment
for both current and future generations can be advanced by bridging these knowledge
gaps and implementing innovative solutions.

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Chapter 2
Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Detection
and Spatio-Temporal Patterns

Abstract Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers (AARs) are a complex environmental

phenomena that have a significant impact on the sustainability of the environment and
human health. The formation, dynamics, types, causes, health effects, monitoring,
mitigation, adaptive techniques, future directions, and research requirements asso-
ciated with AARs are all thoroughly examined in this study. Similar to traditional
atmospheric rivers (ARs), AARs carry a wide variety of aerosols over great distances,
such as dust, black carbon, dust, organic carbon, sea salt, and sulphates, influencing
global environmental conditions and air quality. The monitoring of AARs utilizes
datasets such as the MERRA-2 hourly aerosol reanalysis dataset, coupled with an
advanced global AR algorithm to detect the shapes of AARs of key aerosol species.
Supporting the characterization of aerosol composition, sources, transport modes,
and spatio-temporal distribution, these initiatives contribute to the development of
thorough evaluations of the health effects of air pollution caused by AAR. AAR-
induced aerosol pollution has both acute and long-term health impacts, especially for
vulnerable populations over the Indo-Gangetic Plains, Eastern China, South African
regions, western USA, etc. This makes interdisciplinary cooperation and adaptive
mitigation solutions necessary. Future research will concentrate on interdisciplinary
collaboration, technical advancements, and long-term assessments of health conse-
quences to address novel issues arising from AARs and safeguard public health
against climate change. However, this study emphasizes how critical it is to under-
stand and reduce the health concerns linked to extreme aerosol pollution caused by
AARs through cooperative research, creative technology, and proactive governmental
actions.

Keywords Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers (AARs) · Health effects · Monitoring ·

Sustainability

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 19

M. K. Goyal and K. S. Rautela, Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers,
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-66758-9_2
20 2 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Detection and Spatio-Temporal Patterns

2.1 Introduction

Natural rivers play a crucial part in the hydrological cycle of Earth, serving as key
watercourses that shape landscapes and support ecosystems (Kumar et al. 2020;
Sofi et al. 2021; Rautela et al. 2024a). Similarly, the shape of atmospheric rivers
(ARs) resembles that of the natural rivers but carries a tremendous volume of water
in through the atmosphere (Singh et al. 2023a). Traditional ARs travel through the
atmosphere, transferring moisture from tropical regions to higher latitudes, whereas
natural rivers flow across the surface, propelled by gravity and impacted by precipi-
tation, melting, and runoff (Sinha et al. 2019; Jha et al. 2019; Dubey and Goyal 2020;
Bozkurt et al. 2021; Rautela et al. 2023a, b). The maintenance of life and ecosys-
tems depends on both occurrences, which are essential to the distribution of water
(Loucks and van Beek 2017). Traditional ARs contribute to the global water cycle
by sustaining strong precipitation events like heavy rain and flooding upon landfall,
whereas natural rivers directly supply water resources for human activity (Singh and
Goyal 2023a). Natural processes have produced both, demonstrating how Earth’s
atmospheric dynamics and water systems are intertwined.
Similar to conventional ARs, aerosol atmospheric rivers (AARs) are characterized
by the long-distance transportation of large concentrations of aerosols—microscopic
particles suspended in the atmosphere (Chakraborty et al. 2021, 2022; Rautela et al.
2024b). AARs also carry aerosols, which have an impact on environmental health
and regional as well as global air quality, in addition to the moisture that regular ARs
primarily carry (Chakraborty et al. 2021). Both have long, thin forms that highlight
their function as dynamic carriers of atmospheric elements. Because of its profound
effects on respiratory health and air quality, research on AARs is critical to human
health (Rautela et al. 2024b). The composition of the air that people breathe is
directly impacted by these long, narrow passageways that carry high quantities of
aerosols, such as pollutants and particulate matter, over great distances (Chakraborty
et al. 2018). Aerosols in AARs raise the risk of cardiovascular illnesses and aggravate
respiratory disorders like asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
(Jiang et al. 2016). To mitigate the detrimental health effects associated with aerosol
exposure resulting from these atmospheric occurrences, it is critical to understand
the dynamics of AARs and how they affect air quality (Chakraborty et al. 2021).
2.2 Formation and Dynamics of Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers 21

2.2 Formation and Dynamics of Aerosol Atmospheric

Rivers

2.2.1 Factors Contributing to the Formation of AARs

AARs are complex phenomena that are impacted by numerous interconnected factors
(Rautela et al. 2024b). Dominant wind patterns are one of these; they act as conduits
for the long-range transport of aerosols, which causes concentrated streams to accu-
mulate in the atmosphere (Lapere et al. 2024). One of the primary elements influ-
encing the development of AARs is dense aerosol plumes that are directional due
to strong trade winds (Chakraborty et al. 2021). Moreover, the surrounding geology
greatly influences the behaviour of AARs (Li et al. 2022). Aerosol concentration
and movement are influenced by topographical features such as mountain ranges
and beaches, which act as airflow barriers or conduits. Seasonal fluctuations can
alter the frequency and intensity of AARs due to altered air circulation patterns and
the existence of sources of aerosol emissions, further complicating the dynamics
of these events (Rautela et al. 2024b). These aerosols are the primary constituent
of particulate matter such as PM2.5 and PM10 that have a relatively greater impact
on human health (Chakraborty et al. 2021). However, from the regional point of
view, the air quality has declined recently due to several noteworthy extreme aerosol
events, including the Australian bushfires in 2021 and the Indian dust storm in 2018
(Sarkar et al. 2019; Filkov et al. 2020). These extreme events have raised aerosol
concentrations in the atmosphere and posed risks to human health, increase mortality,
ecosystems, the economy, and meteorological phenomena (Rautela et al. 2024c).
The incorporation of cutting-edge technologies, such as chemical transport models
and satellite remote sensing, enhances our understanding of aerosol dynamics and
makes it easier to develop mitigation methods and adaptations to changing climatic
conditions (Tian et al. 2023). Important information about aerosol behaviour, evolu-
tion, and implications for weather patterns and climate variations are obtained by
satellite observations, numerical modelling, and machine learning techniques (Yan
et al. 2018; Shakya et al. 2023). The application of an interdisciplinary method-
ology enables the thorough observation and analysis of aerosol dynamics, a crucial
step in addressing pressing environmental and public health concerns. For example,
seasonal monsoon systems can have an impact on the distribution and transport of
aerosols in regions that regularly see significant rainfall and atmospheric moisture
levels (Lau et al. 2017). Furthermore, by altering temperature regimes, precipitation
patterns, and air circulation dynamics, long-term changes in global climate patterns
may exacerbate AARs. This gives rise to grave concerns regarding AARs’ future.
These changes may have a substantial effect on the behaviour and distribution of
AARs, which could have consequences for air quality, climate stability, and envi-
ronmental health. Understanding the complex interactions among various factors
that influence the emergence and development of AARs is essential for appreciating
their multifaceted influence and formulating workable strategies to alleviate their
detrimental consequences on the environment (Gollakota et al. 2021).
22 2 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Detection and Spatio-Temporal Patterns

2.2.2 Role of Aerosols in AAR Formation and Transport

Aerosols play a crucial role in the formation and transport of AARs, which are
concentrated pathways similar to ARs (Singh and Goyal 2023b; Rautela et al. 2024b;
Rautela et al. 2024c). These aerosols originate from both natural sources like forest
fires, dust, and sea salt, as well as human-made sources such as industrial emissions
and vehicular exhaust (Jacob et al. 1986; Christensen et al. 2022). The formation of
AARs is influenced by atmospheric conditions including humidity, temperature, wind
speed, and the vertical stability of aerosol species (Chakraborty et al. 2021). Aerosols
act as nuclei around which water vapour can condense, forming cloud droplets. This
process can lead to the creation of dense aerosol-laden clouds within AARs, which
can travel long distances across continents (Karydis et al. 2011). Aerosol species
such as black carbon, dust, organic carbon, sea salt, and sulfates contribute to the
composition of AARs, with different aerosol types exhibiting varying transportation
patterns and dispersion characteristics (Chakraborty et al. 2022). AARs can extend
over vast distances, shaping air quality and environmental conditions across diverse
regions. The concentration and disposition of aerosol particles within AARs can
significantly impact visibility, weather patterns, and climate dynamics on both local
and global scales (Che et al. 2024). Understanding the role of aerosols in AAR
formation and transport is essential for assessing their impacts on environmental
quality, human health, and ecosystem stability. Efforts to monitor and mitigate aerosol
pollution can help mitigate the adverse effects associated with AARs and improve
overall air quality and environmental health.

2.2.3 Interaction Between AARs and Meteorological

Phenomena

The interaction between AARs and meteorological phenomena is a complex and

dynamic process that significantly impacts weather patterns and atmospheric condi-
tions. AARs, characterized by concentrated aerosol particles transported within the
atmosphere, interact with various meteorological factors, such as humidity, tempera-
ture, and wind patterns (Wen et al. 2020). These interactions influence the formation,
intensity, and trajectory of AARs, shaping their impact on regional and global climate
systems. One crucial aspect of this interaction is the role of AARs in modulating
precipitation patterns (Persad 2023). AARs can act as nuclei for cloud formation,
affecting the microphysical properties of clouds and influencing precipitation effi-
ciency (Rosenfeld et al. 2016). The presence of aerosol particles within AARs can
alter cloud droplet size distribution, cloud lifetime, and precipitation intensity, leading
to changes in rainfall patterns and distribution (Ramanathan et al. 2001; Yang et al.
2018). Furthermore, AARs can influence atmospheric dynamics, including atmo-
spheric stability and circulation patterns (Chakraborty et al. 2022). The injection of
aerosol particles into the atmosphere can modify temperature gradients and pressure
2.3 Aerosols Atmospheric Rivers (AARs): Types and Sources 23

systems, potentially affecting the development of weather systems such as cyclones,

storms, and atmospheric fronts (Zhang 2020). Additionally, AARs can exacerbate
extreme weather events by enhancing atmospheric instability and moisture conver-
gence, leading to the intensification of storms and precipitation extremes (Persad
2023). Conversely, meteorological conditions, such as wind patterns and atmospheric
circulation, can also influence the dispersion and concentration of aerosol particles
within AARs, shaping their spatial distribution and impact on air quality and visi-
bility (Singh et al., 2023b; Poonia et al. 2021; Chakraborty et al. 2022). Understanding
these interactions is essential for improving climate modelling, weather forecasting,
and mitigating the impacts of aerosol pollution on both local and global scales.

2.3 Aerosols Atmospheric Rivers (AARs): Types

and Sources

The aerosols in AARs encompass a diverse range of particles, each with its own
unique characteristics and origins (Rautela et al. 2024b). One prominent type of
aerosol commonly transported by AARs is black carbon (BC) (Chakraborty et al.
2021). Originating predominantly from the combustion of fossil fuels, biomass
burning, and industrial processes, black carbon particles are known for their light-
absorbing properties, contributing significantly to atmospheric warming and climate
change (Zhao et al. 2022). Dust particles, another significant component of aerosols
carried by AARs, originate from natural sources such as desert regions, arid land-
scapes, and agricultural activities (Nair et al. 2005; Qian et al. 2011). These particles
are comprised of mineral dust and soil components, often lifted into the atmosphere
by wind erosion or anthropogenic activities (Lapere et al. 2024). Dust aerosols can
have widespread impacts on air quality, visibility, and respiratory health, especially
in regions prone to dust storms and desertification. Organic carbon (OC) aerosols,
derived from both natural and anthropogenic sources, are also transported by AARs
(Pöschl 2005; Chakraborty et al. 2021). Anthropogenic sources of organic carbon
include burning biomass, industrial operations, and automobile emissions. Natural
sources of organic carbon include biogenic emissions from vegetation and microbi-
ological activities (Kashyap et al. 2019). Organic carbon aerosols play a significant
role in atmospheric physical processes and chemistry, affecting air quality, cloud
formation, and climate dynamics (Gupta et al. 2022). Sea salt aerosols represent
another important category of particles transported by AARs, originating primarily
from the ocean surface through processes such as wave breaking, sea spray, and
bubble bursting (Ovadnevaite et al. 2014). These aerosols contain sodium chloride
and other salts, with their production influenced by factors such as wind speed,
sea surface temperature, and oceanic currents (Nair et al. 2005). Sea salt aerosols
contribute to cloud formation, atmospheric chemistry, and marine biogeochemical
cycles (Horowitz et al. 2020). Another type of aerosol, Sulfate aerosols, gener-
ated from both natural and anthropogenic sources, are prevalent in the atmosphere
24 2 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Detection and Spatio-Temporal Patterns

Table 2.1 Residence time of different types of aerosols in the atmosphere

Aerosol type Residence time range Main factors influencing residence time
Black Carbon Days to Weeks Atmospheric dynamics, deposition, and removal
processes
Dust Days to Weeks Particle size, wind speed, atmospheric stability
Organic Carbon Hours to Days Chemical reactions, atmospheric mixing
Sea salt Hours to Days Wind speed, humidity, sea surface conditions
Sulphates Days to Weeks Atmospheric chemistry, precipitation, deposition

and are frequently transported by AARs (Rasch et al. 2008). Natural sources of
sulfate aerosols include volcanic eruptions and biogenic emissions, while anthro-
pogenic sources encompass industrial activities, combustion processes, and agricul-
tural practices (Artaxo et al. 2022). Sulfate aerosols play a crucial role in atmo-
spheric chemistry, cloud formation, and radiative forcing, with implications for
climate change and air quality regulation (Hirdman et al. 2010). However, resi-
dence times of different aerosol types vary widely, ranging from hours to weeks,
depending on factors such as atmospheric dynamics, chemical reactions, and deposi-
tion processes (Table 2.1). Factors influencing residence times include atmospheric
stability, wind speed, humidity, and sea surface conditions, which determine the
transport and removal mechanisms for each aerosol type.

2.4 Health Impacts of Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers

AARs represent a significant environmental phenomenon with far-reaching conse-

quences, not only for the planet’s climate, but also for human health (Chakraborty
et al. 2021). The inhalation hazards posed by different types of aerosols within AARs
which are the prime constituents of PM2.5 and PM10 can have both short-term and
long-term health effects, particularly impacting vulnerable populations and regions
(Gurjar et al. 2016; Oh et al. 2020; Nagpure and Lal 2022). Firstly, the composi-
tion of aerosols within AARs varies widely, encompassing particles such as black
carbon, dust, organic carbon, sea salt, and sulfates (Rautela et al. 2024b). Each of
these aerosol types presents unique inhalation hazards. For instance, black carbon
particles, emitted from sources like vehicular exhaust and biomass burning, are fine
particulate matter that can penetrate deep into the lungs upon inhalation, leading to
respiratory issues and exacerbating conditions like asthma and bronchitis (Manisa-
lidis et al. 2020). Dust aerosols, originating from deserts and dry regions, carry
allergens and pathogens, posing risks of respiratory infections and allergic reactions
(Fussell and Kelly 2021). Organic carbon aerosols, produced by biomass burning
and industrial activities, contain volatile organic compounds that can irritate the
respiratory system and contribute to the formation of smog (Chen et al. 2017). Sea
2.5 Monitoring of Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers 25

salt aerosols, generated by ocean spray, may contain microbes and toxins, poten-
tially causing respiratory infections and exacerbating existing respiratory conditions
(Biddle et al. 2021). However, sulfate aerosols, arising from industrial emissions and
volcanic eruptions, can irritate the respiratory tract and contribute to the formation
of acid rain (Manisalidis et al. 2020).
Exposure to AARs can result in both short-term and long-term health effects. In
the short term, individuals exposed to high concentrations of aerosols within AARs
may experience symptoms such as coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, and
irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat (Salin et al. 2021). These acute respiratory
symptoms can be particularly severe in vulnerable populations such as children, the
elderly, individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions, and those with compro-
mised immune systems (Nagpure and Lal 2022). Moreover, short-term exposure
to AARs has been linked to increased hospital admissions for respiratory illnesses
and cardiovascular events, as well as higher mortality rates (Palacio et al. 2023).
In the long term, chronic exposure to aerosols within AARs can have more serious
health consequences. Prolonged inhalation of fine particulate matter, such as black
carbon and sulfate aerosols, has been associated with the development and exac-
erbation of chronic respiratory diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD), emphysema, and lung cancer (Pope et al. 2004; Basith et al. 2022).
Additionally, exposure to AARs has been linked to cardiovascular diseases, neuro-
logical disorders, and adverse birth outcomes (Lee et al. 2014). Furthermore, the
deposition of aerosol particles in the respiratory system can trigger inflammatory
responses, leading to the progression of respiratory diseases and the impairment of
lung function over time.
Certain populations and regions are disproportionately affected by AAR-related
health issues (Gurjar et al. 2016). Urban areas with high levels of industrial activity,
vehicular traffic, and population density are particularly vulnerable to elevated
concentrations of aerosols within AARs (Wu and Boor 2021). Low-income commu-
nities and marginalized populations living near industrial facilities and transportation
hubs may face heightened health risks due to exposure to air pollutants from AARs
(Rentschler and Leonova 2023). Furthermore, regions prone to frequent AAR events,
such as densely industrial and populated areas and areas downwind of major pollution
sources, experience persistent air quality problems and elevated rates of respiratory
and cardiovascular diseases among residents (Lee et al. 2014).

2.5 Monitoring of Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers

2.5.1 Datasets

To monitor AARs effectively, the case study utilizes a variety of datasets to gather
crucial information on aerosol transport, concentration, and distribution. Among the
most employed datasets is the MERRA-2 hourly aerosol reanalysis dataset (Gelaro
26 2 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Detection and Spatio-Temporal Patterns

et al. 2017; Randles et al. 2017). This dataset provides comprehensive information
on the zonal and meridional components of integrated aerosol transport (IAT) across
the entire atmospheric column, spanning from 0.1 hPa to 1000 hPa. The MERRA-2
dataset offers a spatial resolution of 0.5° × 0.625° and a temporal resolution of 1
h, enabling detailed analysis of aerosol dynamics over time and space. This study
primarily focuses on key aerosol species such as black carbon (BC), dust (DU),
organic carbon (OC), sea salt (SS), and sulfates (SU) extracted from the MERRA-2
dataset for their monitoring and analysis purposes.

2.5.2 Methodology

The monitoring of AARs involves the development and implementation of robust

methodologies to detect and analyze these atmospheric phenomena accurately. This
study made some enhancements in the global AR algorithms to identify AARs and
further reconstruct past events (Ralph et al. 2020; Chakraborty et al. 2021, 2022).
Initially, zonal and meridional components of IAT values are taken to compute the
resultant IAT values (Fig. 2.1). Further, this algorithm involves computing extreme
IAT events for each grid and time-step by determining the 85th percentile of resul-
tant IAT for specific aerosol species (Fig. 2.2). Subsequent refinements in the
methodology focus on coherence, filtering, and orientation criteria to ensure accurate
detection of AARs (Rautela et al. 2024b).

2.5.3 Outcomes

The monitoring of AARs yields valuable outcomes that contribute to our under-
standing of aerosol pollution and its environmental impacts. By analysing AAR
availability through the AARs algorithm shows the presence of AARs at the grid
at a particular time step. A more than 100,000 + AARs are detected all over the
globe during the period of 2015–2022 at 6 hourly time frame. Here we show only
the AARs shape at an arbitrary time step in Fig. 2.3 to visualize the shape of AARs
of key aerosols.
The distribution and intensity of different aerosol species in the atmosphere exhibit
complex patterns that vary by season and region. Black carbon (BC) aerosol-induced
air quality deterioration peaks in southern African regions and eastern China during
summers but shifts to the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra (IGB) plains and eastern China
during winters, driven by biomass burning and anthropogenic activities (Ramachan-
dran et al. 2020; Artaxo et al. 2022). Conversely, desert dust (DU) aerosols are concen-
trated over the northern side of the African continent and regions with dry condi-
tions, originating from deserts like Sahara and Taklamakan, with higher frequency
during summers due to anticyclonic motion over the Sahara Desert (Xu et al. 2020;
Hu et al. 2022; Merdji et al. 2023). Organic carbon (OC) aerosols, sourced from
2.5 Monitoring of Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers 27

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

Fig. 2.1 IAT values of different aerosol species

boreal and tropical rainforests, are more pronounced in southern China and northern
Russia during summers, whereas their intensity increases but frequency decreases in
regions like the Congo and eastern India during winters (Artaxo et al. 2022; May et al.
2023). Sea salt (SS) aerosols exhibit an intensified presence in the southern hemi-
sphere during summers and in mid-latitudes during winters, influenced by convective
actions and synoptic storm activities (Chakraborty et al. 2021). Sulfate (SU) aerosols,
notably intense over regions from China to the North Pacific Ocean, are influenced
by anthropogenic emissions, with significant releases in the eastern USA and IGB
plains, exhibiting consistent intensity throughout the year (Dai et al. 2019; Zhang et al.
2021). These aerosol dynamics underscore the complex interplay between natural
processes, human activities, and atmospheric circulation patterns, highlighting the
need for comprehensive monitoring and mitigation strategies to address their diverse
health and environmental impacts. Moreover, the integration of advanced monitoring
technologies such as satellite remote sensing, lidar, and ground-based stations enables
28 2 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Detection and Spatio-Temporal Patterns

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

Fig. 2.2 Extreme aerosol transport values by taking the 85th percentile limit of different aerosol
species

researchers to acquire high-resolution data on aerosol dynamics from diverse plat-

forms, both globally and regionally (Filonchyk et al. 2019). These outcomes facilitate
the development of efficient mitigation strategies and adaptation measures to address
environmental challenges associated with aerosol pollution.

2.5.4 Reconstruction of Past Events and Checking

the Availability of AARs

In reconstructing past events such as the significant dust storms and haze episodes that
have afflicted regions like India and South Asia, it is crucial to assess the role of AARs
in exacerbating these environmental, health, and economic crises (Figs. 2.4 and 2.5)
(Table 2.2). In 2015, Equatorial Asia experienced large-scale forest fires, resulting
2.5 Monitoring of Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers 29

Fig. 2.3 Detected AARs availability of key aerosol species at an arbitrary time frame

in significant loss with 140,000 affected and 100,300 deaths, leading to respiratory
illnesses and decreased visibility (Koplitz et al. 2016). The reconstruction of this
event found there is presence of massive BC AAR which reduces the significant
AQI of the region (Fig. 2.4a, b). The following year, Uttarakhand, India, faced Chir
Pine forest fires, affecting 4,423 hectares of forest land and contributing to glacier
melting and ecosystem disruption (Negi 2019). Similarly, this study found a BC
AAR over the northern region of India (Fig. 2.4c, d). However, in 2018, British
Columbia, experienced wildfires that impacted 1.35 million hectares of land, 56,000
cattle and calves displaced and increased the region’s Air Quality Index (AQI) (Wang
and Strong 2019). After this event, a BC AAR was found near the region shown in
Fig. 2.4e. The 2020 wildfires in the southern region of Brazil devastated 5.07 billion
USD, due to mortality, accounting for 0.68% of economic losses and equivalent to
approximately 0.14% of Brazil’s GDP (Wu et al. 2023) causing a public health crisis
and ecological devastation. Similarly, this study found a BC AAR that covers the
southern region of Brazil to Chille (Fig. 2.4g). However, some aerosols change the
sky colour to orange. For example, in 2018, Northern India was struck by a dust storm,
causing 125 deaths and leading to air pollution and reduced visibility (Sarkar et al.
2019). This study found a presence of DU AAR near the northern region of India
during this event (Fig. 2.5a). Furthermore, a colossal dust storm called Godzilla
dust storm from the Sahara Desert hit the regions of USA and Mexico in 2020,
causing respiratory issues and impaired visibility (NASA; Chakraborty et al. 2021).
Similarly, this study has detected DU AARs extending from Africa to USA during
the event (Fig. 2.5c). In 2021, Also, a DU AAR was detected over East Asia which
experienced a severe sandstorm, causing severe air pollution and visibility reduction
(Fig. 2.5e) (Yu et al. 2023). Similarly, a DU AAR in 2022 was detected over Iraq when
the region faced a dust storm coupled with La Niña, affecting 5,000 individuals and
30 2 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Detection and Spatio-Temporal Patterns

resulting in flight disruptions and health hazards (BBC 2022) (Fig. 2.5g). These events
highlight the diverse impacts of natural disasters on regions worldwide, underscoring
the importance of proactive measures to mitigate their effects and safeguard human
lives and ecosystems.

2.5.5 Analysis of AAR-Induced Air Quality Deterioration

and Associated Health Outcomes

The analysis of AAR-induced air quality deterioration and its associated health
outcomes reveals the diverse impacts of aerosol pollution on human health in various
regions worldwide. In regions such as southern Africa and eastern China, AAR-
induced air pollution from sources like biomass burning and industrial activities has
been linked to respiratory ailments, cardiovascular diseases, and premature mortality
(Gordon et al. 2023; Amnuaylojaroen and Parasin 2023). The high concentration of
aerosols carried by AARs exacerbates air quality issues, posing significant health
risks to vulnerable populations, including children, the elderly, and individuals with
pre-existing health conditions (Nagpure and Lal 2022). Similarly, in the northern
hemisphere, particularly during winters, AAR-induced air pollution over the Indo-
Gangetic-Brahmaputra (IGB) plains, eastern China, and Japan has been associated
with adverse health outcomes (Pozzer et al. 2017; Ramachandran et al. 2020; Arima
2023). The combustion of fossil fuels, coupled with agricultural burning and indus-
trial emissions, leads to elevated levels of particulate matter and other pollutants
in the atmosphere, contributing to respiratory infections, cardiovascular problems,
and premature death (Pandey et al. 2021). In regions with significant desertifica-
tion, such as the northern side of the African continent, AAR-induced air pollution
from dust storms poses serious health risks to populations living in affected areas
(Mulcahy et al. 2014). The inhalation of fine dust particles carried by AARs can
lead to respiratory issues, allergic reactions, and other health problems, particularly
among vulnerable groups (Chatkin et al. 2022). The finding of this study underscores
the urgent need for comprehensive measures to address AAR-induced air pollution
and its detrimental effects on human health. Strategies such as reducing emissions
from industrial sources, promoting clean energy technologies, and implementing air
quality monitoring systems are essential for protecting public health and mitigating
the impacts of aerosol pollution worldwide.
 (a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) BC AAR detected near north India (b) Uttarakhand wildfires (Source (c) BC AAR detected near south Asia (d) South Asian Haze 2016 (Source BBC)
ENVIS RP on Forestry and Forest Related Livelihoods)
2.5 Monitoring of Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers

(e) (f) (g) (h)

(e) BC AAR detected near the western region of Canada (f) British Columbia wildfire (Source (g) BC AAR detected near south Asia (h) South Asian Haze 2016 (Source BBC)
Al Jazeera)

Fig. 2.4 Reconstruction of past extreme events and checking the availability of BC AARs
31
 32

(a) (b) (e) (f)

(a) DU AAR detected near north India (b) Indian Dust Storms (Source India Today) (e) DU ARR detected in East Asia (f) East Asia Dust
(d) Storms
(c) (g) (h)

(c) DU AAR detected in USA, Caribbean islands and South America (d) Godzilla Dust Storms (g) DU AAR detected in the middle East region (h) Iraq Dust Storms

Fig. 2.5 Reconstruction of past extreme events and checking the availability of DU AARs
2 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Detection and Spatio-Temporal Patterns
2.6 Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies 33

Table 2.2 Overview of major environmental events caused by AARs

Event Year Affected Cause Loss Impacts References
Regions
1 2015 Equatorial Large-scale 140,000 affected, Respiratory Koplitz
Asia forest fires 100,300 deaths illness, et al.
decreased (2016)
visibility
2 2016 Uttarakhand, Chir Pine 4,423 hectares of Glacier Negi
India forest fires forest land melting, (2019)
ecosystem
disruption
3 2018 British Wildfires 1.35 million hectares Increased Wang and
Columbia burned, 56,000 cattle carbon Strong
and calves were emissions, (2019)
located, increase AQI global
warming
4 2020 Brazil Wildfires 5.07 billion USD, due Public Wu et al.
to mortality, health (2023)
accounting for 0.68% crisis,
of economic losses ecological
and equivalent to devastation
approximately 0.14%
of Brazil’s GDP
5 2018 Northern Dust storm 125 deaths Air Sarkar
India pollution, et al.
reduced (2019)
visibility
6 2020 Sahara Colossal dust - Respiratory NASA
Desert, storm issues, (2020)
Africa impaired
visibility
7 2021 East Asia Sandstorm - Severe air Yu et al.
pollution, (2023)
visibility
reduction
8 2022 Iraq Dust storms 5,000 affected, 1 death Flight BBC
coupled with disruptions, (2022)
La Niña health
hazards

2.6 Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies

Addressing the complex challenges posed by AARs requires a multifaceted approach

that encompasses policy interventions, public health measures, and community
resilience-building initiatives (Watts et al. 2015; Randall et al. 2021). Policy inter-
ventions aimed at reducing aerosol emissions play a crucial role in mitigating AAR-
related health risks (Amann et al. 2020). Governments and regulatory bodies must
34 2 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Detection and Spatio-Temporal Patterns

implement stringent air quality standards and enforce emission control measures for
industries, vehicles, and other sources of pollution (Purohit et al. 2019; Amann et al.
2020). Public health initiatives have a critical role in reducing exposure to AARs and
lessening their negative health effects in concert with governmental efforts (Giles
et al. 2011). Additionally, international cooperation and agreements are essential
for addressing transboundary aerosol pollution and mitigating its adverse effects on
public health (Yamineva and Romppanen 2017). Public health initiatives have a crit-
ical role in reducing exposure to AARs and lessening their negative health effects
in concert with governmental efforts. Public health initiatives have a critical role in
reducing exposure to AARs and lessening their negative health effects in concert
with governmental efforts. Public awareness campaigns can educate communities
about the risks associated with aerosol pollution and provide guidance on preventive
measures, such as staying indoors during periods of poor air quality and using air
purifiers to reduce indoor pollution levels. Healthcare infrastructure must be strength-
ened to cope with the increased burden of respiratory illnesses and cardiovascular
diseases resulting from AAR-induced air pollution (Lee et al. 2014). This includes
ensuring access to medical care, respiratory protective equipment, and vaccinations
to mitigate the spread of respiratory infections during haze episodes and dust storms.
Furthermore, community resilience-building initiatives are essential, particularly
in regions prone to AAR-related health hazards (Chandra et al. 2011). Local author-
ities and community organizations should develop emergency response plans and
early warning systems to alert residents about impending environmental crises, such
as dust storms and haze events (Rogers and Tsirkunov). Community-based initia-
tives, such as tree planting campaigns and urban greening projects, can help mitigate
the impacts of aerosol pollution by enhancing air quality and reducing the urban
heat island effect. Moreover, efforts to diversify livelihoods and promote sustainable
agriculture practices can reduce dependence on activities that contribute to aerosol
emissions, such as biomass burning and land clearing.

2.7 Future Directions and Research Needs

Since AAR is a newly developed concept and research AARs continue to evolve,
several emerging trends have profound implications for human health. Based on
the findings, one notable area of focus is the integration of advanced technolo-
gies, such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML), into AAR
research to enhance forecasting capabilities (Singh and Goyal 2023a; Shakya et al.
2023; Meghani et al. 2023; Rautela et al. 2024b). By leveraging AI and ML algo-
rithms, researchers can analyze vast datasets of meteorological and aerosol variables
to improve the accuracy and precision of AAR predictions (Shakya et al. 2023).
These AI-driven forecasting models have the potential to provide early warnings
of AAR events, enabling policymakers and public health officials to implement
timely interventions to mitigate the impacts of aerosol pollution on human health.
Furthermore, there is a pressing need for interdisciplinary collaboration to address
2.8 Conclusion 35

the complex challenges posed by AAR-related health impacts. Collaborative efforts

between meteorologists, atmospheric scientists, public health experts, and policy-
makers can facilitate a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms driving
AAR-induced air pollution and its effects on human health. By combining exper-
tise from diverse disciplines, researchers can develop holistic approaches to assess
and mitigate the health risks associated with AARs, ultimately safeguarding the
well-being of populations exposed to aerosol pollution.
Areas requiring further investigation and advancements in understanding AAR-
related health impacts include the characterization of aerosol composition, sources,
and transport mechanisms. Comprehensive studies are needed to elucidate the chem-
ical composition of aerosols carried by AARs and their interactions with atmo-
spheric conditions. Additionally, advancements in remote sensing technologies and
observational techniques can provide valuable insights into the spatial and temporal
distribution of aerosol pollution, enabling more accurate assessments of its health
impacts. Moreover, future research should explore the long-term health effects of
AAR-induced air pollution, particularly among vulnerable populations. Epidemio-
logical studies examining the relationship between chronic exposure to aerosol pollu-
tion and respiratory diseases, cardiovascular disorders, and other health outcomes
can inform targeted interventions and public health policies. Additionally, efforts to
develop early warning systems and adaptive strategies to mitigate the health risks
associated with AARs are essential for enhancing resilience to environmental hazards
in the face of climate change.

2.8 Conclusion

The study of Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers (AARs) represents a critical frontier in

environmental research, with profound implications for human health and well-being.
This comprehensive analysis has delved into various aspects of AARs, beginning with
an exploration of their formation and dynamics. AARs, akin to their atmospheric
counterparts, serve as conduits for the long-distance transport of aerosols across the
atmosphere. These aerosols, originating from both natural phenomena and anthro-
pogenic activities, contribute to air quality degradation and pose significant health
risks. Understanding the types and sources of aerosols transported by AARs is essen-
tial for assessing their environmental and health impacts. From black carbon and dust
to organic carbon and sea salt, each aerosol type presents unique inhalation hazards
and health effects. Moreover, the distribution and intensity of these aerosols vary
by season and region, driven by complex interactions between natural processes,
human activities, and atmospheric dynamics. The health impacts of AAR-induced
air pollution are profound and wide-ranging, affecting vulnerable populations and
regions disproportionately. Short-term exposure to high concentrations of aerosols
can lead to acute respiratory symptoms and exacerbate existing health conditions,
while chronic exposure is associated with long-term respiratory diseases, cardio-
vascular disorders, and other adverse health outcomes. Mitigation and adaptation
36 2 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Detection and Spatio-Temporal Patterns

strategies are imperative to address these challenges, encompassing policy interven-

tions, public health measures, and community resilience-building initiatives. Moving
forward, future research directions and needs in AAR studies are outlined to enhance
our understanding and response to this environmental phenomenon. Integration of
advanced technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning
(ML) into AAR research holds promise for improving forecasting capabilities and
informing timely interventions. Interdisciplinary collaboration among meteorolo-
gists, atmospheric scientists, public health experts, and policymakers is crucial for
developing holistic approaches to assess and mitigate the health risks associated with
AARs. Characterization of aerosol composition, sources, and transport mechanisms,
along with studies on long-term health effects and vulnerable populations, are identi-
fied as priority areas for further investigation. Additionally, the development of early
warning systems and adaptive strategies to mitigate AAR-induced air pollution is
essential for enhancing resilience to environmental hazards in the face of climate
change.

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Chapter 3
Application of Data Mining and AI&ML
in Aerosol Pollution and Aerosol
Atmospheric Rivers

Abstract In recent years, the application of data mining, artificial intelligence, and
machine learning (AI&ML) techniques has revolutionized the field of earth and
environmental science, particularly in the study of atmospheric pollutants such as
aerosol pollution and aerosol atmospheric rivers (AARs). This chapter provides a
comprehensive overview of the diverse applications of data mining and AI&ML
techniques in aerosol science, highlighting recent advancements, methodological
approaches, and a case study to predict the spatio-temporal patterns of AARs using
convolutional autoencoders. Data mining techniques enable the extraction of valuable
insights and patterns from large environmental datasets, while AI&ML techniques
facilitate the development of predictive models for aerosol concentrations, disper-
sion patterns, and atmospheric interactions. Clustering and classification algorithms
identify aerosol pollution hotspots and predict pollution events, while association
rule mining techniques reveal correlations between aerosol pollution and meteo-
rological variables. AI&ML models, including neural networks and support vector
machines, forecast aerosol concentration levels and classify pollution severity, aiding
in air quality forecasting and early warning systems. The case study demonstrates
the efficacy of these techniques in identifying aerosol pollution patterns, predicting
AARs, and integrating satellite data for global aerosol monitoring. Despite chal-
lenges such as data quality and model interpretability, future research directions aim
to enhance data accessibility, improve integration techniques, and explore emerging
AI&ML methodologies for more accurate predictions and informed decision-making
in aerosol pollution management.

Keywords Aerosol pollution · AI&ML · AARs · Data mining · Predictive

modelling

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 43

M. K. Goyal and K. S. Rautela, Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers,
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-66758-9_3
44 3 Application of Data Mining and AI&ML in Aerosol Pollution …

3.1 Introduction

In recent years, the field of earth and environmental science has witnessed a surge in
interest and innovation surrounding the application of data mining, artificial intelli-
gence, and machine learning (AI&ML) techniques (Goyal 2014; Sekar et al. 2016;
Gibert et al. 2018; Krishan et al. 2019; Singh and Goyal 2023a; Meghani et al. 2023).
These advanced analytical tools hold significant promise for addressing complex
environmental challenges, including the study of atmospheric pollutants (Ma et al.
2021), aerosol pollution (Li et al. 2022a), and aerosol atmospheric rivers (Rautela
et al. 2024a). However, in the context of aerosol science, the application of data
mining and AI&ML techniques offers unprecedented opportunities to enhance our
understanding of aerosol dynamics, pollution sources, and their impacts on environ-
mental and human health (Haque and Singh 2017; Mo and Li 2019; Oh et al. 2020;
Liu et al. 2020).
Data mining is the process of using several computing techniques to extract useful
knowledge, patterns, and insights from massive datasets (Ojha et al. 2007; Goyal
and Ojha 2011; Goyal et al. 2012; Senthil Kumar et al. 2013; Kotu and Deshpande
2015; Goyal and Sharma 2016). With the exponential growth of data collection
and storage capabilities, data mining techniques have become indispensable tools
for analysing complex environmental datasets, including those related to aerosol
pollution (Bellinger et al. 2017). Through the utilization of sophisticated algorithms
like clustering, classification, and association rule mining, researchers are able to
detect both temporal and spatial patterns in aerosol concentrations, as well as under-
lying trends and factors that contribute to aerosol pollution (Bin Tarek et al. 2018;
Zhang et al. 2020; Hu et al. 2021). Conversely, AI&ML include a collection of
statistical methods and computational algorithms that let computers learn from data,
anticipate future events, and adjust to changing surroundings without the need for
explicit programming (Elahi et al. 2023). AI&ML approaches have special benefits
for modelling intricate aerosol processes, forecasting future trends, and evaluating
the efficacy of mitigation measures in the context of aerosol science (Mo and Li 2019;
Qiu et al. 2022, 2023; Peng et al. 2024). Accurate predictive models that are trained
based on observational data, satellite imaging, and atmospheric simulations will be
prepared to forecast aerosol concentrations, dispersion patterns, and atmospheric
interactions (Peng et al. 2024).
A wide range of research areas are involved in the application of data mining and
AI&ML techniques in aerosol science, all of which further our knowledge of aerosol
dynamics and their effects on human and environmental health. In order to differen-
tiate between human and natural emissions, aerosol source apportionment uses data
mining techniques like factor analysis and receptor modelling to locate and measure
the sources of aerosol pollution (Kulmala et al. 2023). AI&ML algorithms, including
neural networks, SVM, and random forests, are utilized for aerosol prediction and
forecasting, aiding in air quality forecasting and early warning systems (Qiu et al.
2023). Recent progressions in AI&ML models have become indispensable for the
prediction of earth and atmospheric variables (Qiu et al. 2023). These models offer
3.2 Data Mining Techniques for Aerosol Pollution Analysis 45

predictive capabilities at both regional and global scales for aerosol transport (Qiu
et al. 2023), particulate matter (PM) (Shakya et al. 2023), and assessing patterns
of atmospheric rivers (ARs) (Singh and Goyal 2023a, b). These models are highly
effective at simulating intricate interactions that span various spatio-temporal dimen-
sions and include both linear and nonlinear dynamics (Yu et al. 2019; Alzubaidi et al.
2021).
Highlighting new developments, methodological strategies, and case studies from
the literature, this chapter will examine the various uses of data mining and AI&ML
techniques in aerosol science. These results will enhance air quality management
plans, learn more about aerosol dynamics, and eventually protect the environment
and public health from the damaging effects of aerosol pollution by utilizing data-
driven approaches. However, a paradigm shift in this approach to the study of aerosol
pollution through aerosol atmospheric rivers is provided by the combination of data
mining and AI&ML approaches.

3.2 Data Mining Techniques for Aerosol Pollution Analysis

3.2.1 Data Sources for Aerosol Pollution Data

Aerosol pollution data are derived from various sources, including ground-based
monitoring stations, satellite observations, and atmospheric modelling simulations
(Filonchyk et al. 2019; Li et al. 2022b). Ground-based monitoring stations provide
direct measurements of aerosol concentrations, typically collected using instruments
such as nephelometers and particle counters (Kuniyal and Guleria 2019). These
data offer valuable insights into local aerosol pollution levels and spatial variability.
Satellite observations, on the other hand, offer a broader perspective, capturing
aerosol distributions over large geographic areas (Christensen et al. 2020; Masoud
2023). Sensors onboard satellites, such as Multiangle imaging spectroradiometer
(MISR), Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and Cloud-
Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO), provide
measurements of aerosol optical properties, allowing for the estimation of aerosol
concentrations and identification of aerosol sources (Brun et al. 2011; Sahak et al.
2019). Atmospheric modelling simulations, including chemical transport models
(CTMs) and numerical weather prediction (NWP) models coupled with AI&ML
models, simulate aerosol transport and transformation processes with the integration
of meteorological variables with emission inventories to generate spatiotemporally
resolved aerosol concentration fields (Prank et al. 2016; Rojas et al. 2020).
46 3 Application of Data Mining and AI&ML in Aerosol Pollution …

Knowledge of
Atmospheric
Environment
Expression Evaluation Knowledge and
Control Evaluation
Mining Results

Data Mining Algorithms for clustering

User Control and classification Knowledge of
Meteorological
Database

Data Manipulation Data

Control Preprocessing Raw Data

Fig. 3.1 Process of data mining for atmospheric environment

3.2.2 Overview of Data Mining Techniques

A wide number of approaches are included in data mining techniques, which are used
to uncover links, patterns, and insights from big, complicated databases (Fig. 3.1)
(Bellinger et al. 2017). These methods fall into two general categories: supervised
and unsupervised learning approaches (Chowdhury et al. 2020; Nandakumar 2022;
Essamlali et al. 2024). Aerosol pollution hotspots can be found using unsupervised
learning approaches like clustering algorithms, which find natural groupings or clus-
ters within the data (Li et al. 2022c). The prediction of aerosol pollution episodes
and their intensity is made easier by supervised learning techniques like classification
algorithms, which learn from labelled data to produce predictions or classify cases
into predetermined categories (Gupta et al. 2023). Aerosol pollution and meteoro-
logical factors have links that can be revealed using association rule mining tools,
which analyse associations or correlations between variables.

3.3 Application of Data Mining in Analysing Aerosol

Pollution Data

3.3.1 Clustering Algorithms for Identifying Aerosol Pollution

Hotspots

Aerosol concentration patterns provide the basis for several groupings that are formed
from the data by clustering techniques like k-means clustering and hierarchical
clustering (Zhou et al. 2023). Several studies locate hotspots of increased aerosol
3.3 Application of Data Mining in Analysing Aerosol Pollution Data 47

pollution levels by clustering spatially resolved aerosol data. This provides impor-
tant information for focused air quality management activities (Li et al. 2022c).
For example, Nakhjiri and Kakroodi (2024) utilize clustering analysis to investigate
industrial emissions and air pollution trends in Tehran province, Iran, using Sentinel-
5 Precursor data and forecasting models. Similarly, Rendana et al. (2022) classified
PM2.5 pollution levels in South Sumatra Province using satellite data and hierarchical
cluster analysis to support air quality management during forest fire events.

3.3.2 Classification Algorithms for Predicting Aerosol

Pollution Events

Decision trees (Tileubai et al. 2023), random forests (Yu et al. 2016), and SVM
(Kulkarni et al. 2022) are a few examples of classification algorithms that use labelled
data to learn and forecast the likelihood of aerosol pollution events based on emission
sources, meteorological variables, and other appropriate information. Certain recent
works create predictive models for predicting times of increased aerosol concentra-
tions and determining the possibility of surpassing air quality regulations by training
classification algorithms on historical data (Essamlali et al. 2024). Early warning
systems and preventative actions to lessen the negative effects of aerosol pollution
on the environment and public health are made possible by these models (KELLY
et al. 2012).

3.3.3 Association Rule Mining for Identifying Correlations

Between Aerosol Pollution and Meteorological
Variables

Association rule mining techniques, such as the Apriori algorithm and frequent
pattern mining, analyse associations or correlations between aerosol pollution
and meteorological variables, revealing underlying relationships and dependencies
(Mennis and Liu 2005; Paas et al. 2017; Wu et al. 2024). Historical data on aerosol
concentrations and meteorological parameters, several studies uncover patterns such
as the influence of wind speed and direction on aerosol dispersion, the impact of
temperature inversions on pollutant accumulation, and the relationship between
humidity and aerosol hygroscopic growth (Zhou et al. 2015; Chen et al. 2020). These
insights inform our understanding of aerosol pollution dynamics and contribute to
the development of targeted mitigation strategies.
48 3 Application of Data Mining and AI&ML in Aerosol Pollution …

Datasets Data Formatting Selection of AI&M L technique

ANN
Traffic ANFIS
Fuzzy Logic
Data Cleaning CNN
• Volume & Density Hybrid
RNN
Rate of emission
SVM
Fuel consumption
Data Normalization LSTM
Vehicle age
Autoencoders
Flow composition

Geographical
Latitude and Longitude
Elevation M odel Development
Land use land cover Training
Batch size
Environmental Learning rate
Testing Optimizers
Pollutant concentration Hyper-parameters
Wind speed and direction Validation Loss functions
Cloud cover and rainfall Hidden layers
Solar radiation Activation function
Visibility
Mixing height
Pasquil stability
Prediction
Socio-Economic
Population density Hybrid System
Job density
Yes
Gross domestic product No
Urbanization rate M odel Prediction Acceptable End

Fig. 3.2 Process of AI&ML-based models for atmospheric environments

3.4 AI&ML Applications in Aerosol Pollution Monitoring

and Prediction

3.4.1 Overview of AI&ML Techniques

Aerosol pollution monitoring and prediction have undergone a dramatic change

because of the merging of AI&ML techniques (Fig. 3.2) (Tripathi et al. 2024). These
innovative methods, complex models that can process large, complex datasets and
provide accurate projections have been made easier to create (Rautela et al. 2024a).
Aerosol pollution analysis can be accomplished with a variety of capabilities because
of the broad array of algorithms and methodologies that make up AI&ML (Gupta
et al. 2023). This section examines popular AI&ML methods and explains their uses
and functions in aerosol pollution prediction and monitoring.

3.4.2 Application of AI&ML in Aerosol Pollution Monitoring

AI & ML techniques play a crucial role in monitoring aerosol pollution levels,

identifying trends, and providing real-time assessments of air quality. By lever-
aging advanced algorithms and computational methods, several past studies gain
significant information about aerosol dynamics and pollution sources by analysing
diverse datasets, including ground-based measurements, satellite observations, and
3.4 AI&ML Applications in Aerosol Pollution Monitoring and Prediction 49

atmospheric modelling simulations (Mo et al. 2019; Sun et al. 2019; Javaid et al.
2023).

3.4.3 Time Series Analysis for Predicting Future Aerosol

Concentrations

Future aerosol concentration levels are frequently predicted using time series analysis
approaches, such as seasonal decomposition and autoregressive integrated moving
average (ARIMA) models, based on historical data. Time series analysis involves
examining sequences of observations ordered chronologically. It operates on the
premise that predicting future values relies on past patterns within the data. Among
the plethora of statistical techniques for forecasting variables, stochastic processes
stand out for their ability to incorporate uncertainty into predictions. Widely envi-
ronmental science studies, stochastic models like the Box-Jenkins ARIMA model
are instrumental in generating synthetic series mirroring observed data persistence
and predicting future trends based on historical data (Wang et al. 2014). Extending
beyond hydrology, stochastic processes find utility in climatology domains such as
wind speed, precipitation, snow cover, and air and water temperature (Cadenas and
Rivera 2010; Kumar et al. 2023). Notably, studies employing ARIMA models have
delved into air pollution modelling, forecasting concentrations of pollutants like
particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ozone
(Chattopadhyay and Chattopadhyay 2009). However, in the context of aerosol optical
properties, the application of stochastic models remains scarce in India, with existing
research focusing mainly on broader regions like the Indo-Gangetic Plain rather than
specific locations (Abish and Mohanakumar 2013; Soni et al. 2014).

3.4.4 Neural Networks for Forecasting Aerosol

Concentration Levels

Neural networks, inspired by the human brain’s neural networks, are powerful
computational models capable of learning complex patterns and making predictions
based on input data. ANNs emulate the human nervous system, comprising inter-
connected neurons that collectively address a spectrum of challenges, from function
approximation to clustering and optimization (Sofi et al. 2023). The three-stage
process involved in ANN modelling, encompassing design, training, and validation,
underscores its versatility (Rautela et al. 2022). During the design phase, crucial
parameters such as architecture, layers, neurons, and learning algorithms are metic-
ulously chosen (Karagulian et al. 2015). Training involves iterative adjustments of
synaptic weights to minimize errors, while validation gauges the network’s general-
ization performance for unknown data. Multilayer Perceptron (MLPs), a prominent
50 3 Application of Data Mining and AI&ML in Aerosol Pollution …

type of ANN, have proven effective in predicting atmospheric pollution events. Typi-
cally featuring input, hidden, and output layers, MLPs can adapt to complex patterns
by incorporating multiple hidden layers. Configuring neurons in the hidden layers is
of utmost importance, as an incorrect count can lead to overfitting or under-fitting.
Techniques like thumb rule and trial and error, network reduction offer solutions to
optimize neuron numbers. The application of ANNs in gaseous pollutants forecasting
continued with studies by Slini et al. (2003) and Kandya (2013) both emphasizing
the importance of optimizing input parameters for improved accuracy. Compara-
tive assessments with other forecasting techniques consistently positioned ANNs as
superior for gaseous pollutants.

3.4.5 Fuzzy Logic (FL) for Air Pollution Prediction

FL, another AI technique, operates on a different paradigm by assigning truth values

in a range. Developed from fuzzy set theory, it accommodates linguistic variables,
making it adept at handling uncertainty in natural language statements. Fuzzy logic’s
three main phases—fuzzification, inference, and defuzzification—form a robust
modelling system capable of addressing nuanced problems. FL, renowned for its
capacity to manage uncertainty, enhanced fault tolerance, and adeptness in handling
highly complex nonlinear functions, has garnered extensive adoption in the realm
of air pollution prediction. The advantages of FL are exemplified in various studies.
For example, Chen et al. (2019) innovatively introduced a novel fuzzy time series
model specifically for O3 prediction, showcasing its superior performance when
compared to traditional fuzzy time series models. Jain and Khare (2010) applied
a neuro-fuzzy model to predict the concentration of CO in Delhi, achieving accu-
rate estimates at complex urban levels. Carbajal-Hernández et al. (2012) predicts air
quality in Mexico City by utilizing the FL model alongside the autoregression model
and signal processing. The introduction of a novel algorithm, the “Sigma operator,”
allowed for precise evaluation of air quality variables, showcasing the effective-
ness of fuzzy-based models. Moreover, Al-Shammari (2013), evaluates stochastic
and FL-driven models to estimate the daily maximum concentrations of O3 . The
findings indicated that the FL-based model exhibited a marginal superiority over
the statistical model, particularly in instances of severe pollution events. Innovative
approaches like the Fuzzy Inference Ensemble (FIE), as proposed by Bougoudis
et al. (2016), demonstrated high accuracy in air pollution forecasting for Athens.
3.4 AI&ML Applications in Aerosol Pollution Monitoring and Prediction 51

3.4.6 Support Vector Machines (SVM) for Classifying

Aerosol Pollution Severity

SVM are supervised learning algorithms that excel in classification tasks, particu-
larly in cases where the data is nonlinearly separable. In aerosol pollution monitoring,
SVM models are employed to classify the severity of aerosol pollution events based
on input variables such as aerosol concentration levels, meteorological parameters,
and emission sources. SVM are popular for supervised learning, excelling in classifi-
cation, prediction, density estimation, and pattern recognition. SVM seeks an optimal
hyperplane to segregate data into predefined classes, with kernel functions playing a
pivotal role in introducing nonlinearity. SVM, when combined with other machine
learning algorithms, have been helpful in forecasting diverse types of pollutants.
Feng et al. (2011) compared SVM with other models for forecasting daily maximum
concentrations of O3 in Beijing, highlighting its stable and accurate performance.
Yeganeh et al. (2012) assessed the efficacy of a forecasting model utilizing SVM
integrated with Partial Least Squares (PLS) for the prediction of CO concentrations,
demonstrating positive outcomes. García Nieto et al. (2013) conducted a comparative
analysis of various prediction models for PM10 concentrations, determining that the
SVM method exhibited superior accuracy and robustness. Luna et al. (2014) utilized
Principal PCA in combination with SVM and ANN for the prediction of O3 levels in
Rio de Janeiro. Their study specifically investigated the influence of meteorological
parameters on the concentrations of O3 .

3.4.7 Deep Learning Techniques for Image-Based Aerosol

Monitoring

Deep Neural Networks (DNNs) represent an advanced version of ANNs, charac-

terized by structural depth and scalability. DNNs, with more than three layers, can
automatically extract features from raw inputs, known as feature learning. Notable
architectures within DNNs, such as CA, LSTM, CNNs, and RNNs have demonstrated
superior performance, especially in air pollution forecasting and pattern identifica-
tion (Rautela et al. 2024a). The training of DNNs demands significant computational
power, leading to advancements in processing capabilities and the development of
sophisticated algorithms. Early on, Freeman et al. (2018) employed a combination
of Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) and Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN) to
predict ozone concentrations in an urban area. While showing strong predictability in
8-h average ozone concentrations, various model runs revealed overfitting concerns,
underscoring the necessity for further refinement. Wang and Song (2018) intro-
duced an ensemble method using a deep LSTM network with fuzzy c-means clus-
tering for air quality forecasting. This ensemble approach outperformed individual
models, showcasing its efficacy in both short-term and long-term predictions. Qi et al.
52 3 Application of Data Mining and AI&ML in Aerosol Pollution …

(2019) presented a novel forecasting approach employing a fusion of Graph Convo-

lutional and LSTM (GC-LSTM) neural networks, aiming to investigate spatial inter-
dependence within air quality data. The spatial correlation modelling highlighted the
consistency of the GC-LSTM model for short-term forecasting, suggesting potential
improvements for long-term predictions with enhanced spatio-temporal considera-
tions. In a novel approach, Li et al. (2015) and Zhang et al. (2016) incorporated
large-scale datasets of graphical images for air pollution estimation, utilizing CNN.
The models, trained on images capturing various atmospheric conditions, demon-
strated improved prediction accuracy, emphasizing the adaptability of deep learning
to diverse data types.

3.5 Case Study on Prediction of AARs Using AI&ML

3.5.1 Background

Rapid industrialization, urbanization, and civilization have created severe environ-

mental problems, such as air and soil pollution brought on by industrial emissions and
inappropriate waste disposal (Turan et al. 2018). Among these challenges, aerosol
pollution has emerged as a critical concern, exacerbated by both natural phenomena
like forest fires and human activities such as the combustion of fossil fuels (Ajay
et al. 2021). Aerosols, comprising various particles suspended in the atmosphere,
play a pivotal role in climate dynamics and environmental health. Aerosol Atmo-
spheric Rivers (AARs), similar to atmospheric rivers (ARs), transport aerosol species
across vast distances, significantly impacting air quality and visibility (Chakraborty
et al. 2022). Recent studies have highlighted the importance of integrating advanced
technologies like satellite remote sensing and ML to monitor and predict aerosol
dynamics effectively (Bozdağ et al. 2020; Du et al. 2021; Qiu et al. 2023). ML and DL
models, such as CNNs and LSTM, demonstrate promising capabilities in detecting
and forecasting aerosol-related variables (Huang and Kuo 2018). However, the black-
box nature of some DL models poses challenges in interpreting their predictions,
necessitating further exploration of data assimilation techniques to improve model
accuracy. Integrating ML and DL models with IAT-based AAR algorithms offers a
complementary approach to detecting AARs, enhancing environmental monitoring
and forecasting capabilities (Rautela et al. 2024a, b). These models enable accurate
predictions in real/near real time, facilitating proactive decision-making to address
complex aerosol pollution dynamics and their broader ecological implications.
3.5 Case Study on Prediction of AARs Using AI&ML 53

3.5.2 Methodology

The detected AAR frames of key aerosol species in Chap. 2 are used as an input
parameter for the prediction of AARs. The dataset from 2015–2022 on a 6-h time
step which comprises 11,684 frames of each aerosol are used as an input dataset
to the DL model. The autoencoder network plays a crucial role in predicting the
intensity of AARs for various key aerosol species (Rautela et al. 2024a). Comprising
three primary components—the encoder, decoder, and bottleneck. The autoencoder
architecture undergoes a series of transformations to encode input frames into a
latent space representation and decode them back into reconstructed frames. The
Encoder utilizes convolutional layers with Rectified Linear Unit (ReLU) activa-
tion, batch normalization, and MaxPool2d operations to compress input frames
while retaining essential spatial features. Dropout is incorporated for regulariza-
tion purposes to prevent overfitting. Acting as an information filter, the bottleneck
module connects successive input frames by capturing time-related spectral features.
On the other hand, the Decoder reconstructs frames by means of “ConvTranspose2d”
layers, building successive frames one after the other until the AAR maps for later
timestamps are fully rebuilt. Iterative changes for model refinement are made easier
by the seamless integration of the reconstruction loss function, or RMSE, with the
Adam optimizer.
Batch Normalization (BN) and Activation functions (AF) are essential compo-
nents of the autoencoder architecture. BN acts as an effective regularization tech-
nique, enhancing network stability and efficiency during training by standardizing
and normalizing inputs at each layer. It mitigates overfitting and strengthens network
robustness by saturating the network with normalization capabilities. Activation
functions introduce nonlinearity to capture intricate input–output connections. ReLU
and Sigmoid are commonly employed activation functions, with ReLU simplifying
computation by transforming negative values to zeros, and Sigmoid being useful for
binary classification tasks. The training process uses weight initialization and the
Adam optimizer with default settings, giving priority to RMSE reduction for weight
updates (Rautela et al. 2024b).
The model’s hyperparameters consist of L2 loss for frame reconstruction, Adam
optimization in gradient descent, and a batch size of 1 for every 10 frames in each
iteration (Singh and Goyal 2023a). The input data consists of frames showing the
intensity of identified AARs for five distinct species, and the training loss func-
tion is RMSE. The model’s learning progress is demonstrated by the training and
testing loss changes throughout epochs (Fig. 3.3). The autoencoder network, when
combined with BN and AF components, creates a strong framework for estimating
AAR intensity, enabling improved comprehension and control of the dynamics of
aerosol pollution.
 54

(a) BC (b) DU (c) OC (d) SS (e) SU

SSIM
PSNIR
MSE Loss
Number of Images used in training

Fig. 3.3 Model evaluation parameters for key aerosol species in the training phase
3 Application of Data Mining and AI&ML in Aerosol Pollution …
3.5 Case Study on Prediction of AARs Using AI&ML 55

3.5.3 Results

The development and evaluation of five autoencoder models for predicting extreme
aerosol events were conducted, with datasets divided in the ratio of 70%, 20%, and
10% to training, testing, and validation sets, respectively. Each model was trained
up to 30 epochs for each aerosol species. Performance evaluation was carried out
using established metrics such as structural similarity index (SSIM) and peak signal-
to-noise ratio (PSNR). These metrics provided insights into the predictive capabili-
ties of the models, with SSIM assessing image similarity and PSNR indicating the
quality of image reconstruction (Meghani et al. 2023). Additionally, machine learning
metrics, including root mean square error (RMSE) and mean square error (MSE),
were employed to quantify dissimilarity between predicted and actual values.
The outcomes of the model evaluation showed how well the autoencoder models
captured complex data relationships and made accurate predictions. During the
training phase, the SSIM values ranged from 0.85 to 0.96, indicating a high degree of
similarity between the predicted and actual images. Similarly, PSNR values varied
from 1.26 to 41.26 dB, where higher values indicate better quality image recon-
struction. Furthermore, the models were able to forecast aerosol intensity with good
accuracy; RMSE values ranged from 1.59 to 17.02 mg/(m-sec), while MSE values
were within the same range, 2.52 to 289.60 mg/(m-sec).
Comparing metrics scores between training, testing, and validation sets revealed
consistent patterns across all phases, indicating the robustness of the models’ perfor-
mance. Together with reduced RMSE and MSE values, the greater SSIM and PSNR
values highlighted the accuracy and calibre of the models’ predictions. Notably, the
achieved metrics scores surpassed benchmarks set by previous studies, attributed to
the autoencoder models’ effectiveness in capturing complex spatio-temporal features
within the aerosol data.
Several factors contributed to the superior performance of the autoencoder models.
The models’ ability to identify important patterns in the data was improved by the
thoughtful application of several layers and methods, such as Batch Normalization,
Conv2d, and Up sampling. Additionally, the models’ ability to effectively capture
complex relationships inherent in the aerosol data played a pivotal role in improving
prediction accuracy. Moreover, the models’ efficacy in reconstructing aerosol inten-
sity maps was demonstrated visually through Fig. 3.4, showcasing its prediction and
training capacities. Sequences of 10 input AAR frame of BC AARs and predicts the
11th AAR frame and further compare with the actual one, and the model’s predicted
output for the same time step were shown in these samples (Fig. 3.4a). Also, the
predicted and observed AAR frames for DU, OC, SS, and SU AARs are shown in
the Fig. 3.4b, where the models showed outstanding predicted accuracy, even though
some plots in the sample sets were blank because associated aerosol atmospheric
rivers were not available at time steps.
56 3 Application of Data Mining and AI&ML in Aerosol Pollution …

(a)
1 2 3

4 5 6

8
7 9

10 11 11
(Actual) (Predicted)

Fig. 3.4 a Patterns of 10 sequential BC AARs frames used as an input to predict the 11th frame
and compare with the actual frame b other predicted key aerosol species frames with comparison
with the actual ones

3.6 Challenges and Future Directions

Addressing data quality and availability challenges remains a critical obstacle in

aerosol pollution analysis using data mining and AI&ML techniques. Predictive
model development and validation are hampered by the lack of access to complete and
high-quality datasets, such as satellite observations, ground-based measurements,
and atmospheric modelling outputs. In addition, there are considerable logistical
and technical difficulties in combining various data sources, necessitating the use of
reliable data integration frameworks and compatible data formats. There are addi-
tional difficulties in interpreting and understanding AI&ML models, especially in
complex and nonlinear systems like aerosol pollution, where model interpretability
and explainability are essential for making well-informed decisions (Fan et al. 2017;
Qiu et al. 2023; Singh and Goyal 2023b). Developing advanced data integration
techniques to seamlessly combine diverse datasets, enhancing model interpretability
and transparency through novel visualization and explainability techniques, and
improving data quality and accessibility through improved data collection methods
and data sharing initiatives are some of the future research directions in aerosol
pollution analysis using data mining and AI&ML techniques. For more precise and
reliable forecasts of aerosol pollution dynamics and their effects on the environ-
ment and public health, upcoming studies should also concentrate on investigating
cutting-edge AI&ML approaches, such as deep learning and reinforcement learning.
3.7 Conclusion 57

(b)
11 (Actual) 11 (Predicted)

11 (Actual) 11 (Predicted)

11 (Actual) 11 (Predicted)

11 (Actual) 11 (Predicted)

Fig. 3.4 (continued)

Our understanding of aerosol pollution may be improved, and evidence-based poli-

cies for air quality management and public health protection can be informed by
addressing these issues and promoting research in these areas.

3.7 Conclusion

The combination of data mining and AI&ML approaches is a major step forward
in tackling the complex relationship related to aerosol pollution and atmospheric
dynamics. These sophisticated analytical techniques have a wide range of appli-
cations in aerosol science that present unprecedented opportunities to enhance our
understanding of aerosol dynamics, sources of pollution, and their effects on human
and environmental health. Aerosol concentration patterns may be found in space and
time using data mining techniques including clustering, classification, and associa-
tion rule mining. This helps identify underlying trends and causes that contribute to
aerosol pollution. Deep learning models, neural networks, fuzzy logic, SVM, and
58 3 Application of Data Mining and AI&ML in Aerosol Pollution …

other AI&ML approaches make it easier to create predictive models for atmospheric
interactions, aerosol concentrations, and dispersion patterns. These models provide
precise estimates and evaluations of aerosol pollution levels by utilizing satellite
imagery, atmospheric simulations, and observational data.
Applications and case studies demonstrate the usefulness of data mining and
AI&ML methods in solving real-world aerosol pollution problems. The case studies
show how sophisticated analytical techniques can improve environmental monitoring
and forecasting, from locating aerosol pollution hotspots over the globe to forecasting
aerosol atmospheric rivers. For extreme aerosol episodes, the autoencoder models
created in this chapter demonstrated strong prediction accuracy. Their effectiveness
in collecting complicated spatio-temporal patterns in aerosol data was demonstrated
by their higher performance metrics scores and ability to predict aerosol inten-
sity properly. The results have important ramifications for companies depending on
precise predictions of aerosol pollution events and advance aerosol science’s predic-
tive modelling. There are still issues with data availability, quality, and model inter-
pretability even with the tremendous advancements made. To support better-informed
decision-making in aerosol pollution control, future research should concentrate on
developing model interpretability approaches, strengthening data integration frame-
works, and improving data collection methodologies. The integration of data mining
and AI&ML techniques offers a paradigm shift in how we approach the study of
aerosol pollution and atmospheric dynamics. By harnessing the power of advanced
analytical tools, researchers can gain deeper insights into aerosol dynamics, improve
air quality management strategies, and ultimately safeguard human health and the
environment from the adverse impacts of aerosol pollution.

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Chapter 4
Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Impacts
on Particulate Matter Concentrations
and Risk Assessment

Abstract Air pollution, particularly from particulate matter (PM), has become a
critical global issue, impacting human health and the environment. Aerosol Optical
Depth (AOD) serves as a proxy for particulate matter (PM) concentrations in the
atmosphere, with higher AOD values generally indicating higher PM levels. AOD is
estimated using satellite remote sensing techniques that measure the attenuation of
solar radiation caused by aerosols in the atmosphere. Satellite-based data for AOD
estimation is necessary due to its ability to provide global coverage and frequent
observations, which are essential for monitoring air quality on a large scale. However,
empirical methods are also useful to compute PM2.5 data from satellite images. This
chapter explores the possibility of empirical models to compute the PM2.5 concentra-
tion and correlate it with the observed datasets as a case study. There is a very strong
correlation (r = 0.75) between the PM2.5satellite data and PM2.5 observed data . Furthermore,
the presence of Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers (AARs) significantly affects the PM2.5
concentrations at that geographic location. However, the risk analysis shows cities
like New Delhi, Lahore, Dhaka, and Dammam are at extreme risk of air pollution
followed by Ghaziabad, Chongqing, Kolkata, Mumbai, and East London at high
high-risk. These findings underscore the urgent need for targeted interventions to
mitigate the adverse impacts of air pollution, especially in densely populated and
industrialized regions.

Keywords Air pollution · Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers (AARs) · Particulate

matter (PM) · Reanalysis datasets · Satellite datasets

4.1 Introduction

Over recent decades, the escalating issue of air pollution has garnered signifi-
cant global attention, driven by numerous acute pollution episodes observed in
various regions worldwide (Shakya et al. 2023). Countries such as China, India, and
numerous other developing and low-income nations have been threatened by severe
air quality challenges, resulting from rapid industrialization and urban expansion

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 65

M. K. Goyal and K. S. Rautela, Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers,
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-66758-9_4
66 4 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Impacts on Particulate Matter …

(Anwar et al. 2021). Specifically, metropolitan hubs have grappled with alarming air
pollution levels, particularly exacerbated during the winter months (Krishan et al.
2019). Additionally, several state capitals across India remain highly susceptible to air
pollution crises. The Great London Smog of 1952 and the extreme air pollution inci-
dents in Donora, USA in the late 1940s were significant events that contributed to the
statistical evidence of the negative health impacts of excessive air pollution (Jacobs
et al. 2018). Balakrishnan et al. (2019) highlighted air pollution-related causes were
responsible for 1.24 million fatalities in India in 2017 alone.
Particulate matter (PM) exerts detrimental effects not only on living organisms, but
also on various climatic parameters, such as temperature, cloud formation, and fog
density. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports approximately 4.2 million
people die from ambient air pollution-related causes annually (WHO 2021). Addi-
tionally, an estimated 7 million deaths are attributed specifically to PM air pollution.
This results in an economic loss of $2.9 trillion, which accounts for about 3.3% of
the world’s GDP (WHO 2021). The presence of fine particles, specifically PM2.5
and PM10 , in the atmosphere significantly impacts human health, with the ability to
infiltrate the lungs and contribute to respiratory illness, cardiovascular disease, and
cerebrovascular disease (Fuller et al. 2022). According to Li et al. (2023), there has
been a notable escalation in global population-weighted (PW) PM2.5 exposure, rising
from 28.3 μg/m3 in 1998 to a peak of 38.9 μg/m3 in 2011. Subsequently, there has
been a gradual decline to 34.7 μg/m3 by 2019. This surge in PM2.5 concentrations has
corresponded with an uptick in extreme pollution occurrences, thereby heightening
associated health hazards.
Furthermore, as discussed in the previous chapters, aerosol concentrations serve
as a crucial indicator for estimating level PM concentrations (Chakraborty et al. 2022;
Rautela et al. 2024a). Therefore in the lower tropospheric region, there is an urgent
need for continuous and real/near real-time monitoring of aerosols, spanning from
large-scale to small-scale observations, to inform various planning and implementa-
tion efforts (Guleria and Chand 2020; Chand et al. 2021). Numerous ground-based
projects and programmes dedicated to monitoring Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) are
operational worldwide. Examples include AERONET (AErosol RObotic NETwork),
Multi-Filter Rotating Shadow band Radiometer (MFRSR), Meteorological Adminis-
tration Aerosol Remote Sensing Network (CASRNET), Maritime Aerosol Network
(MAN), China, etc. (Ranjan et al. 2021). These initiatives provide near real-time AOD
data from various network stations globally. However, the geographical coverage of
ground monitoring stations remains limited in many countries, underscoring the
importance of satellite-based monitoring systems for obtaining spatial data on a
broader scale (Anggraini et al. 2024).
Satellite remote sensing has emerged as a powerful tool for monitoring ambient air
quality, offering advantages such as high spatio-temporal resolution (Rautela et al.
2024b). The limitations of ground-based air quality monitoring systems, particu-
larly in relation to PM and AOD, may be addressed by satellite remote sensing. For
example, the PM concentration can be found using MERRA-2 satellite reanalysis
datasets (Randles et al. 2017). Satellite remote sensing-based air quality monitoring
holds great potential, but it is still in the research stage with issues to be resolved in
4.2 Overview of Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) and Particulate Matter (PM) 67

establishing its accuracy, consistency, and dependability (Xian et al. 2013). Conse-
quently, the efforts are focused on developing more accurate and reliable methods
for air quality monitoring, with particular emphasis on estimating AOD and PM
concentrations.
The presence of Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers (AARs) significantly contributes
to the escalation of particulate matter (PM) concentrations across regions, conse-
quently amplifying the air quality index of affected areas. This increase in PM levels
poses harmful impacts on both human health and the environment, thereby exerting
adverse effects on the economy as well. AARs play a crucial role in facilitating
the transportation of PM2.5 from one geographical region to another. For example,
notable instances such as the Godzilla dust storm in 2020 transported dust aerosols
from the Sahara Desert to the Caribbean islands and the USA, leading to a substan-
tial deterioration in air quality within the affected regions. Similarly, the Indian dust
storm in 2018 resulted in a significant increase in PM concentrations across North
India. This chapter aims to explore the complex relationship between AARs and PM
concentrations and to assess the associated risks of PM2.5 in 526 cities worldwide.
Understanding the aerosols and PM concentrations is beneficial for devising effective
strategies to mitigate air pollution and safeguard public health globally.

4.2 Overview of Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD)

and Particulate Matter (PM)

Aerosols encompass a mixture of suspended solid and liquid particles found in the
atmosphere which includes dust, organic particles, industrial emissions, fog and mist,
etc. (Kuniyal and Guleria 2019). However, the integral of the vertical aerosol extinc-
tion coefficient from the Earth’s surface to the top of the atmosphere (TOA) is repre-
sented by AOD also called aerosol optical thickness (AOT) (Eq. 4.1) (Eddy 2012).
The quantity of optical light extinction caused by aerosol scattering and absorp-
tion in the atmosphere is measured by AOD. Because they scatter and absorb solar
and terrestrial radiation, these aerosol particles have a direct impact on the Earth’s
atmospheric energy balance (Zhou et al. 2023). Additionally, they indirectly change
the physical, optical, and lifespan properties of clouds through cloud condensation
nuclei (CCN) (Gallo et al. 2023). Equations 4.1 and 4.2 explain a strong correlation
between AOD and factors such as particle size distribution, aerosol size, vertical
profile, and radiation wavelength.
TOA
AOD/AOT = σext ,z dz (4.1)
Surface

σext ,z = π Qext (m, r, λ)n(r)r 2 dr (4.2)

68 4 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Impacts on Particulate Matter …

where AOD/AOT is the aerosol optical depth/aerosol optical thickness, σext,z is the
coefficient of aerosols at height z, r is the particle radius, λ is the wavelength, m is the
refractive index, n(r) is the aerosol particle size distribution, and Qext is the function
of m, r, and λ, respectively.
Cloud formation is significantly impacted by aerosol particles, which act as cloud
condensation nuclei (CCNs) around which cloud droplets form (Gallo et al. 2023).
The presence of a higher concentration of aerosols accelerates cloud formation
compared to normal conditions (Buseck and Pósfai 1999). Aerosol particles can
also change the properties of clouds that already exist, such as delaying the peak of
precipitation during the day (Wang et al. 2020). Strong correlations have been found
between satellite-based AOD and PM concentrations, especially when the majority
of particles are localized in the boundary layer (Handschuh et al. 2022). Previous
studies have also shown a linear correlation between satellite-based AOD and ground-
level PM concentrations, although this relationship may vary due to differences in
aerosol compositions, local climatic conditions, and geography, among other factors
(Stirnberg et al. 2018; Su et al. 2018; Handschuh et al. 2022). Despite the corre-
lation between satellite-based AOD and PM, several challenges exist in accurately
estimating AOD and PM. These challenges include satellite sensor specifications,
spatial resolution of satellite data, missing pixel values, surface reflectance, time sepa-
ration among measurements, and the need for numerous auxiliary variables (Samuel
et al. 2023). Enhancing the accuracy, consistency, and reliability of AOD and PM
calculations, particularly regarding spatial distribution, should be the focus of efforts
made to improve the performance of satellite data and related techniques (Zhu et al.
2023).

4.3 Remote Sensing Data for AOD Estimation

The availability of historical satellite remote sensing (RS) data has been helpful
in analysing trends in AOD and PM concentrations within geographical regions.
AOD levels and PM concentrations can be monitored using a variety of tech-
niques that make use of different satellite datasets (Handschuh et al. 2022). Aerosol
data is currently provided by multiple satellites and sensors, including the visible
infrared imaging radiometer suite (VIIRS), ozone monitoring instrument (OMI),
moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS), and advanced very high-
resolution radiometer (AVHRR) (Ranjan et al. 2021). Furthermore, Light Detection
and Ranging (LiDAR) serves as a highly efficient method for remote sensing of
aerosols, featuring extensive detection capabilities, continuous monitoring, and supe-
rior spatial and temporal resolution (Ma et al. 2019). Table 4.1 provides an overview
of operational satellite sensor products for obtaining aerosol data.
AOD levels across land and water have been estimated by numerous studies
using AVHRR sensor data from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) series satellites. For example, Prasad and Gupta (1998) used AVHRR data
at visible and near-infrared bands to estimate AOD levels over the Arabian Sea
Table 4.1 Satellite-based Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) Products
AOD product Satellite Orbit Wavelength Data available since Spatial–temporal Potential use
coverage
MODIS Terra Sun-synchronous Visible, Infrared 1999 Global coverage, daily Climate research, air
quality monitoring
MISR Terra Sun-synchronous Visible 1999 Global coverage, every Aerosol
9 days characterization, cloud
properties
MODIS Aqua Sun-synchronous Visible, Infrared 2002 Global coverage, daily Ocean colour
observation, land surface
monitoring
MAIAC Terra & Aqua Sun-synchronous Visible 2000 Global coverage, daily Land cover mapping,
(MODIS) urbanization studies
4.3 Remote Sensing Data for AOD Estimation

OMI Aura Sun-synchronous Visible, Ultraviolet 2003 Global coverage, daily Ozone monitoring, air
pollution detection
CALIOP CALIPSO Sun-synchronous LiDAR (532 nm, 1064 2006 Global coverage, Cloud and aerosol
nm) vertical profiles vertical profiling
GOCI COMS Geostationary – 2010 East Asia region, Monitoring of East
hourly Asian aerosol transport
VIIRS Suomi NPP Sun-synchronous Visible, Infrared 2011 Global coverage, daily Wildfire detection,
nighttime light
observation
AHI Himawari-8 Geostationary – 2014 Asia–Pacific region, Weather forecasting,
every 10 min cloud tracking
ABI GOES-16 Geostationary - 2016 North and South Monitoring of
America, every 5 min atmospheric dynamics,
severe weather detection
69
70 4 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Impacts on Particulate Matter …

and compared the results with measurements made on the ground. AOD evaluation
over Central Europe was studied by Hauser et al. (2005) utilizing AVHRR datasets
and a bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) model for estimation.
Similarly, Mei et al. (2014) established an empirical linear relationship between AOD
levels and MODIS-based reflectance values to show the potential of AVHRR data in
AOD estimation over the northeast region of China (Eq. 4.3).

RAerosol (λ, μ0 , μ, ϕ) =RTOA (λ, μ0 , μ, ϕ) − RRay (λ, μ0 , μ, ϕ)

Asfc (λ) × T1 (λ, μ0 ) × T2 (λ, μ)
− (4.3)
1 − Asfc (λ) × s(λ)

where μ, μ0, and ϕ are the solar zenith, satellite zenith, and relative azimuth angle, λ
is the wavelength, RAerosol (λ, μ0 , μ, ϕ) is the aerosol reflectance, RTOA (λ, μ0 , μ, ϕ)
is top of the atmosphere reflectance, RRay (λ, μ0 , μ, ϕ) is the Rayleigh reflectance,
Asfc (λ) and s(λ) is the surface spectral albedo and atmospheric hemispherical albedo,
T1 (λ,μ0 ) and T2 (λ,μ) is the total transmission of light propagating downward and
upward from the surface to the top of the atmosphere, respectively.
In recent years, Hsu et al. (2017) introduced a novel method for assessing the nature
of aerosols over land and ocean using AVHRR datasets, extending existing algo-
rithms. The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and minimal reflectance
framework were used in this method to lessen the impact of shifting vegetation on
surface reflectance. Furthermore, MODIS sensors onboard Terra and Aqua satellites
have revolutionized AOD and PM estimation. With comprehensive spectral coverage
and improved spatial resolution, MODIS-based aerosol products offer enhanced
capabilities for AOD estimation compared to AVHRR data. The deep blue (DB)
and dark target (DT) algorithms designed for MODIS data enable AOD estima-
tion over various surface types, addressing limitations encountered with AVHRR
datasets. For global aerosol monitoring, the MODIS-based AOD products with DT
and DB algorithms are readily accessible. These developments in remote sensing
technology highlight how crucial it is to use satellite data for precise and trustworthy
AOD and PM concentration estimation, supporting extensive studies on air quality
and environmental monitoring initiatives.

4.4 Satellite-Based Particulate Matter (PM) Concentration

Estimation

Various methodologies, including empirical/semi-empirical models, statistical

models, vertical correlation models, and chemical transport models, have been
employed to estimate PM concentrations using satellite-based AOD datasets, along-
side supporting variables (Fig. 4.1). Sections 4.2 and 4.3 primarily focus on reviewing
the satellite-based data, calculation of AOD for the computation of PM. However,
this section underscores the possibility of PM computation through empirical models
4.4 Satellite-Based Particulate Matter (PM) Concentration Estimation 71

based on the primary aerosols. These models are valued for their ease of use, quick-
ness, applicability, and superiority over alternative techniques for predicting PM
concentrations at the ground level using satellite-based datasets.
Despite the availability of numerous approaches for PM estimation from satellite
data, accurately estimating PM remains a complex issue due to various influencing
factors, including land-use types, meteorological parameters, and cloud contamina-
tion, among others. Consequently, the relationship between aerosol properties and
PM is typically evaluated by considering local conditions. Challenges such as the
coarser spatial resolution of satellite data and missing pixel values pose signifi-
cant obstacles to precise ground-level PM estimation from satellite data. Chu et al.
(2016) have provided a comprehensive review of the capabilities and limitations
of various satellite remote sensing approaches for ground-level PM concentration
estimation. Furthermore, this chapter also evaluates the PM concentrations from the
satellite-based products in Sect. 4.4.1 and the associated risk of PM globally.

Chemical Transport Vertical Correlation

Models Models

PM x
Estimation

Empirical/ Semi- Statistical Models

Empirical Methods

Empirical-Statistical
Methods

Statistical Regression AI &M L M odels

M odels
• Linear Regression Neural Networks
Multiple Linear Regression Fuzzy Logic
Non-Linear Regression Support Vector Machines
Spatio-temporal Weighted Random Forest
Regression Decision Trees
Land use Regression Deep Learning
Mixed Effect Model Two-stage model
Generalized Adaptive Model Gauss Neural Networks

Fig. 4.1 Commonly used methods for the estimation of PMx (where x denotes the particle size in
micrometres) based on AOD/AOT satellite products
72 4 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Impacts on Particulate Matter …

4.5 Estimation of Particulate Matter Concentrations

from Satellite Reanalysis Datasets

4.5.1 Datasets

This study uses datasets with a spatio-temporal resolution of 0.5° × 0.625° and 1 h,
spanning the period from January 1, 1980, to December 31, 2023, using MERRA-
2 reanalysis data that was obtained from the NASA GESDISC DATA ARCHIVE
application (Randles et al. 2017). The dataset comprises 53 different atmospheric
aerosol-related variables, such as time, latitude, and longitude. Furthermore, using
the climate data operator (CDO), the following data is extracted: time (t), latitude
(φ), longitude (λ), black carbon surface mass concentration (BCSMASS ), dust surface
mass concentration-PM2.5 (DUSMASS25 ), organic carbon surface mass concentration
(OCSMASS ), sea salt surface mass concentration-PM2.5 (SSSMASS25 ), and sulphate
surface mass concentration (SO4SMASS ). In addition, the hourly temporal resolution
is translated into the daily by taking the mean of the next 24 h. According to Buchard
et al. (2016) and Provençal et al. (2017), the PM2.5 concentration (μg/m3 ) for every
grid cell (0.5° × 0.625°) is calculated as (Eq. 4.4).

PM2.5 = BCSMASS + DUSMASS25 + OCSMASS + SSSMASS25 + 1.375 × SO4SMASS × 109 (4.4)

4.5.2 PM2.5 Concentration and Trends

From 1980 to 2023, this study examined the correlation between MERRA-2 satellite
reanalysis datasets and PM2.5 concentration data collected from 526 cities worldwide.
Results showed a strong agreement between the reanalysis and measured datasets,
with a Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) averaging 7.34 μg/m3 (Fig. 4.2a), indicating
minimal discrepancy. Taylor’s diagram revealed a high correlation coefficient of 0.87
(Fig. 4.2a), suggesting a linear relationship between the datasets. The coefficient of
determination (R2) was calculated at 0.75, indicating that 75% of the variability in
measured data can be explained by the reanalysis datasets (Fig. 4.2c). These findings
demonstrate robust agreement between MERRA-2 reanalysis datasets and measured
air quality across studied cities. PM2.5 concentration trends varied across regions
from 1980 to 2023, with the Indo-Gangetic Plains experiencing a notable increase of
1–1.5 μg/m3 (Fig. 4.2b). The Taklamakan Desert region and Eastern China/western
Africa saw smaller rises of 0.5–1 μg/m3 and 0–0.5 μg/m3, respectively. Certain
regions, including Niger, Chad, Gulf countries, and India, showed consistently high
PM2.5 levels with increasing trends, highlighting a significant air pollution problem.
Conversely, the European Union and Eastern USA displayed lower PM2.5 concen-
trations with decreasing trends, indicating progress towards improved air quality.
4.6 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers and Particulate Matter (PM) 73

(a)

(b) (c)

Fig. 4.2 a Observed and estimated PM2.5 over 526 cities, b Mean PM2.5 concentrations, and
c Correlation between observed and estimated PM2.5 during the period 1980–2023

These trends underscore the impact of human activities on PM2.5 concentrations,

with implications for society and ecosystems.

4.6 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers and Particulate Matter

(PM)

4.6.1 Correlation and Spatial Selectivity

The phenomenon of AARs and its correlation with PM concentrations reveals

crucial insights into the dynamics of aerosols and their impact on air quality. AARs,
composed of key aerosol species such as black carbon, dust, organic carbon, sea
salt, and sulfates, play a pivotal role in increasing PM concentrations within the
regions they cover (Chakraborty et al. 2021). These aerosol species constitute primary
components of PM, thereby significantly influencing its concentration levels. In the
context of aerosol transport, AARs emerge as potent contributors, responsible for
up to 80% of the observed increase in PM concentration within their respective
regions (Chakraborty et al. 2022). This underscores the substantial influence AARs
exert on local air quality dynamics. The presence of AARs leads to a notable surge
in PM levels, exacerbating air pollution concerns and posing significant challenges
for environmental and public health management. Figure 4.3 serves as compelling
74 4 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Impacts on Particulate Matter …

evidence of the correlation between AARs and PM concentrations. The visual repre-
sentation depicted in the figure elucidates the intricate relationship between these
two phenomena, highlighting their co-occurrence and mutual influence. Through
empirical observation and data analysis, the figure underscores the interconnect-
edness of AARs and PM concentrations, reaffirming their associated relationship.
However, it’s essential to note certain characteristics of AARs that shape their impact
on PM concentrations. AARs, often spanning lengths exceeding 2000 km, exhibit
varying spatial extents, influencing the distribution and magnitude of PM concentra-
tions across different regions. While AARs significantly contribute to elevated PM
levels within their coverage areas, their extensive reach also implies the exclusion
of smaller regions characterized by localized high PM concentrations. This spatial
selectivity underscores the nuanced nature of AAR-induced PM transport and distri-
bution, necessitating a comprehensive understanding of regional air quality dynamics
(Fig. 4.3).

(a) (b)

Fig. 4.3 a AARs and b corresponding PM2.5 concentration for the particular AAR

Fig. 4.4 Computed PM2.5 risk among 526 cites over the globe
4.7 Conclusion 75

4.6.2 PM2.5 Risk Assessment

The chapter also evaluates the risk posed by PM2.5 through aerosol pollution across
various cities using a dual approach: hazard-based risk assessment and vulnerability
analysis incorporating population data from 526 cities. Cities are categorized into five
tiers based on risk: very low, low, medium, high, and very high. Notably, Lahore,
Dhaka, Dammam, and New Delhi, are identified as highly vulnerable, indicating
significant risk. Kolkata, Ghaziabad, Meerut, and Muzaffarnagar and Baghdad follow
closely, classified as high-risk areas (Fig. 4.4). Additionally, 25 cities fall into the
medium-risk category, while 85 cities are deemed low risk, with a vast majority
facing very low-risk levels. Zurich emerges as a cleanliness example among the
cities studied. However, when factoring population density, New Delhi, Lahore, and
Dhaka stand out as highly susceptible to extreme pollution due to dense populations,
with six other cities also identified as high-risk areas.
Further analysis reveals that cities with lower populations, like Perth, Richards
Bay, and Hobart, exhibit less vulnerability to extreme pollution. Conversely, cities in
low-income brackets or categorized as underdeveloped often fall within the medium-
risk zone, especially when population density is not considered. Moreover, regions
within the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) exhibit varying risk levels, influenced by
pollution levels and socioeconomic conditions.
The study introduces a novel categorization of risk into six tiers—High Safety,
Safety, Deep Stabilization, Risk, Stabilization, and High Risk—based on observed
trends and average annual PM2.5 concentrations globally. Within the European Union
(EU), countries are classified under High Safety due to declining trends in PM2.5
levels and concentrations below 30 μg/m3 . Conversely, the USA and Canada are
designated as Safety zones despite upward trends, given their PM2.5 concentrations
below the threshold. However, historical trends suggest a potential escalation in
PM2.5 concentrations in these regions. In South America, countries like Argentina
and Paraguay are categorized as Deep Stabilization, reflecting decreasing trends and
concentrations between 30–60 μg/m3 . Conversely, Russia and western China are at
risk due to significant concentrations and increasing trends in PM2.5 levels. Areas near
the western Sahara and Indonesia are undergoing Stabilization despite high concen-
trations, requiring concerted efforts to stabilize. The most severe classification, High
Risk, applies to regions in eastern China, India, and Niger, grappling with very high
concentrations and upward trajectories in PM2.5 concentrations, necessitating urgent
interventions to mitigate air pollution risks.

4.7 Conclusion

This chapter provides a comprehensive exploration of the dynamics of air pollution,

particularly focusing on the estimation of PM concentrations through satellite reanal-
ysis datasets and the assessment of associated risks globally. The escalating issue
76 4 Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers: Impacts on Particulate Matter …

of air pollution has gained significant attention in recent decades, with detrimental
impacts on human health, the environment, and the economy. The complex relation-
ship between aerosol optical depth (AOD), PM concentrations, and their monitoring
through satellite remote sensing technologies underscores the importance of accurate
and reliable estimation methods, given the profound implications of air pollution on
public health and climate.
Satellite reanalysis datasets, notably MERRA-2, offer valuable insights into PM
concentrations, enabling researchers to assess long-term trends and variations across
different regions. The study’s findings reveal a robust agreement between MERRA-2
reanalysis datasets and measured PM2.5 concentrations, indicating the effectiveness
of satellite remote sensing in monitoring air quality. Moreover, the analysis of PM2.5
concentration trends highlights the complex interplay of various factors, including
regional pollution sources, meteorological conditions, and socioeconomic factors.
Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers (AARs) emerge as significant contributors to PM
concentrations, with their influence extending across large geographic areas. The
correlation between AARs and PM concentrations underscores the need for a compre-
hensive understanding of aerosol transport dynamics to address air quality challenges
effectively. Furthermore, the risk assessment of PM2.5 pollution in cities worldwide
reveals varying levels of vulnerability, with densely populated urban centres facing
heightened risks. The categorization of regions based on observed PM2.5 trends
and concentrations provides valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders
to prioritize interventions and allocate resources effectively.

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0125
Chapter 5
Mitigation, Adaptation, and Resilience
Strategies for Extreme Aerosol Pollution

Abstract Extreme aerosol pollution through aerosol atmospheric rivers (AARs)

presents significant challenges to public health and environmental quality, particu-
larly in urban areas where concentrations are often highest. This chapter explores
adaptation and resilience strategies aimed at mitigating the impacts of AARs. Urban
planning and design interventions, including the integration of green infrastructure
and promotion of sustainable development practices, play a crucial role in mini-
mizing aerosol exposure. Green infrastructure initiatives, such as increasing urban
greenery and implementing green roofs and permeable pavements, offer promising
avenues for reducing pollutant concentrations and mitigating heat-related health
risks. Improved ventilation and filtration systems in buildings contribute to main-
taining indoor air quality and promoting occupant health and well-being. Health and
education programmes targeting vulnerable populations raise awareness about the
health risks associated with aerosol pollution and advocate for policies to improve
air quality. Early warning systems, leveraging remote sensing and monitoring tech-
nologies, provide critical alerts for extreme aerosol events, enabling timely evacu-
ation and emergency preparedness. Integration of aerosol data into climate models
enhances forecasting accuracy and informs adaptive measures to mitigate the impacts
of aerosol pollution on weather patterns. Community-based resilience initiatives
empower local communities to address air quality issues through participatory
monitoring programmes, educational campaigns, and policy development efforts,
fostering a sense of ownership and empowerment in the fight against aerosol pollu-
tion. Overall, these adaptation and resilience strategies are essential for enhancing
societal preparedness and response capabilities to mitigate the impacts of aerosol
pollution events and safeguard public health and environmental quality.

Keywords Adaptation strategies · Aerosol pollution · Early warning systems ·

Resilience initiatives · Urban planning

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 79

M. K. Goyal and K. S. Rautela, Aerosol Atmospheric Rivers,
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-66758-9_5
80 5 Mitigation, Adaptation, and Resilience Strategies for Extreme Aerosol …

5.1 Introduction

Extreme aerosol pollution refers to a severe concentration of aerosol particles in the

atmosphere, leading to significant health risks and environmental impacts. Aerosol
atmospheric rivers (AARs) contribute to severe air pollution, posing threats that
require urgent measures to mitigate their harmful effects (Rautela et al. 2024a).
AARs affect many aspects of the natural environment, including biodiversity loss,
disturbances to ecosystems, and changes in atmospheric composition (Haldane et al.
2019; Rautela et al. 2024b). Aerosols, which are made up of a wide variety of particles
suspended in the atmosphere, have a major impact on Earth’s radiative balance and
hence play a role in the dynamics of climate change. These tiny particles can either
scatter or absorb solar energy, changing the climate system locally by warming or
cooling (Barthlott et al. 2022). Furthermore, changes in cloud characteristics and
precipitation patterns brought on by aerosols amplify climatic variability and raise
the frequency of extreme weather events worldwide (Dubey and Goyal 2020; Liu
et al. 2020; Kumar et al. 2021).
Air pollution through AARs has an equally severe negative impact on human
health, with respiratory and cardiovascular disorders emerging as the main causes of
concern (Fuller et al. 2022). These AARs are the prime constituents of fine particulate
matter (PM2.5 ) that can enter the lungs deeply through inhalation and present a serious
risk to respiratory health (Chakraborty et al. 2021). This may result in increased
vulnerability to respiratory tract infections, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Long-
term exposure to high PM2.5 levels has been repeatedly associated in studies with a
higher risk of lung cancer, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD),
and cardiovascular death (Jiang et al. 2016). Children, the elderly, and people with
pre-existing medical issues are among the vulnerable groups that are more suscep-
tible to the negative impacts of aerosol exposure, which exacerbates already-existing
health inequities (Park et al. 2020). The fine particulate matter (PM2.5 ) can enter the
lungs deeply through inhalation, it is a common aerosol component that presents a
serious risk to respiratory health (Park et al. 2020).
Adaptation strategies complement mitigation efforts by focusing on minimizing
exposure and vulnerability to aerosol pollution (Kaur and Pandey 2021). Urban
planning initiatives, such as the development of green spaces and pedestrian-friendly
infrastructure, can help mitigate the impacts of aerosol pollution in densely populated
areas (Barwise and Kumar 2020). Moreover, public health interventions, including
the establishment of air quality monitoring networks and the provision of respiratory
health services, are critical for protecting vulnerable populations from the adverse
effects of aerosol exposure (Kelly and Fussell 2015). In Beijing, China, the adoption
of measures such as vehicle emission controls and the closure of coal-fired power
plants has led to a significant reduction in PM2.5 concentrations and an improvement
in air quality over the past decade (Lu et al. 2020).
Initiatives aimed at strengthening societal resilience are essential for improving
readiness and response capacities in the case of aerosol pollution (Sturiale 2019).
Early warning systems, supported by advancements in meteorological forecasting
5.2 Mitigation Strategies 81

and remote sensing technology, enable timely evacuation and emergency planning in
the case of severe aerosol pollution events through AARs (Mo et al. 2019). Initiatives
for community-based resilience that are fueled by grassroots mobilization and local
knowledge promote social cohesion and flexible governance frameworks, which
make it easier to respond to extreme aerosol pollution through AARs incidents in a
coordinated manner (Shammin et al. 2022).

5.2 Mitigation Strategies

Reducing anthropogenic emissions, creating cutting-edge technology, and improving

natural removal mechanisms are all necessary for mitigating excessive aerosol pollu-
tion (Fig. 5.1). The ways to reduce aerosol emissions and lessen their negative effects
on the environment and human health are examined in this section.

5.2.1 Reduction of Anthropogenic Aerosol Emissions

5.2.1.1 Policies and Regulations Targeting Key Sources

Establishing emission standards, advancing cleaner technology, and providing incen-

tives for pollution reduction strategies are all important ways that policies and regu-
lations help to mitigate aerosol pollution. Around the world, governments have put in
place several regulations aimed at major sources of aerosol emissions, such as auto-
mobile exhaust and industrial facilities. However, various regulations pertaining to
industrial emissions, such as emissions trading programmes, emission standards, and
pollution levies, are designed to minimize the atmospheric release of precursor gases

Technological Policies and

Advancements Aerosol Regulations
Emission
Reduction

Direct Air
Afforestation
Mitigation Capture
Nature Strategies CO2 Capture
Based &
Solutions Storage

Utilization &
Reforestation
Sequestration

Fig. 5.1 Possible Mitigation Strategies for the reduction of aerosol pollution
82 5 Mitigation, Adaptation, and Resilience Strategies for Extreme Aerosol …

and aerosols. For example, manufacturing facilities, refineries, and power plants are
subject to strict emission restrictions set by the European Union’s Industrial Emis-
sions Directive. Comparably, the United States Clean Air Act requires the Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA) to control air pollutants from industrial sources,
including aerosols.
Aerosol emissions from exhaust fumes have been largely mitigated in the trans-
portation sector by strict vehicle emissions rules, fuel economy laws, and incentives
for electric vehicles. Vehicle emission regulations similar to those of Euro 6 have
been imposed in nations like China and India, necessitating the use of low-sulfur
fuels and the development of cleaner engine technologies. In addition, policies like
congestion pricing and vehicle scrappage programmes try to lower emissions and
traffic jams in urban areas.

5.2.1.2 Technological Advancements for Cleaner Production Processes

Through the development of cleaner production processes, increased energy effi-

ciency, and reduced emissions from industrial activities, technological advancements
play a critical role in mitigating aerosol pollution. Aerosols and polluting gases
can now be eliminated from industrial exhaust streams because of developments in
pollution control technology like electrostatic precipitators, scrubbers, and catalytic
converters as discussed in Chap. 1.
Furthermore, by reducing aerosol emissions, research and development initiatives
concentrate on creating sustainable industrial techniques, renewable energy sources,
and substitute fuels. Sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) emissions, a precursor to sulfate aerosols,
can be greatly reduced, for example, by switching from coal-fired power plants to
greener energy sources like natural gas, wind, and solar power. Furthermore, auto-
mobiles can now achieve improved fuel efficiency and lower emissions of aerosols
and nitrogen oxides (NOx) because of developments in engine technology, such
as fuel injection systems, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), and selective catalytic
reduction (SCR). Since they emit no tailpipe emissions and help to clean up the air
in metropolitan areas, electric vehicles (EVs) provide a viable way to reduce aerosol
pollution.

5.2.2 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) Technologies

5.2.2.1 Direct Air Capture (DAC) of Aerosols

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies offer a promising approach to miti-
gate aerosol pollution by capturing aerosols and greenhouse gases directly from the
atmosphere and storing them underground. Despite significant efforts to reduce CO2
emissions, the annual release still amounts to tens of billions of tonnes, prompting
the IPCC to advocate for CO2 capture technology to curb the rise in atmospheric
5.2 Mitigation Strategies 83

CO2 levels (Wang et al. 2021). Traditionally, CO2 capture has focused on mitigating
emissions from major stationary sources like power plants, cement factories, oil
refineries, and metal production facilities (Bandilla 2020). Mostly, direct air capture
(DAC) technologies utilize chemical sorbents or absorbents to capture CO2 , from
ambient air. Direct air capture (DAC) of CO2 , first conceptualized in 1999 by Lackner,
has evolved into a rapidly growing environmental technology with a shift towards
experimental work and increased publications in the past decade (Sanz-Pérez et al.
2016). DAC offers advantages over conventional CO2 capture by addressing emis-
sions from distributed sources and being location-flexible, without the challenges
posed by contaminants in flue gas (Sanz-Pérez et al. 2016; García-Bordejé and
González-Olmos 2024). While uncertainties persist regarding the long-term storage
and sequestration of captured CO2 , DAC presents opportunities for utilization as a
chemical feedstock, fuel synthesis, or other value-added products (Bajpai et al. 2022).
Sorbent-based processes, particularly those employing chemisorbent materials, have
shown promise in capturing CO2 efficiently from ambient air, highlighting DAC’s
potential in climate change mitigation and carbon utilization efforts (Priyadarshini
et al. 2023).
However, DAC technology is effective in capturing carbon emissions. Similarly,
this technology could be used to selectively capture fine particulate matter (PM) and
aerosol particles from the ambient air in industries such as thermal power plants,
cement factories, oil refineries, etc. Once captured, the aerosols can be separated
from the sorbent material using heat or pressure, allowing for their utilization or
sequestration. DAC technologies have the potential to remove significant quantities of
aerosol gases from the atmosphere, thereby mitigating their environmental impacts.

5.2.2.2 Utilization and Sequestration of Captured Aerosols

Captured aerosols can be utilized or sequestered to prevent their release into the atmo-
sphere and mitigate their environmental impacts. CO2 utilization, encompassing both
carbon capture and utilization (CCU) and carbon dioxide removal (CDR) technolo-
gies, represents a multifaceted approach to combating climate change while fostering
economic growth (Nagireddi et al. 2024). CCU attempts to transform captured CO2
into valuable products, including chemicals, fuels, and building materials, thereby
reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and promoting circular economy principles
(D’Alessandro et al. 2010). Methods like chemical, biological, and electrochem-
ical conversion facilitate this process, offering alternatives to fossil-based materials
and reducing reliance on finite resources (Sneddon et al. 2014; Hu et al. 2015; Zhao
et al. 2016; Kätelhön et al. 2019; Jo et al. 2020). Concurrently, CDR technologies aim
to remove CO2 from the atmosphere, utilizing methods such as afforestation, direct
air capture, and mineral carbonation (Nagireddi et al. 2024). Despite the promise of
CO2 utilization, challenges persist, including energy requirements, scalability issues,
and concerns over environmental impacts (Li et al. 2022). However, collaboration
across industries offers opportunities for innovation, paving the way for large-scale
84 5 Mitigation, Adaptation, and Resilience Strategies for Extreme Aerosol …

deployment of CO2 utilization technologies and the creation of a more sustainable

future.
When it comes to long-term carbon capture and storage (CCS), geological storage
is a top option in the field of CO2 sequestration (Ajayi et al. 2019). This method
involves injecting captured CO2 into geological formations, such as depleted oil and
gas reservoirs or saline formations, effectively trapping the greenhouse gas under-
ground for thousands of years (Ketzer et al. 2012). Geological sequestration holds
immense potential for reducing GHG emissions and mitigating climate change, with
large-scale demonstration projects showcasing its feasibility (Shaw and Mukherjee
2022). However, challenges, including high costs and environmental risks, under-
score the need for rigorous monitoring and management protocols. Meanwhile, alter-
native methods like ocean storage and mineralization offer additional avenues for
CO2 sequestration, albeit with their own sets of technical and environmental prob-
lems (Nagireddi et al. 2024). Despite these challenges, ongoing research and inno-
vation offer hope for overcoming barriers and unlocking the full potential of CO2
sequestration as a crucial tool in the fight against climate change.
Utilization and sequestration technologies could offer indirect benefits for aerosol
removal from the atmosphere by addressing the root cause of climate change.
Hazardous atmospheric aerosols, which are also a major constituent of particulate
matter from industrial emissions or wildfires, contribute to air pollution and pose
significant health risks (Southerland et al. 2022). By reducing emissions through
developing similar technologies such as carbon capture and utilization (CCU) and
carbon dioxide removal (CDR) technologies, these methods indirectly mitigate
climate change, which can lead to a more stable climate. A stable climate reduces
the frequency and intensity of events like wildfires and industrial pollution, thereby
limiting the release of hazardous aerosols into the atmosphere. Additionally, geolog-
ical storage of captured atmospheric aerosols could promote cleaner energy sources
and reduce the reliance on fossil fuels, significant contributors to aerosol emissions.
Thus, while not directly targeting aerosol removal, CO2 utilization and sequestration
technologies play a crucial role in mitigating the factors that contribute to hazardous
atmospheric aerosols, thereby promoting cleaner air and improving public health.

5.2.3 Nature-Based Solutions to Enhance Natural Aerosol

Removal Processes

Nature-based solutions such as afforestation and reforestation mitigate aerosol pollu-

tion by enhancing aerosol removal processes through vegetation uptake and depo-
sition (Cunningham et al. 2015). Aerosols and other airborne pollutants are drawn
into plant tissues and soil by trees and other vegetation, which act as natural filters
(Barwise and Kumar 2020). The aim of reforestation projects is to increase the amount
of vegetation cover and restore ecosystem services by planting trees in degraded
or barren areas (Kim et al. 2021). Afforestation and reforestation efforts have the
5.3 Adaptation Strategies 85

potential to enhance natural aerosol removal processes through the expansion and
restoration of forested areas (Hasegawa et al. 2024). Research findings suggest that
carefully selecting carbon-intensive forest types for afforestation could significantly
increase carbon sequestration rates, thereby indirectly benefiting aerosol removal
(Gao and Li 2023). By maximizing carbon sequestration potential, afforestation
measures could contribute to a 25% increase in carbon sequestration compared
to native forest types (Hasegawa et al. 2024). Furthermore, when combined with
complementary food measures, this potential could be further elevated, reaching up
to a 49% increase in carbon sequestration compared to native forests (Hasegawa et al.
2024). These findings underscore the importance of integrating afforestation strate-
gies with broader land-use policies to minimize negative impacts on food and land
sustainability. However, it’s essential to approach afforestation initiatives cautiously
to avoid adverse consequences such as escalating land and food prices, which could
exacerbate food insecurity (Mohan et al. 2021). Therefore, implementing afforesta-
tion alongside productive agricultural systems and safety-net programmes becomes
imperative to mitigate associated risks effectively. While afforestation presents
promising opportunities for carbon sequestration and ecosystem restoration, careful
planning and integrated approaches are essential to maximize its benefits while mini-
mizing negative impacts on food security and land sustainability. Afforestation and
restoration efforts improve biological aerosol removal processes and increase the
surface area available for aerosol deposition, which results in healthier surroundings
and cleaner air.

5.3 Adaptation Strategies

Urban planning and design, public health initiatives, and agricultural practices are
combinations that minimize exposure and vulnerability to aerosols as part of adap-
tation methods for aerosol pollution (Fig. 5.2). By using these tactics, vulnerable
people will be shielded from the damaging impacts of aerosol pollution and their
resilience will be strengthened.

5.3.1 Urban Planning and Design to Minimize Aerosol

Exposure

Urban areas are particularly susceptible to aerosol pollution due to concentrated

sources of emissions and limited dispersion. Urban planning and design initiatives
can mitigate aerosol exposure by integrating green infrastructure, improving ventila-
tion systems, and promoting sustainable development practices. Urban planning and
design can play a crucial role in minimizing aerosol exposure (Li et al. 2018). The
spatial variation of organic carbon (OC) and elemental carbon (EC) across different
86 5 Mitigation, Adaptation, and Resilience Strategies for Extreme Aerosol …

01

02
05
AEAP
Adaptive Efforts
Against Pollution

04 03
Improve
Ventilation and
Filtration

Fig. 5.2 Adaption efforts for extreme aerosol pollution

urban environments suggests that proximity to point sources significantly influ-

ences aerosol concentrations (Murillo et al. 2013). Particularly, OC concentrations
increase near industrial areas and downtown locations, indicating the importance of
zoning regulations and land-use planning to mitigate exposure to hazardous aerosols
(US.EPA 1973; Li et al. 2018). Additionally, the association between different
components of OC with thermal-optical analysis (OC2 and OC3 ) concentrations with
traffic emissions, suggests the need for urban planners to prioritize measures that
reduce vehicular traffic in densely populated areas (Cao et al. 2004; Gu et al. 2010).
Strategies such as implementing green spaces, promoting public transportation, and
designing pedestrian-friendly infrastructure can help reduce traffic congestion and
subsequently lower aerosol emissions (Zarie et al. 2024). Furthermore, there is a need
to consider both primary and secondary aerosol sources in urban planning efforts
(Kanellopoulos et al. 2021). While primary emissions contribute to localized aerosol
hotspots, secondary aerosols are more spatially homogeneous, emphasizing the need
for comprehensive pollution control measures beyond point sources. Overall, urban
planning and design interventions focused on reducing emissions from point sources,
minimizing traffic congestion, and considering both primary and secondary aerosol
sources can effectively mitigate aerosol exposure and improve public health in urban
environments.
5.3 Adaptation Strategies 87

5.3.1.1 Green Infrastructure Initiatives (GIIs)

Green infrastructure (GI) initiatives offer promising avenues for adapting to and
mitigating the impacts of air pollution in urban environments (Jayasooriya et al.
2017). The integration of green spaces, such as trees and parks, into urban landscapes
has been shown to significantly reduce ambient temperatures and contribute to the
removal of air pollutants (Diener and Mudu 2021). The analysis of various studies
across different cities worldwide reveals that increased vegetation cover, particularly
through the strategic planting of trees and the creation of green spaces, can lead to
substantial decreases in ambient temperatures during both daytime and nighttime
periods (Qiu et al. 2017; Yu et al. 2020; Santamouris and Osmond 2020). These
temperature reductions are attributed to the cooling effects of evapotranspiration and
shading provided by vegetation, as well as the decreased heat storage and sensible
heat emissions from impervious surfaces like asphalt and concrete. Furthermore, the
presence of green infrastructure can enhance air quality by trapping and removing
pollutants from the atmosphere through processes such as dry deposition and filtration
by vegetation (Santamouris and Osmond 2020). However, the effectiveness of GI
initiatives in mitigating air pollution depends on factors such as climatic conditions,
soil moisture availability, the type and distribution of vegetation, and the specific
urban context (Wróblewska and Jeong 2021). While studies demonstrate the potential
of GI to mitigate air pollution and improve urban microclimates, challenges such as
urban planning considerations, uncertainty in modelling assumptions, and the need to
address potential trade-offs with increased humidity levels highlight the complexity
of implementing these initiatives (Santamouris and Osmond 2020; Sanusi and Jalil
2021; Ernst et al. 2022). Therefore, while GI offers valuable strategies for adaptation
to air pollution, careful planning and consideration of local conditions are essential
to maximize its effectiveness and minimize unintended consequences.
Additionally, the introduction and expansion of urban greenery, including trees
and vegetation, have been identified as effective measures for reducing pollutant
concentrations such as particulate matter (PM) and ground-level ozone (Diener and
Mudu 2021). These initiatives leverage the dynamic interactions between vegetation
and atmospheric pollutants, encompassing processes like particle deposition, pollu-
tant absorption, and chemical reactions. Studies from diverse geographic locations
such as New York, Melbourne, and Glasgow demonstrate the potential of increased
urban green infrastructure in lowering pollutant concentrations. For example, in
the Bronx, New York, an anticipated increase in tree cover by 2030 could lead to
a substantial reduction in PM2.5 levels, showcasing the effectiveness of strategic
planning programmes (Nyelele et al. 2019). Similarly, simulations in Melbourne
illustrate a remarkable increase in PM removal with additional trees, highlighting
the role of green infrastructure in enhancing air quality (Santamouris and Osmond
2020). However, the impact of greenery on air pollution is nuanced, influenced by
factors such as tree species, canopy structure, and meteorological conditions. While
increased greenery can enhance particle removal through deposition processes, it
88 5 Mitigation, Adaptation, and Resilience Strategies for Extreme Aerosol …

may also lead to localized increases in pollutant concentrations due to reduced venti-
lation and atmospheric dispersion. Moreover, the complex chemistry between pollu-
tants and vegetation emissions underscores the need for comprehensive modelling
and assessment to inform effective green infrastructure planning. Therefore, green
infrastructure initiatives must be carefully designed and implemented, considering
local environmental conditions and pollutant dynamics, to maximize their benefits
in adapting to and mitigating urban air pollution challenges.
Additionally, GIIs are essential for reducing the negative health effects of low air
quality when it comes to air pollution adaptation techniques (Kumar et al. 2019). As
explained in the above section, increasing urban greenery—such as trees and vegeta-
tion—helps to lower outside temperatures and lessen the effects of heat-related illness
(Zhou et al. 2023). Studies from various cities, including Phoenix, Oslo, and Darwin,
have demonstrated that the presence of green infrastructure can lead to a decrease
in heat-related hospital admissions and emergency calls, particularly during periods
of elevated temperatures (Silva et al. 2010; Venter et al. 2020; Yenneti et al. 2020).
By enhancing natural cooling mechanisms and providing shade, green infrastructure
helps alleviate the urban heat island effect, which is exacerbated by climate change
and urbanization. Initiatives focusing on increasing green infrastructure not only
offer immediate benefits in terms of air quality improvement and heat-related health
risk reduction, but also contribute to building more resilient and sustainable urban
environments in the face of climate change (Pamukcu-Albers et al. 2021). There-
fore, investing in and expanding green infrastructure initiatives represents a crucial
adaptation strategy for addressing air pollution-related health challenges in cities.
Moreover, green roofs, installed on buildings, provide additional green space and
help mitigate aerosol pollution by capturing particulate matter and reducing urban
heat island effects. Permeable pavements allow rainwater to infiltrate the ground,
reducing runoff and enhancing soil filtration of aerosols and pollutants.

5.3.1.2 Improved Ventilation and Filtration Systems in Buildings

Improved ventilation and filtration systems in buildings play a crucial role in miti-
gating the impact of aerosol pollution on indoor air quality and human health (Vijayan
et al. 2015; Fan et al. 2022). The list of global air quality standards for indoor
air quality is shown in Table 5.1. Traditional uniform and steady indoor environ-
ments, such as mixing ventilation (MV) and displacement ventilation (DV), have
been widely employed to create a relatively stable indoor environment by diluting
indoor pollutants (see Table 5.1) and providing efficient heat and mass exchange (Fan
et al. 2022). However, these systems may not always guarantee optimal air quality, as
they can lead to air short-circuiting, dead corners, and high energy consumption. Non-
uniform ventilation modes, including personalized ventilation (PEV), underfloor air
distribution (UFAD), and stratum ventilation (SV), offer more targeted approaches by
delivering fresh air directly to the occupied zone, thereby improving thermal comfort
and reducing energy consumption (Zhang et al. 2014). Additionally, advancements
in ventilation technology, such as impinging jet ventilation (IJV) and wall-attached
5.3 Adaptation Strategies 89

ventilation (WAV), provide efficient air distribution while minimizing draft sensation
and enhancing air quality through reduced contaminant concentration (Karimipanah
2023). These systems offer promising solutions for maintaining indoor air quality in
various settings, from office buildings to specialized environments like cabins and ice
rinks, where specific air distribution requirements are essential for occupant comfort
and safety.
Furthermore, the development of unsteady indoor environment systems, such as
dynamic personalized ventilation (DPEV), pulsating ventilation (PUV), and inter-
mittent ventilation (IV), offers dynamic control strategies to optimize indoor air
quality while reducing energy consumption (Fan et al. 2022). These systems adapt to
changing environmental conditions and occupant preferences by delivering clean air
at different intervals and flow rates. Additionally, Wearable personal exhaust ventila-
tion (WPEV) provides personalized protection against aerosol pollution, particularly
in dynamic environments or scenarios where traditional ventilation systems may be
impractical (Bolashikov et al. 2015). By integrating improved ventilation and filtra-
tion technologies into building design and operation, such as enhanced air circulation,
filtration efficiency, and air distribution control, it becomes possible to effectively
mitigate the impact of aerosol pollution on indoor air quality, thereby promoting
occupant health and well-being in various indoor environments.

5.3.2 Health and Education Programs for Vulnerable

Populations

Vulnerable populations, including children, the elderly, and individuals with pre-
existing health conditions, are disproportionately affected by aerosol pollution and
require targeted health and education programmes to mitigate their exposure and
health risks (Manisalidis et al. 2020). Efforts to raise awareness about the health
risks associated with aerosol pollution have become increasingly important in urban
areas (Kecorius et al. 2017). Through various awareness campaigns, policymakers
and environmental organizations aim to educate the public about the detrimental
effects of aerosol pollution on human health and the environment (Ramírez et al.
2019). These campaigns often utilize data from scientific studies to highlight the
correlation between exposure to pollutants like particulate matter and respiratory
diseases, cardiovascular problems, and other health issues. These initiatives aim to
encourage people to take action to lessen their exposure and support policies that
prioritize improving air quality by educating people on the causes and effects of
aerosol pollution (Ramírez et al. 2019). Additionally, political efforts to decrease air
pollution in urban areas involve the implementation of policies and initiatives aimed
at reducing emissions from transportation, industry, and other sources (Mookherjee
2022; Shao and Chou 2023). These efforts may include the establishment of low-
emission zones, investment in public transportation infrastructure, and the promotion
of alternative modes of transportation such as cycling and walking. Furthermore,
90 5 Mitigation, Adaptation, and Resilience Strategies for Extreme Aerosol …

Table 5.1 Global standards of the indoor air pollution

Pollutant Global Standards for Indoor Negative Effects
Air
Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ) 1000 ppm (Japanese CO2 levels can vary based on
Building Standards Act) occupancy and ventilation.
1000 ppm (The American Elevated levels can cause
Society of Heating, drowsiness and decreased
Refrigerating and Air cognitive function
Conditioning Engineers)
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 10 ppm (Japanese Building CO is a colourless, odourless gas
Standards Act & Building produced by incomplete
Hygiene Management Act) combustion of fossil fuels.
20 ppm (Japanese School Exposure can lead to headaches,
Hygiene Standards) dizziness, and even death in high
concentrations
9 ppm (US NAAQS: 8 Hour
Average)
8.6 ppm (WHO Europe: 8
Hour Average)
Formaldehyde (CH2 O) 0.1 ppm (The American Formaldehyde is a common
Society of Heating, indoor air pollutant emitted by
Refrigerating and Air furniture, carpets, and household
Conditioning Engineers) products. Prolonged exposure
0.08 ppm (WHO Europe) may cause respiratory issues and
cancer
0.08 ppm (Dubai
Municipality, 8 Hour
Average)
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) 0.21 ppm (WHO Europe: 1 NO2 is a byproduct of
Hour Average) combustion processes, primarily
0.075 ppm (WHO Europe: from vehicles and industrial
24 Hour Average) activities. It can exacerbate
respiratory conditions and
0.053 ppm (NAAQS: 24 contribute to the formation of
Hour Average) smog
Radon 4.0 pCi/L (EPA) Radon is a radioactive gas
2.0 pCi/L (The American naturally occurring in soil and
Society of Heating, rock. It can seep into buildings
Refrigerating and Air and accumulate to dangerous
Conditioning Engineers) levels, increasing the risk of lung
cancer
Total Suspended Particles / 0.15 mg/m3 (Japanese TSP/PM includes a mixture of
Particulate Matter Building Hygiene aerosol particles suspended in the
Management Act/Building air, such as dust, pollen, and
Standards Act) smoke. Inhalation of TSP/PM
0.1–0.12 mg/m3 (WHO: 8 can irritate the respiratory system
Hour Average) and exacerbate asthma and
allergies
150 µg/m3 (Dubai
Municipality, 8 Hour
Average)
(continued)
5.3 Adaptation Strategies 91

Table 5.1 (continued)

Pollutant Global Standards for Indoor Negative Effects
Air
Volatile Organic Components 0.2–0.6 mg/m3 (FISIAQ VOCs are emitted by various
(VOCs) (Finnish Society of Indoor household products and building
Air Quality and Climate)) materials. Prolonged exposure
300 µg/m3 (Dubai may cause headaches, nausea,
Municipality, 8 Hour and respiratory irritation
Average)

governments may enact regulations to limit emissions from vehicles and industrial
facilities, as well as invest in technologies and strategies to monitor and mitigate air
pollution levels (Jonidi Jafari et al. 2021). Overall, awareness campaigns and political
efforts play complementary roles in addressing aerosol pollution in urban areas,
working towards the shared goal of safeguarding public health and environmental
quality.
Political initiatives to reduce urban air pollution combine awareness campaigns
with a multifaceted strategy that includes policy creation, infrastructure spending,
and public involvement. Frameworks for international collaboration in addressing
cross-border air pollution challenges are provided by conventions and agreements,
such as the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (US Depart-
ment of State). Governments enact laws and act at the municipal and national levels
to lower emissions and raise air quality standards (Mookherjee 2022). These efforts
often involve collaboration between government agencies, industry stakeholders, and
community organizations to develop and implement effective strategies. For example,
initiatives such as low-emission zones and investments in public transportation infras-
tructure aim to reduce reliance on private vehicles and promote sustainable mobility
options (Nieuwenhuijsen 2020). Political initiatives aim to build more sustainable
and healthful urban environments for present and future generations by combining
focused legislative interventions with awareness-raising initiatives.

5.3.3 Climate-Resilient Agriculture Practices to Mitigate

Aerosol Impacts on Crop Yield

Climate-resilient agriculture practices serve as a critical strategy to mitigate the

impacts of aerosols on crop yield, recognizing the intricate interplay between climate,
water, soil, and agricultural productivity (Karri and Nalluri 2024). Climate change
is making weather patterns more unpredictable, which presents increasing issues
for the agriculture industry, especially when it comes to guaranteeing food security
(Raza et al. 2019). Rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and increased
climatic unpredictability pose significant threats to crop growth and yield, with each
component of the ecosystem influencing the others in a complex cycle (Tripathi et al.
92 5 Mitigation, Adaptation, and Resilience Strategies for Extreme Aerosol …

2016; Mall et al. 2017). Aerosol emissions, a consequence of industrial activities and
natural phenomena like wildfires, further exacerbate these challenges, affecting plant
growth directly and indirectly through altered weather conditions (Fan et al. 2015;
Wang et al. 2023). From temperature fluctuations to changes in water availability
and pest infestations, aerosols play a role in shaping the agricultural landscape,
necessitating adaptive measures to ensure resilience in crop production.
Climate-resilient farming methods prioritize adaptive techniques at different
phases of crop development, from crop selection to harvest, to solve these issues
(Debangshi 2021). Smart crop and variety selection, informed by weather forecasts
and long-term research, become paramount to mitigate the impacts of changing
climatic conditions on crop yield (Rashid et al. 2022). Furthermore, efficient cropping
systems, such as intercropping and mixed cropping, not only enhance productivity,
but also contribute to soil health and weed control, thereby reducing vulnerabilities to
aerosol-induced stressors (Kumawat et al. 2022). Additionally, climate-based agro-
advisories and innovative techniques like precision farming and water harvesting
offer valuable tools for farmers to navigate the complexities of a changing climate
(Roy and George 2020). Stakeholders can ensure sustainable food production, reduce
aerosol impacts, and increase resilience in the face of changing environmental
problems by incorporating these techniques into agricultural systems.

5.4 Resilience Strategies

Resilience strategies are essential for enhancing societal preparedness and response
capabilities in the face of aerosol pollution events (Fig. 5.3). These strategies aim
to minimize the impacts of extreme aerosol events, such as dust storms and wild-
fires, protect vulnerable populations, and promote adaptive governance structures
and innovative solutions.

5.4.1 Early Warning Systems for Extreme Aerosol Events

Early warning systems play a critical role in alerting communities to the onset
of extreme aerosol events, enabling timely evacuation, emergency preparedness,
and public health interventions (Song et al. 2015). These systems rely on remote
sensing and monitoring technologies, as well as the integration of aerosol data into
climate models, to improve forecasting accuracy and provide actionable information
to decision-makers.
5.4 Resilience Strategies 93

Early Warning
Systems for Extreme
Aerosol Events

Remote Sensing Integration of

and Monitoring Aerosol Data
of Aerosols & Climate Models

Aerosol Monitoring Aerosol Data

and Visualization and
Alert Systems Interpretation

RESAP
Resilience Strategies
for Aerosol Pollution

Stakeholder Capacity Building and

Engagement and Training for
Policy Advocacy Community Resilience

Citizen Science Environmental

and Participatory and Health
Monitoring Assessments

Community -Based
Resilience Initiatives

Fig. 5.3 Resilience strategies for extreme aerosol pollution

5.4.1.1 Remote Sensing and Monitoring Technologies

The development and application of early warning systems (EWS) for extreme
aerosol events, particularly in the context of aviation safety, relies heavily on
remote sensing and monitoring technologies (Papagiannopoulos et al. 2020). Remote
sensing technologies, such as satellite imagery, LIDAR, and ground-based sensors,
enable real-time monitoring of aerosol concentrations, air quality, and meteorological
94 5 Mitigation, Adaptation, and Resilience Strategies for Extreme Aerosol …

conditions (Ma et al. 2019). Additionally, Satellite-based sensors, such as MODIS,

MERRA, and CALIPSO provide high-resolution imagery and vertical profiles of
aerosol distributions in the atmosphere (Brun et al. 2011; Buchard et al. 2016; Chand
et al. 2021). In a recent study focusing on hazardous aerosol events detected in Greece,
advanced methodologies integrating lidar systems showcased promising capabili-
ties for timely hazard alerting. One notable case involved the detection of desert
dust particles originating from Libya, where intense dust storms affected the region
(Papagiannopoulos et al. 2020). Leveraging lidar observations, the study demon-
strated the ability to track the movement and intensity of dust clouds, providing crit-
ical insights for aviation authorities. By analyzing particle backscatter coefficients
and depolarization ratios, the methodology enabled the identification of hazardous
aerosol conditions, facilitating preemptive measures to safeguard flight operations
(Zhang et al. 2021). However, the scope encompasses volcanic aerosols, exempli-
fied by the eruption of Mount Etna in May 2019 (Papagiannopoulos et al. 2020).
Through a comprehensive analysis of LIDAR observations and model simulations,
the methodology successfully distinguished between volcanic and desert dust parti-
cles, crucial for accurate hazard assessment. This interdisciplinary approach, inte-
grating real-time lidar data with atmospheric modelling, holds significant promise
for enhancing EWS capabilities. Through the utilization of modelling frameworks
and remote sensing technology, aviation stakeholders can proactively reduce the
impact of extreme aerosol events on flight operations. The successful demonstration
of this methodology during the EUNADICS-AV exercise underscores its potential as
a reliable tool for early hazard detection and response, paving the way for enhanced
aviation safety in the face of evolving atmospheric challenges. Additionally, remote
sensing technology with advanced deep learning and machine learning models as
discussed in Chap. 3 will also help to develop early warning systems for a short
period of time.

5.4.1.2 Integration of Aerosol Data into Climate Models for Improved

Forecasting

The integration of aerosol data into climate models for improved forecasting is
paramount for understanding the complex interactions between aerosols and the
Earth’s radiation budget (Choi et al. 2019). The impact of aerosol climatology on
atmospheric radiative fluxes and temperatures highlights the implementation of a new
aerosol climatology in global forecasting models significantly influenced clear-sky
shortwave downward radiative fluxes, leading to a reduction in surface temperatures
globally (Bozzo et al. 2020). Notably, heavy aerosol-loading regions, such as the
Sahara, Arabian Peninsula, and western India experienced substantial reductions in
radiative flux and surface temperatures (Kedia et al. 2018; Ravi Kumar et al. 2019).
This reduction in shortwave radiative flux due to aerosol direct effect was accom-
panied by enhanced shortwave heating rates in the troposphere, highlighting the
intricate relationship between aerosols and atmospheric heating dynamics. Addi-
tionally, the consideration of aerosol climatology led to changes in cloud properties,
5.4 Resilience Strategies 95

including reduced low-level cloud fraction, which further influenced atmospheric

heating and cooling patterns (Barthlott et al. 2022).
Furthermore, medium-range forecasts revealed the significant impact of aerosol
data integration on forecast skill scores for various meteorological variables (Jeong
2020). The inclusion of aerosol direct effects in the forecasting model resulted in
improved temperature and specific humidity forecasts, particularly in regions with
heavy aerosol loading (Zhao et al. 2024). Additionally, statistical skill scores for
precipitation forecasts showed enhancements, with a closer spatial pattern resem-
blance to observations, particularly over Asia and tropical regions (Choi et al. 2019).
The reduced precipitation in the forecasting model was attributed to weakened
convection intensity induced by aerosol-induced atmospheric heating and reduced
relative humidity in the low-level troposphere. Overall, the integration incorpo-
rates data into climate models not only improves our understanding of aerosol-
radiation interactions, but also enhances the accuracy of medium-range forecasts,
offering valuable insights for climate prediction and adaptation strategies. Addition-
ally, numerical weather prediction (NWP) models, such as the Weather Research
and Forecasting (WRF) model, incorporate aerosol data to simulate the interactions
between aerosols and meteorological variables, such as wind speed, humidity, and
atmospheric stability (Qiu et al. 2023).

5.4.2 Community-Based Resilience Initiatives

Community-based initiatives addressing aerosol pollution have emerged as critical

drivers of resilience and empowerment (Ward et al. 2022). Predominantly conducted
in the USA, Europe, and Canada, these initiatives often centred around engaging
local communities in activities related to outdoor air pollution (Ward et al. 2022).
Ranging from participatory monitoring programmes to educational campaigns and
policy development efforts, these initiatives aimed to raise awareness, empower
individuals and communities, and generate local knowledge to support decision-
making (Hilhorst and Guijt 2006). Notably, many studies highlighted the dispropor-
tionate exposure to pollution among disadvantaged and marginalized groups, framing
aerosol pollution within the context of health inequalities (Pasa 2017; Phillip et al.
2023; Karri and Nalluri 2024). These programmes encouraged a sense of ownership,
empowerment, and community resilience in the fight against aerosol pollution by
actively integrating locals in all stages of the process, such as data collection, anal-
ysis, and policy advocacy. However, challenges such as language barriers, capacity
limitations, and trust issues with authorities posed significant hurdles to effective
community engagement, underscoring the importance of tailored approaches and
equitable partnerships to ensure inclusivity and effectiveness in addressing aerosol
pollution at the grassroots level.
One of the most prevalent approaches observed in these initiatives was citizen
science, where residents actively participated in monitoring air quality using scien-
tific tools and methodologies (Mahajan et al. 2020). This citizen-led monitoring
96 5 Mitigation, Adaptation, and Resilience Strategies for Extreme Aerosol …

not only provided valuable data, but also empowered communities to take proac-
tive measures in addressing local air pollution issues. Additionally, community
engagement extended beyond mere data collection to encompass environmental and
health assessments, education and training programmes, and policy development
efforts (Haldane et al. 2019). Through these multifaceted approaches, individuals
and communities gained a deeper understanding of aerosol pollution and its health
impacts, developed essential skills and competencies, and actively contributed to
shaping policies and practices aimed at improving air quality. Moreover, community
engagement often catalyzed changes within statutory organizations, leading to policy
reforms, enhanced funding, and improved responsiveness to community concerns.
While the direct impact on air quality and health outcomes was seldom measured, the
collective efforts of these community-based resilience initiatives laid a foundation
for sustainable action and empowered individuals to safeguard their well-being in
the face of aerosol pollution challenges.

5.5 Conclusion

Addressing the complexities of aerosol pollution requires a multifaceted approach

that integrates various approaches, including mitigation, adaptation, and resilience.
Mitigation efforts focus on reducing anthropogenic emissions through policies
targeting key sources and technological advancements in cleaner production
processes. Carbon capture and storage technologies offer promising avenues for
capturing and sequestering aerosols, while nature-based solutions enhance natural
aerosol removal processes. Urban planning initiatives, including green infrastruc-
ture and improved ventilation systems, mitigate aerosol exposure in urban areas.
Health and education programmes raise awareness and protect vulnerable popula-
tions from aerosol-related health risks, while climate-resilient agriculture practices
enhance crop yield resilience.
Adaptation strategies emphasize early warning systems for extreme aerosol
events, integrating remote sensing technologies and aerosol data into climate
models to improve forecasting accuracy. Community-based resilience initiatives
empower local communities to address aerosol pollution through citizen science and
policy advocacy. However, challenges such as capacity limitations and trust issues
underscore the importance of tailored approaches and equitable partnerships.
Additionally, policy interventions are crucial for effective aerosol pollution
management. These may include establishing emission standards, incentivizing
cleaner technologies, and investing in sustainable infrastructure. Additionally,
fostering international collaboration and promoting community engagement can
enhance resilience and empower individuals to address aerosol pollution at the grass-
roots level. By implementing a comprehensive array of strategies and interventions,
we can mitigate the adverse impacts of aerosol pollution, protect public health, and
build more resilient communities and ecosystems for the future.
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