UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

MASTER OF PUBLIC AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIR (MPIA)

COURSE CODE: PIA 803

COURSE TITLE: RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE

LECTURER: DR KENNEDY EBORKA

TERM PAPER

ON

REGIONAL INTEGRATION AND SOVEREIGNTY: THE CASE OF THE

AFRICAN UNION

ADEWUMI AYOMIKUN HANNAH: 239088038

OCHEJA JOY: 239088037

ADEGBOYE KEHINDE FAWAZ: 239088033

AKANIMO AKPAN 239088042

AMINU AMINAT BOLUWATIFE 239088035

LAWAL MUEES ABAYOMI 239088045

AMAKA OKEKE 239088047

LOKO ANTUNGU ANNE 239088043

ABSTRACT

Regional organizations are very popular all over the world today because they
serve as useful platform in dealing with new challenges the international system is
facing. Numerous international integration organizations have been established and
old ones revived because of the belief that they help to lower the risk of conflicts
within the regions as a result of integrational confidence and trust. However,
regional organizations differ in many ways, one is the degree of integration.

This study investigates the political systems of the EU and AU. it observes that the
degree of integration within the EU is high, because member states transferred
many competences to the common EU institutions.

The AU takes the EU as an example and tries to establish similar structures, but is
yet to achieve such feat. Methodologically, the study is qualitatively aligned by
utilizing mostly secondary materials such as textbooks, journals and internet
materials all considered relevant in the analysis of the EU and AU institutions.

Comparatively, the reveals that the AU has the lowest degree of integration as its
members cooperate in various policy fields, but are not willing to transfer
competences to common institutions.
Thus, the study concludes by comparing the institutional dimensions of integration
between the EU and AU organizations and recommends a sustained political will
on the side of the AU leaders to share sovereignty and construct strong, legally
based common institutions to oversee the integration project in Africa.

1.0. INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Regional integration in Africa has been a significant policy focus for decades,
aimed at fostering economic growth, political stability, and social development
among African nations. The continent has a history of fragmented economies,
weak intra-African trade, and post-colonial divisions that have necessitated efforts
to create stronger regional ties (Asante, 1997). Various regional economic
communities (RECs) have been established to promote integration, including the
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Southern African
Development Community (SADC), and the East African Community (EAC).

Despite these efforts, African integration has faced numerous challenges, including
economic disparities among member states, political instability, inadequate
infrastructure, and conflicting national interests (Oyejide, 2000). The establishment
of the African Union (AU) in 2001 marked a renewed commitment to regional
unity, building on the foundations of the Organization of African Unity (OAU)
(Murithi, 2005).

The African Union (AU) was established to promote greater political and
economic integration, peace, and security in Africa. It evolved from the
Organization of African Unity (OAU), which was founded in 1963 to support
decolonization and African solidarity (Makinda & Okumu, 2007). However, the
OAU was criticized for its weak institutional structures and non-interference
principle, which allowed human rights abuses and conflicts to persist unchecked
(Maluwa, 2000).

The AU, therefore, was formed to address these shortcomings. It introduced

stronger mechanisms such as the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA)
and the African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) to enhance governance,
security, and economic cooperation (Cilliers, 2008). Key initiatives like the
African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) and Agenda 2063 demonstrate the
AU’s commitment to deeper integration and sustainable development.

Despite these advancements, the AU continues to struggle with internal divisions,

funding constraints, and the challenge of balancing regional integration with
national sovereignty (Adebajo, 2016).

Sovereignty refers to the supreme authority of a state over its territory,

government, and affairs without external interference (Jackson & Rosberg, 1982).
It is a fundamental principle of international law and a key element in the relations
between African states. National sovereignty allows states to maintain control over
their policies, resources, and governance structures.

However in the context of regional integration, sovereignty often comes into

conflict with supranational governance. African states are reluctant to cede power
to regional bodies, fearing loss of autonomy and control over domestic affairs
(Keohane, 1995). This has been a major obstacle in the AU’s quest for deeper
integration, particularly in areas like security cooperation, human rights
enforcement, and economic policies.

Despite this tension, regional integration and sovereignty are not necessarily
incompatible. Strong institutions, mutual trust, and gradual policy harmonization
can allow African states to balance national interests with collective goals (Nugent,
2012). The AU’s ability to navigate this delicate balance will determine the success
of Africa’s integration agenda.

Conclusively, the study of regional integration and sovereignty within the context
of the African Union is crucial in understanding Africa’s developmental trajectory.
While integration offers numerous benefits, it also poses significant challenges to
national sovereignty. The African Union (AU) plays a crucial role in navigating
these tensions by promoting economic and political cooperation while respecting
the sovereignty of member states.

However, its success depends on whether African leaders are willing to strengthen
regional institutions, implement collective policies, and ensure that integration
benefits all states equitably.
Achieving this balance is essential for Africa’s long-term stability and prosperity in
an increasingly globalized world. The study of regional integration and sovereignty
within the context of the African Union is crucial in understanding Africa’s
developmental trajectory. While integration offers numerous benefits, it also poses
significant challenges to national sovereignty. Examining how the AU manages
this balance will provide insights into the future of African unity and governance.

2.0 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The African Union (AU), established in 2002 to foster continental unity, peace,
and socio-economic development, faces a fundamental tension between its
aspirations for deeper regional integration and the preservation of member states'
national sovereignty. This tension manifests across multiple dimensions, creating
challenges for effective governance and collective action.

CORE CONFLICT: INTEGRATION VS. SOVEREIGNTY

 ECONOMIC INTEGRATION
Initiatives like the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) aim to create a
unified market, requiring states to harmonize trade policies and reduce barriers.
However, member states often resist ceding control over national tariffs,
regulations, or protectionist measures, fearing loss of economic autonomy or
competitive disadvantages.

 POLITICAL AND SECURITY GOVERNANCE

The AU’s principles of non-indifference (e.g., intervention in conflicts, sanctions
for unconstitutional governance changes) clash with norms of non-interference.
States may view AU peacekeeping missions or political oversight as infringements
on sovereignty, leading to inconsistent compliance with AU mandates.

 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS

While the AU promotes supranational institutions like the African Court on Human
and Peoples’ Rights, not all member states ratify key protocols or accept
jurisdiction, undermining continental legal harmonization and human rights
enforcement.
  OVERLAPPING REGIONALISM
Sub-regional bodies (e.g., ECOWAS, SADC) often pursue competing agendas,
creating fragmentation. Member states prioritize sub-regional loyalties,
complicating AU-led integration efforts.

 DIVERGENT DEVELOPMENT PRIORITIES

Disparities in economic development and resource distribution fuel distrust. Less-
developed states fear marginalization in integrated systems, while wealthier states
may resist redistributive policies.

 FINANCIAL DEPENDENCY
The AU relies on member state contributions and external funding, limiting its
operational autonomy. Delayed payments and conditional donor aid weaken the
AU’s capacity to drive integration independently.

 HISTORICAL LEGACIES
Post-colonial sensitivities about external control persist, making states wary of
surrendering sovereignty to a centralized body. The AU’s interventionist approach
contrasts with its predecessor, the OAU, which prioritized non-interference.

IMPLICATIONS

 Slowed Integration: Inconsistent ratification/implementation of treaties

delays initiatives like the AfCFTA or the African Passport.
 Ineffective Conflict Resolution: Sovereignty concerns hinder timely AU
responses to crises (e.g., coups, civil wars).
 Fragmented Policies: Competing sub-regional agendas and protectionism
weaken continental coherence.
 Erosion of Trust: Asymmetric benefits and enforcement gaps fuel
perceptions of inequity among member states.
3.0 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objective of the study is regional integration and sovereignty of the African
union AU.

The specific objectives are as follows:

 To examine the historical development of the AU and its predecessor, the

Organization of African Unity (OAU), in promoting regional integration.
 To examine the AU's involvement in conflict resolution and peacekeeping
and its impact on regional stability.
 To identify the challenges hindering regional integration within the AU.
 Analyze the concerns of member states regarding the potential loss of
sovereignty due to regional integration.
 Evaluate the prospects for regional integration within the AU.

3.1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The study will address the following research questions:

 What historical factors have shaped the development of the AU and its
approach to regional integration?
 What roles do AU institutions play in advancing regional integration, and
what challenges do they face?
 What is the impact of the AU's conflict resolution and peacekeeping efforts
on regional stability and integration?
 How do concerns about sovereignty influence the participation and
commitment of member states to AU initiatives?
 How do RECs contribute to regional integration, and how well do they
collaborate with the AU?
4.0 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

This study on regional integration and sovereignty in the African Union (AU) is
significant for several reasons:

1. UNDERSTANDING THE CHALLENGES OF AFRICAN

INTEGRATION: It highlights the difficulties faced by AU member states in
balancing national sovereignty with regional commitments, helping policymakers
design better integration strategies.

2. POLICY IMPLICATIONS: The study provides insights for African leaders

and AU institutions on how to improve regional cooperation while respecting state
autonomy, particularly in areas like trade (AfCFTA), security, and governance.

3. ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL IMPACT: It assesses the economic benefits

of integration (e.g., increased trade and investment) and its political effects, such as
collective decision-making and conflict resolution.

4. COMPARATIVE LESSONS: By comparing the AU with other regional

organizations like the European Union (EU) and ASEAN, the study offers lessons
on best practices for integration without compromising sovereignty.

5. ACADEMIC CONTRIBUTION: It adds to the body of knowledge on

international relations, regionalism, and African studies, benefiting scholars,
researchers, and students interested in African politics and development.

6. ENHANCING PUBLIC AWARENESS: The study informs citizens,

businesses, and civil society about the benefits and challenges of African
integration, encouraging greater participation in AU initiatives.

7. POLICY AND GOVERNANCE: The study can provide policy

recommendations for African nations and the AU itself. By analyzing the AU's
institutions, such as the Pan African Parliament and the African Court of Justice, it
offers a critical perspective on the effectiveness and challenges of governance
structures aimed at enhancing regional cooperation while respecting state
sovereignty.

8. GLOBAL RELEVANCE: The AU's experiences in balancing sovereignty with

integration provides broader lessons for other regional organizations globally,
including the European Union (EU) or ASEAN, especially when it comes to
respecting national sovereignty while aiming for regional unity and cooperation.

9. AFRICAN UNITY AND IDENTITY: The African Union, as a pan-African

institution, plays a key role in fostering African unity and identity. The study of
how it navigates sovereignty issues contributes to understanding how regional
institutions can cultivate solidarity among historically divided nations.

Overall, the study is significant as it addresses fundamental issues of governance,

international relations, and development, both within Africa and in the context of
global regionalism

5.0 THEORIES OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION AND SOVEREIGNTY.

Theories on regional integration and sovereignty explore how states balance

national sovereignty with regional cooperation. Key concepts include:

THEORIES OF SOVEREIGNTY

 Instrumental Notion: Sovereignty is about providing public goods, allowing

cooperation if benefits outweigh costs.
 Principled Notion: Sovereignty represents national integrity and autonomy,
supporting cooperation to maintain these.
 Status Notion: Sovereignty is about international recognition, with
cooperation signaling legitimacy.

THEORIES OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION

 Neo-Liberal Institutionalism: Focuses on relative gains in international

interactions, supporting sovereignty transfer to regional bodies.

 Neo-Functionalism: Emphasizes functional benefits of cooperation, leading

to spillover effects and deeper integration.
  Inter-governmentalism: States retain sovereignty while using regional
integration to maximize national interests.

The African Union (AU) plays a pivotal role in promoting economic, political, and
security integration across the continent. Here are some key aspects of its role:

ECONOMIC INTEGRATION

 Regional Economic Communities (RECs): The AU works closely with eight

RECs to drive regional integration, aiming to create an African Economic
Community.
 African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA): The AU launched the
AfCFTA to establish a single continental market, fostering economic growth
and industrialization.
 Infrastructure Development: Programs like PIDA support infrastructure
projects to enhance regional connectivity.

POLITICAL INTEGRATION

 Agenda 2063: The AU's strategic framework for long-term socio-economic

transformation, emphasizing unity and solidarity among African countries.
 Pan-African Parliament: Encourages citizen participation in decision-making
processes.

SECURITY INTEGRATION

 Peace and Security Council: Works to promote peace, security, and stability
across the continent.
 Regional Mechanisms: Collaborates with regional bodies to address security
challenges.

The African Union (AU) faces several challenges in enforcing its policies:

 Lack of Clear Criteria and Mechanisms: The AU lacks clear criteria for
determining unconstitutional changes of government, such as manipulation
of term limits, which hinders consistent enforcement.
  Inconsistent Application of Sanctions: The Peace and Security Council
(PSC) applies sanctions inconsistently, leading to perceptions of selective
enforcement.

 Weak Institutional Capacity: The AU's legislative, judicial, and technical

organs are weak compared to the Assembly of Heads of State and
Government, limiting their effectiveness.

 Funding and Financial Independence: The AU struggles with funding and

financial independence, relying heavily on external support.

 Coordination with Regional Bodies: There is poor coordination between the

AU and Regional Economic Communities (RECs), complicating policy
enforcement.

6.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This study employs a mixed methods research design to examine the interplay
between regional integration and state sovereignty within the African Union (AU),
a critical topic in public and international affairs. By integrating qualitative and
quantitative methodologies, the approach captures both the subjective dimensions
of sovereignty such as member states’ perceptions of autonomy and the objective
indicators of integration, such as economic or political metrics.

Qualitatively, the study explores AU institutional frameworks, policy discourses,

and historical contexts to understand how sovereignty is negotiated in the pursuit
of collective governance. Quantitatively, it analyzes measurable data, such as intra-
African trade volumes or the ratification rates of AU protocols, to assess tangible
progress in integration. This dual-method design aligns with the complexity of
studying regional organizations in international affairs, ensuring a robust analysis
of competing priorities.
6.1 DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Data collection prioritizes secondary sources, supplemented by primary data where

feasible, to address the multifaceted nature of AU integration and sovereignty
debates.

Secondary sources include official AU documents such as the Constitutive Act,

Agenda 2063 framework, and annual summit reports which provide insights into
institutional goals and challenges. Academic literature from journals like African
Affairs and Journal of African Law will contextualize the AU’s efforts within
broader discourses of regionalism and global governance.

Reputable media sources, including All Africa and The Africa Report, will offer
contemporary perspectives on policy implementation and member state responses.

Where possible, primary data will be gathered through semi-structured interviews

with experts in African governance such as diplomats, AU policy advisors, or
academics to illuminate elite perspectives on sovereignty trade-offs. Additionally,
textual analysis of AU leadership speeches will provide direct insight into how
integration-sovereignty tensions are framed at the highest levels.

6.2 DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

The analysis will combine thematic analysis and comparative institutional study,
reflecting methodologies common in public and international affairs research.
Thematic analysis will be applied to qualitative data, such as AU policy
documents, interview transcripts, and summit speeches, to identify recurring
themes, including “sovereignty as a barrier,” “integration as a shared benefit,” and
“institutional capacity constraints.” This approach will reveal underlying narratives
shaping AU governance frameworks.

A comparative institutional study will examine how different member states such
as a regional hegemon like Nigeria versus a smaller state like Botswana navigate
the integration-sovereignty nexus, drawing lessons from their engagement with AU
initiatives like the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA).
For quantitative data, such as trade statistics or protocol ratification rates,
descriptive statistical analysis will identify trends and correlations, providing an
empirical grounding for qualitative findings. Together, these techniques offer a
multidimensional understanding of regional governance dynamics.

6.3 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

The research focuses on the African Union’s integration efforts from 2013 to the
present, a period marked by transformative initiatives like Agenda 2063 and the
AfCFTA, which have significant implications for sovereignty in African
governance. Geographically, the study encompasses the AU as a whole but may
narrow to specific regional economic communities (e.g., ECOWAS, EAC) or
pivotal member states for comparative depth, depending on data availability.

Historical context, such as the AU’s transition from the Organization of African
Unity (OAU) in 2002, will be included selectively to frame contemporary
challenges. Several limitations are anticipated: primary data collection, such as
interviews with AU officials, may be restricted by access constraints, requiring
reliance on publicly available statements and secondary sources. Language barriers
pose a challenge, as AU documentation spans English, French, Arabic, and other
languages, necessitating translations where feasible. Additionally, the contested
nature of sovereignty in international affairs complicates its operationalization
across diverse political contexts; this will be mitigated by adopting a clear
conceptual framework informed by global governance literature.

8.0 CONCEPTUAL REVIEW

The conceptual review focuses on defining and analyzing the key terms: regional
integration and sovereignty, especially in the context of the African Union (AU). It
explores the relationship between these two concepts and how they shape Africa’s
political and economic landscape.

8.1 REGIONAL INTEGRATION

Regional integration refers to the process through which neighboring states come
together to cooperate politically, economically, and socially to achieve shared
goals. In the African context, regional integration has been pursued through
initiatives such as:

 The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) – Promoting economic

integration by reducing trade barriers among African countries.
 The African Union’s Peace and Security Council (PSC) – Facilitating
collective security and conflict resolution efforts.
 The Protocol on Free Movement of Persons – Allowing greater mobility of
African citizens across borders.

The primary objectives of regional integration in Africa include:

 Strengthening economic growth through intra-African trade and

industrialization.
 Enhancing political unity and cooperation to promote peace and stability.
 Improving infrastructure development by facilitating cross-border projects.
However, the success of these initiatives depends on the willingness of states to
implement policies that may, at times, require sacrificing aspects of their national
sovereignty.

8.2 SOVEREIGNTY

Sovereignty refers to the authority of a state to govern itself without external

interference. Traditionally, sovereignty is understood in terms of:

 Internal Sovereignty – The state's ability to make and enforce laws within its
borders.
 External Sovereignty – The state's independence from external control or
influence.
The challenge arises when regional integration requires states to adopt collective
policies that may limit their decision-making autonomy. For instance:

Trade agreements under AfCFTA require member states to follow regional trade
regulations, limiting their ability to set independent trade policies.
The African Union’s intervention policies allow the AU to intervene in cases of
war crimes or unconstitutional changes of government, potentially overriding state
sovereignty.

Regional governance structures demand compliance with AU protocols, which can

sometimes conflict with national laws and policies.

The balance between integration and sovereignty is a key issue in AU operations.

While integration seeks to create a more unified Africa, many member states
remain cautious about surrendering too much control to regional bodies.

8.3 THEORETICAL REVIEW

Various theories help explain the relationship between regional integration and
sovereignty.

1. NEOFUNCTIONALISM (ERNST HAAS): Neofunctionalism argues that

regional integration happens gradually through "spillover effects."

 Economic cooperation in one area (e.g., trade) leads to the necessity of

political cooperation (e.g., common economic policies).

 Over time, integration deepens as states see the benefits of cooperation in

multiple sectors.

In the AU’s case, economic integration through AfCFTA is expected to lead to

deeper cooperation in governance, infrastructure, and security. However, the
challenge is that many African states are hesitant to let this process progress too far
due to sovereignty concerns.

2. INTERGOVERNMENTALISM (ANDREW MORAVCSIK): Inter-

governmentalism argues that states remain the primary decision-makers in regional
organizations.
  Unlike in the European Union, where supranational institutions like the
European Parliament hold power, the AU relies on intergovernmental
decision-making.
 Member states negotiate and agree on policies but are not obligated to cede
authority to a higher body.

This explains why AU decisions often require unanimous agreement among states
and why enforcement of regional agreements is weak. Many states prioritize
national interests over AU goals.

3. PAN-AFRICANISM

Pan-Africanism is an ideological framework emphasizing African unity, self-

reliance, and collective development. It supports regional integration as a means of
overcoming colonial-era divisions.

However, it also values sovereignty, as African nations seek to protect themselves

from external influences and historical exploitation.

The AU reflects both aspects of Pan-Africanism:

 It promotes unity and cooperation, but

 It also respects state sovereignty, making integration efforts slow and
complex.

4. REALISM VS. LIBERALISM

 Realism suggests that states act in their own self-interest, which explains
why many African countries are reluctant to surrender sovereignty to the
AU.

 Liberalism argues that institutions like the AU create cooperation by

reducing conflicts and promoting shared benefits.
The AU’s struggle to implement policies effectively reflects the tension between
these two perspectives. While states see the benefits of integration, they also fear
losing control over their own affairs.

8.4 METHODOLOGICAL REVIEW

The methodological review examines how scholars and researchers analyze

regional integration and sovereignty in the AU.

1. QUALITATIVE METHODS

 Case Studies: Researchers analyze specific AU institutions like AfCFTA or

the Peace and Security Council to assess how they impact national
sovereignty.
 Content Analysis: Examining AU treaties, agreements, and official
statements to understand how sovereignty is framed.
 Interviews: Policymakers, diplomats, and scholars provide insights into the
practical challenges of integration.

Example: A case study of the AU’s intervention in Libya (2011) can show how
sovereignty concerns influenced AU decision-making.

2. QUANTITATIVE METHODS

 Statistical Analysis: Measuring trade flow changes before and after AfCFTA
implementation. Assessing economic growth rates in AU member states
participating in integration efforts.
 Surveys and Public Opinion Data: Understanding citizens’ and
policymakers’ views on regional integration vs. national sovereignty.
 Index-Based Approaches: Using the African Regional Integration Index to
compare the level of integration among AU member states.
 3. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

 Comparing the African Union with the European Union (EU) The EU has a
strong supranational governance structure, while the AU relies more on
intergovernmental decision-making.

 Studying ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations): ASEAN

balances national sovereignty with regional cooperation in a way that might
be more suitable for the AU.
 Comparing AU member states: Some states (e.g., Rwanda) are more
committed to integration than others (e.g., Nigeria), highlighting different
sovereignty concerns.

CONCLUSIONS

The relationship between regional integration and sovereignty in the African Union
is complex and influenced by historical, political, and economic factors.

 Conceptually, integration aims to unite Africa, but sovereignty remains a

barrier.
 Theoretically, neofunctionalism, intergovernmentalism, and Pan-Africanism
explain why integration is slow.
 Methodologically, scholars use qualitative, quantitative, and comparative
methods to assess how integration affects national sovereignty.

With respect to the institutional dimension of integration, one can find differences
and similarities between EU and AU. The EU has many competences being
transferred by the member states. As a result, the decisions (legal acts) of the EU
are binding for its members in many areas. In case, members refuse to fulfill their
duties and violate EU-law, the European Court of Justice may impose sanctions.
The AU tries to establish a political system that is similar to the EU, insofar as
intentions prevail to supply the community with competences.
It is on record that African leaders have not hidden the fact that they modeled AU
after EU. But they never bordered to learn the factors that made EU successful as a
mature integration project. The most important principles underlying the success of
the EU project according to Cameron (2010) include:

Visionary politicians, such as Robert Schuman of France and Konrad Adenauer of

Germany, who conceived of a new form of politics based on the supranational
"community method" rather than the traditional balance-of-power model. Support
from the United States was also crucial in the early years.

Leadership generated by the Franco-German axis. Despite many problems, Paris

and Berlin have been and remain the driving force behind European integration.

The political will to share sovereignty and construct strong, legally based, common
institutions to oversee the integration project.

A consensus approach combined with solidarity and tolerance. The EU approach is

based on not isolating any member state if they have a major problem (such as
Greece in the most recent crisis), hesitance to move forward with policies until the
vast majority of member states are ready, and a willingness to provide significant
financial transfers to help poorer member states catch up with the norm.

These four tenets have guided the EU well over the years and enabled the
institutions to survive many crises, from French President Charles de Gaulle's
"empty chair" tactics of withdrawing French representatives from EU political
bodies in protest of moves to introduce Qualified Majority Voting (QMV) to failed
referendums on new treaties in a number of member states, including rejection of
the Constitutional Treaty by France and the Netherlands in 2005 and the Lisbon
Treaty by Ireland in 2008. More recently, the EU has adopted a more flexible
approach resulting in a multi-speed Europe with several tiers of integration.

For example, not all member states are in the eurozone, or in the Schengen
passport-free zone; this arrangement has allowed some of the more Euro-skeptic
countries such as the United Kingdom to opt out of certain obligations before its
final exit in 2016. Nevertheless, the core tenet of the EU is readiness to share
sovereignty and operate through strong common institutions.
These four tenets that guided EU into a supra-national integration project can be
replicated in Africa through the emergence of dedicated and well-focused leaders
that will be guided by the principles of integrity, transparency, accountability and
good governance.

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