Grammar refers to the way words are used, classified, and structured together to form

coherent written or spoken communication.

✓ Grammar may be broken into three fundamental elements: Parts of Speech,
Inflection, and Syntax. Each of these is a discrete, individual part, but they are
all intrinsically linked together in meaning.
1. Parts of Speech
The parts of speech are the categories to which different words are
assigned, based on their meaning, structure, and function in a
sentence.

The seven main parts of speech—nouns, pronouns, verbs,

adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions—as well as
other categories of words that don’t easily fit in with the rest, such as
particles, determiners, and gerunds.

2. Inflection
Although the parts of speech provide the building blocks for English,
another very important element is inflection, the process by which
words are changed in form to create new, specific meanings.

Two main categories of inflection: conjugation and declension.

Conjugation refers to the inflection of verb.
e.g. catch – caught, walk – walked, protect – protector/protectorate

Declension refers to the inflection of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and

adverbs.
e.g. book – books, yourself – yourselves, beauty – beautiful, positive –
positively, I – we, me – us, him/her – they.

3. Syntax
Syntax is the rules and patterns that govern how we structure
sentences.
The grammatical structures that constitute syntax can be thought of as
a hierarchy, with sentences at the top as the largest cohesive unit in
the language and words (the parts of speech) at the bottom.

e.g. The student studies the law.

Pattern: Subject – Verb – Object
Subject – The student
Verb - studies
Object - the law
Parts of Speech
The parts of speech are the primary categories of words according to their function in a
sentence.
English has seven main parts of speech. We’ll look at a brief overview of each below;
continue on to their individual chapters to learn more about them.
Nouns
Nouns are words that identify or name people, places, event, or things. Nouns can
function as the subject of a clause or sentence, an object of a verb, or an object
of a preposition. Words like cat, book, table, girl, and plane are all nouns.
Pronouns
Pronouns are words that represent nouns (people, places, or things).
Grammatically, pronouns are used in the same ways as nouns; they can function
as subjects or objects. Common pronouns include I, you, she, him, it, everyone,
and somebody.
Verbs
Verbs are words that describe the actions—or states of being—of people, animals,
places, or things. Verbs function as the root of what’s called the predicate, which
is required (along with a subject) to form a complete sentence; therefore, every
sentence must include at least one verb.
Verbs include action words like run, walk, write, or sing, as well as words
describing states of being, such as be, seem, feel, or sound.
Adjectives
Adjectives are words that modify (add description to) nouns and (occasionally)
pronouns. They can be a part of either the subject or the predicate. Common
adjectives are red, blue, fast, slow, big, tall, and wide.
Adverbs
Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or even entire
clauses. Depending on what they modify (and how), adverbs can appear
anywhere in the sentence. Adverbs are commonly formed from adjectives by
adding “-ly” to the end, as in slowly, quickly, widely, beautifully, or commonly.
Prepositions
Prepositions are words that express a relationship between a noun or pronoun
(known as the object of the preposition) and another part of the sentence.
Together, these form prepositional phrases, which can function as adjectives or as
adverbs in a sentence.
Conjunctions
 Conjunctions are words that connect other words, phrases, or clauses,
expressing a specific kind of relationship between the two (or more) elements. The
most common conjunctions are the coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor,
for, so, and yet.
Note: Interjection is often dropped out from the list of the parts of speech. There
are many reasons why according to prominent grammarians. One of the ultimate
reason is that interjections don’t participate in sentence structure. They can stand
alone, don’t combine with other words syntactically, and aren’t inflected (no tense,
number, etc.).
Tense

Present Tense Past Tense The Future Tense

Present Simple. Past Simple Tense. Future Simple Tense (
is used to express habits, (add -d/-ed except for will/going to + base form of
facts, and timetables. (add irregular verbs) the verb
-es/-s to the end of the Use the future simple
verb) We use the past simple tense to describe an
e.g. tense to express finished intended action, make a
“I go to work every day.” actions. It is often used prediction, state future
“He works in finance.” with an expression of past facts, make promises, or
“The sun rises in the time to give more complete offer to do something.
East.” information.
“The train leaves at 9:30 e.g.
tomorrow morning.” e.g. “He’ll help you with that
“She worked in finance heavy suitcase.”
With the verb be before this job.” “The witness will appear
Affirmative: “I am from the “We lived in China for six in the court for trial.”
United States.” years after I graduated
Question: “Is he from college.”
Canadian?” Negative:
“They are not British.” With the verb be
Affirmative: “I was their
Note: accountant at the time.”
The linking verb be has Question: “Were you in
three different conjugations the military?”
for grammatical person in Negative: “He was not
the present tense: serious.”
• am (first-person
singular);
• are (first-person
plural, second
person, and third-
person plural); and
 • is (third-person
singular).

Present Continuous Past Continuous Tense. Future Continuous

Tense. (auxillary verb be + (was/were + present Tense. (will/going to +
present participle of the participle) auxiliary verb be +
verb) is used for something in present participle of the
progress at a certain main verb )
is used for something in moment in the past. It can is used to describe an
progress at the moment of only be used with action unfinished action occurring
speaking; it describes verbs in the future. This action
something that is can either begin in the
happening in the present e.g. future, or it can already be
moment and also for “I was reading a book in progress in the present
expressing future when they arrived.” and continue into the
arrangements. It can only “Were you sleeping when future.
be used with action verbs. I called?” e.g.
e.g. “I’ll be flying to Boston
“John is sleeping at the tomorrow, so I can’t come
moment.” to lunch.”
“Am I wearing the right “We won’t be leaving until
uniform?” the evening.”
“Jack isn’t coming to the
movie with us.”
Present Perfect Tense. Past Perfect Tense. (had Future Perfect Tense.
(have/has + past participle + past participle of the (will + have + past
of the verb) verb) participle)
expresses the idea that Use the future perfect
is used to give general something occurred before tense to say that
information about another action in the past. something will finish or
something that happened It can also show that complete at a
at an indefinite something happened specific point in the future,
point in the past which is before a specific time in often indicating how long
still relevant in the present. the past. something will have been
e.g. e.g. happening once a future
“I have lived in Italy for “The movie had already moment in time is reached.
many years.” ended when I turned on We can also use the future
the TV.” perfect to make a
also use the present “I hadn’t eaten Parmesan prediction that something
perfect with the cheese before going to has or should have
prepositions for and since Italy.” happened in the past.
when we speak about “I was sad to leave the
something that started in house I had lived in for so e.g.
the past and is still true many years.” “After this next race, I will
now. have completed 10
e.g. triathlons.”
“She has been here since “By October we will have
8 o’clock.” lived in this house for 20
“She hasn’t been in work years.”
for a few weeks.”
Present Perfect Past Perfect Continuous Future Perfect
Continuous Tense. Tense. (Had + been + the Continuous Tense. (will +
Subject + has/have + been past participle of the main have + been + present
+ present participle verb) participle of the verb)
is used to express
Use the present perfect something that began and Use the future perfect
continuous tense to talk was in progress until a continuous tense to
about that which began in moment in the past or until indicate how long
the past and is still another past action something has been
happening in the present. occurred. happening once a future
e.g. moment in time is reached;
e.g. “When I arrived at the bus the emphasis is on the
I’ve been writing for over stop, the other people continual progression of
an hour.” there had been the action. It can also be
“How long have you been waiting for nearly an used to indicate the cause
writing for?” hour.” of a possible future result.

e.g.
“She’ll have been waiting
for nearly an hour by the
time we arrive.”
“I will have been living in
this country for 10 years
this November.”

Objects
Grammatical objects have three grammatical roles: the direct object of a verb, the
indirect object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.
Direct Object Indirect Objects
Direct objects are what receive the An indirect object is the person or
action of the verb in a sentence or thing who receives the direct object of
clause. the verb.
For example: For instance:
• “The dog chased its tail.” • “Please pass Jeremy the salt.”
(The noun tail is receiving the (The proper noun Jeremy is
action of the verb receiving the direct
chase.)
 • “Mary reads a book every object salt, which receives the
week.” (The noun book is action of the verb pass.)
receiving the action of the • “I sent the company an
verb read.) application for the job.”
(The noun company is
receiving the direct object
application, which receives the
action of the verb
sent.)

Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier is a descriptive word or phrase that is not clearly or logically
connected to the word it is supposed to describe — usually because the subject is
missing or misplaced in the sentence.
For instance:
Walking into the courtroom, the silence was eerie."

: Who was walking? The sentence says “the silence” was walking — which makes no
sense.
"Walking into the courtroom, the lawyer noticed the silence was eerie."
Now the modifier "Walking into the courtroom" correctly refers to "the lawyer

Other forms of Auxiliary Verbs

1. "Has had"
Tense: Present Perfect
Used with: Singular third person (he, she, it)
Structure: has + past participle of “have” (had)
Meaning: Something started in the past and continues to the present, or it
happened at an unspecified time before now.
Examples:
• She has had several opportunities to travel abroad.
• The company has had a difficult year.

2. "Have had"
Tense: Present Perfect
Used with: I, you, we, they
Structure: have + had
Meaning: Same as above, but with different subjects.
Examples:
• I have had a headache all day.
• We have had this car since 2010.
• They have had enough warnings.

3. "Had had"
Tense: Past Perfect
Used with: All subjects (I, you, he, she, we, they)
Structure: had + had
Meaning: Something occurred before another event in the past.
Examples:
• By the time the meeting started, she had had three cups of coffee.
• They had had no food for two days before help arrived.
• I had had enough of his nonsense before he even started speaking again.

Usage Note: “Singular they”

English does not have a way of identifying a single person with a pronoun if his or her
gender is not known, so sometimes the third-person plural forms (they, them, etc.) are
used as a gender-neutral alternative to the third-person feminine/masculine forms. This
is sometimes called “singular they.” For example:
• “You shouldn’t judge someone until you know what they are really like.”
• “If anyone needs extra help with their studies, they should feel free to see me
after class.”
While it is still considered incorrect by some writers and writing guides, especially in
American English, “singular they” is gradually becoming accepted as the norm,
especially in instances with indefinite pronouns that sound plural but are grammatically
singular (like anyone in the example above).
Punctuations
is a set of symbols that separates and gives meaning to words. It tells readers where to
pause, what words are quotations, and more. When you use correct punctuation, you
convey your intended message clearly to your audience. Read the resources below to
learn all about the 14 punctuation marks and their uses.
The Comma
• Use the comma to separate items in a series.
Example: We bought eggs, cheese, and milk at the store.
• Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (but, or, yet, for, and, nor, so)
joining two independent clauses.
Example: I didn’t have a good time on my vacation, so I intend to go to a
different place next year.
• Use a comma after every item in an address or date (if there is more than one
item).
Example:.
I’m going to a conference on Monday, May 11, 1997.
• Use a comma to set off most introductory elements.
Example: Fortunately, he said he would go.
Susan, are you going to the store?
Yes, I am going after dinner.
When I arrived, they were eating dinner.
• Use a comma before the text of a quotation.
Example: The teacher said, “Return to your seats.”
• Use a comma to set off transitional and parenthetical expressions, absolute
phrases, and contrasted elements.
Example: We will, therefore, need to reschedule the meeting.
(transitional)
My brother, on the other hand, prefers classical music.
(parenthetical)
Her arms folded, she waited silently. (absolute)
It was his idea, not mine. (contrasted)

The oxford comma

is the comma placed before the final conjunction (usually "and" or "or") in
a list of three or more items.
Example:

Without Oxford Comma With Oxford Comma

We invited the strippers, JFK and Stalin. We invited the strippers, JFK, and
Stalin.
The Semicolon
Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses in a sentence and to separate
items in a series when commas are used as well.
e.g. I have a big test tomorrow; I can’t go out tonight.
Use a semicolon to separate items in a series when the items already include
commas.
e.g. On our road trip, we visited Albany, New York; Portland, Oregon;
and Phoenix, Arizona.
The Colon
Use a colon to call attention to the words that follow it.
e.g.
The routine includes the following: twenty knee bends, fifty leg lifts, and
five minutes of running in place.
My roommate is guilty of two of the seven deadly sins: gluttony and
sloth.
The Apostrophe
Use the apostrophe to indicate possession, to mark contractions, and to pluralize
letters or numbers.
e.g. boy’s hat; ladies’ hats; men’s coats (possession)
aren’t, won’t, can’t, didn’t (contractions)
There are four s’s in Mississippi. (plural letters)
The Quotation Mark
Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotes and around titles of short works.
e.g. The poem “Mother to Son” is by Langston Hughes.
“A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds,” wrote Ralph
Waldo Emerson.