Chapter: Big Ideas in Politics: Liberalism, Marxism, Anarchism, and

Conservatism

Compiled by: Aryandeep Sharma

Have you ever wondered why people have different ideas about how a country should be run, or what makes a society fair? These big
questions are what political ideas, or "ideologies," try to answer. They're like different recipes for how to make a good society. Let's
explore four of the most important ones.

1. Liberalism: Freedom for Each Person

Liberalism is a way of thinking that puts each individual person at the center [Gauba: 16]. It believes that every person is important, can
think for themselves, and has the ability to make good choices for their own life [Gauba: 16, 34]. Liberals want a society where everyone
can live a good, meaningful life and grow to their full potential [Gauba: 16].

• What Liberals Care About Most: Freedom (Liberty)

"Freedom From" (Negative Liberty): This is about being free from outside interference, especially from the government. Early
liberals, like John Locke, thought the government's job should be very small – just like a "nightwatchman state" [Gauba: 17, 92, 99;
Rajeev Bhargava: 238]. Its main duties would be to protect people's lives and property and make sure agreements (contracts) are kept
[Gauba: 17, 35, 92, 99, 413; Rajeev Bhargava: 238]. They didn't want the government telling people what to do too much, especially in
their economic choices (this was called "laissez-faire" – meaning "let them do") [Gauba: 35, 99; Heywood: 258, 337, 338; Rajeev
Bhargava: 213, 238].

"Freedom To" (Positive Liberty): Later liberals, like J.S. Mill and T.H. Green, realized that simply being "free from" interference
wasn't enough if people didn't have the chance to actually do things [Gauba: 93, 228, 232, 355; Heywood: 260]. So, "freedom to" means
having the actual opportunities and resources to achieve your goals, like getting an education, healthcare, or a job [Gauba: 93, 97, 228,
232, 304, 313; Heywood: 260; Rajeev Bhargava: 390]. They believed the government should step in to provide these things (a "welfare
state") so everyone has a fair start [Gauba: 97, 104, 226, 304, 313, 400; Heywood: 310; Rajeev Bhargava: 114, 137, 256, 390].

• The Role of Government (The State):

Liberals generally agree that government should not have absolute power and that its authority should be limited [Gauba: 35, 414; Rajeev
Bhargava: 238, 414, 417]. The government's job is to be fair and neutral, not to take sides [Gauba: 65; Heywood: 78]. It should be a means to
help individuals, not an end in itself [Gauba: 35].

• Owning Things (Private Property):

Liberals usually believe that people should have the right to own private property (like land, houses, businesses). They see this as
important for individual freedom, for people to work hard, and to create new things [Gauba: 143, 395, 413; Rajeev Bhargava: 207, 211, 238,
390, 472].

• Fairness (Justice and Equality):

Liberalism emphasizes fair rules and treating everyone equally under the law (legal equality) [Gauba: 102, 380; Rajeev Bhargava: 61, 390]. It
also pushes for equality of opportunity, meaning everyone should have the same chances to succeed, regardless of their background
[Gauba: 102; Heywood: 297; Rajeev Bhargava: 241].

• Rule by the People (Democracy):

Liberals strongly support liberal democracy, where citizens vote for their leaders, and there are laws and rights to protect everyone,
including minorities. There are independent judges to ensure fairness [Gauba: 116, 472, 484, 485; Heywood: 70, 71, 225, 226; Rajeev Bhargava:
108, 115, 121, 381, 382].
2. Marxism: Society as a Class Struggle

Marxism is a way of understanding society that sees it as being built on conflict between different economic classes [Gauba: 18, 104;
Heywood: 45, 186; Rajeev Bhargava: 64, 119]. It suggests that throughout history, there's always been a powerful, "ruling class" that owns
most things (like factories and land), and they take advantage of the "working class" who have to work for them [Gauba: 104, 242, 289,
290; Heywood: 45, 186; Rajeev Bhargava: 64, 119, 151, 193, 197].

• How Society Changes (Historical Materialism):

Karl Marx believed that history isn't just a random series of events, but a story driven by how things are produced in society ("mode of
production") [Gauba: 18, 34, 140, 523, 525; Heywood: 82, 371; Understanding Political Theory: 505]. This economic "base" shapes everything
else, like politics, laws, culture, and ideas ("superstructure") [Gauba: 40, 140, 246; Heywood: 82; Rajeev Bhargava: 64]. Marxists believe this
process will eventually lead to a "classless society" where everyone is free [Gauba: 18, 38, 143; Heywood: 82, 366, 369].

• The Problem: Private Property:

Marxists see private ownership of the "means of production" (like factories, farms, and mines) as the root of all social problems and
unfairness [Gauba: 104, 143, 312, 394, 407; Heywood: 45, 186, 232, 321; Rajeev Bhargava: 105, 119, 198, 209, 215, 247, 249, 403, 472]. They argue
that the rich (bourgeoisie) get richer by taking the "surplus value" (extra profit) created by the workers' labor [Heywood: 45, 186, 321;
Rajeev Bhargava: 215, 250, 253, 321]. Their solution is to abolish private property in these large-scale production means and have them
owned by society as a whole [Gauba: 104, 407; Heywood: 232, 322; Rajeev Bhargava: 105, 209, 215, 249, 254, 472].

• The Role of Government (The State):

Marxists believe the government, or "state," is not neutral. It's really just a tool used by the ruling class to keep its power and control
over the working class [Heywood: 81, 193; Rajeev Bhargava: 119, 153, 181, 198, 383, 403, 506; Understanding Political Theory: 506]. After a
socialist revolution where workers overthrow the capitalists, Marxists believe there would be a "dictatorship of the proletariat"
(workers' rule) for a while, but eventually, in a truly classless society, the state would "wither away" because it would no longer be
needed [Gauba: 18, 143, 506, 508; Heywood: 83, 258, 369; Rajeev Bhargava: 18, 182, 268, 506].

• True Freedom and Equality:

For Marxists, true freedom means being free from being exploited and taken advantage of, so everyone can develop fully through their
cooperative work [Gauba: 365; Heywood: 262]. Equality means not just having the same rules, but everyone having their needs met ("from
each according to his ability, to each according to his need") [Gauba: 98, 372, 517; Rajeev Bhargava: 63, 84, 254]. They think economic
equality is more important than just legal or political equality [Gauba: 372; Rajeev Bhargava: 119, 246, 252].

3. Anarchism: No Rulers, Just People

Anarchism is a powerful idea that believes we don't need any government or rulers at all [Gauba: 59, 62; Heywood: 81, 194; Rajeev Bhargava:
177, 507; Understanding Political Theory: 507]. Anarchists think people are naturally good and can live together peacefully and cooperatively
if no one is in charge [Gauba: 62; Rajeev Bhargava: 177, 507].

• Against the State (Anti-Statism):

Anarchists see the government (the state) as the main cause of problems, conflict, and control in society [Gauba: 62, 142; Heywood: 81,
194; Rajeev Bhargava: 154, 177, 507; Understanding Political Theory: 507]. They believe the state is always a tool of violence and oppression,
taking away people's freedom [Gauba: 62; Heywood: 81, 199; Rajeev Bhargava: 154].

• Against All Authority:

They are mostly against any kind of top-down, bossy authority, whether it's in churches, armies, or big businesses [Gauba: 48]. However,
some anarchists might accept "rational authority," like listening to a doctor for medical advice or a scientist in their field [Gauba: 48].

• What They Want: Absolute Freedom:

• Against Capitalism (Mostly):

Most anarchists also dislike capitalism because it creates economic power differences and leads to exploitation, which they see as
another form of control [Heywood: 199, 367; Rajeev Bhargava: 508].

4. Conservatism: Valuing Tradition and Order

Conservatism is about keeping things as they are or changing them very slowly [Heywood: 138, 167; Gauba: 262, 350; Understanding Political
Theory: 501]. Conservatives value tradition, established ways of doing things, and maintaining order and stability in society [Gauba: 350,
351; Heywood: 138, 167, 347, 348; Understanding Political Theory: 501, 509]. They are very careful about big, sudden changes, believing they
can lead to chaos [Heywood: 167, 348].

• Core Beliefs:

Human Nature: Conservatives often believe that people are not perfect and can sometimes be selfish or irrational. Because of this,
they think people need strong rules, discipline, and authority to behave well and prevent society from falling apart [Heywood: 22, 138,
167; Understanding Political Theory: 493].

Tradition and Custom: They see customs and traditions as very important because they represent the wisdom of many generations
[Heywood: 167, 347, 348, 350, 352]. They believe that past ways of doing things have been tested over time and usually work best
[Gauba: 350, 351; Heywood: 348].

Society as an Organism: Many conservatives view society as a living organism, where each part (individuals, families,
communities) has a specific role, and all parts work together for the good of the whole [Heywood: 34, 44, 138, 186]. This often means
accepting a natural order or hierarchy in society, where not everyone is equal in status, but everyone has a place and duties
[Heywood: 138, 310, 361; Rajeev Bhargava: 144, 392].

• The Role of Government (The State):

Conservatives generally believe a strong government is necessary to maintain peace, order, and stability [Gauba: 100, 262; Heywood: 138,
163; Understanding Political Theory: 493]. They are often wary of too much individual freedom, fearing it can lead to social breakdown or
"license" (freedom that causes problems) [Heywood: 136, 137, 161, 254].

• Private Property:

Like liberals, conservatives usually support the right to private property. They see it as a way for people to have a stake in society, take
responsibility, and maintain stability [Gauba: 143; Heywood: 318; Rajeev Bhargava: 392].

• Freedom and Order:

For conservatives, order and security are often more important than unlimited individual freedom [Heywood: 136, 161, 254]. They
distinguish between "liberty" (good, responsible freedom) and "license" (reckless, excessive freedom that harms society) [Heywood:
254].

Conclusion

So, as you can see, these four big political ideas – Liberalism, Marxism, Anarchism, and Conservatism – offer very different ways of
thinking about how society should be organized and what's most important.

Liberals champion the individual and their freedom and rights, often relying on fair laws and democratic processes.

Marxists focus on economic classes and believe that a revolution is needed to create a truly equal, classless society.

Anarchists reject all forms of government and authority, trusting in people's natural ability to cooperate voluntarily.
 Conservatives value tradition, order, and stability, believing in a strong, but limited, state to protect society from rapid change and
maintain social harmony.

Each of these ideas has shaped history and continues to influence how people think about politics today, giving us different lenses
through which to understand the world and debate how we should live together.