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EC- 6405 CONTROL SYSTEM ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 3
FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Frequency Response

The frequency response of a system is a frequency dependent function which expresses

how a sinusoidal signal of a given frequency on the system input is transferred through the
system. Time-varying signals at least periodical signals —which excite systems, as the reference
(set point) signal or a disturbance in a control system or measurement signals which are inputs
signals to signal filters, can be regarded as consisting of a sum of frequency components. Each
frequency component is a sinusoidal signal having certain amplitude and a certain frequency.
(The Fourier series expansion or the Fourier transform can be used to express these frequency
components quantitatively.) The frequency response expresses how each of these frequency
components is transferred through the system. Some components may be amplified, others may
be attenuated, and there will be some phase lag through the system.
The frequency response is an important tool for analysis and design of signal filters (as
low pass filters and high pass filters), and for analysis, and to some extent, design, of control
systems. Both signal filtering and control systems applications are described (briefly) later in this
chapter. The definition of the frequency response — which will be given in the next section —
applies only to linear models, but this linear model may very well be the local linear model about
some operating point of a non-linear model. The frequency response can found experimentally or
from a transfer function model. It can be presented graphically or as a mathematical function.

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Bode plot
• Plots of the magnitude and phase characteristics are used to fully describe the frequency
response
• A Bode plot is a (semilog) plot of the transfer function magnitude and phase angle as a
function of frequency.
The gain magnitude is many times expressed in terms of decibels (dB)
db = 20 log 10 A

BODE PLOT PROCEDURE:

There are 4 basic forms in an open-loop transfer function G(jω)H(jω)
Gain Factor K
(jω)±p factor: pole and zero at origin
(1+jωT)±q factor
Quadratic factor
1+j2ζ(W / Wn)-(W2 / Wn2)

Gain margin and Phase margin

Gain margin:
The gain margin is the number of dB that is below 0 dB at the phase crossover frequency
(ø=-180º). It can also be increased before the closed loop system becomes unstable
Term Corner Frequency Slope db /dec Change in slope
20/jW ----- -20
1/ (1+4jW) WC1=1/4 = 0.25 -20 -20-20=-40
1/(1+j3w) wc2=1/3=0.33 -20 -40-20=-60

Phase margin:
The phase margin is the number of degrees the phase of that is above -180º at the gain
crossover frequency

Gain margin and Phase margin

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Bode Plot – Example

For the following T.F draw the Bode plot and obtain Gain cross over frequency (wgc) ,
Phase cross over frequency , Gain Margin and Phase Margin.
G(s) = 20 / [s (1+3s) (1+4s)]
Solution:
The sinusoidal T.F of G(s) is obtained by replacing s by jw in the given T.F
G(jw) = 20 / [jw (1+j3w) (1+j4w)]
Corner frequencies:
wc1= 1/4 = 0.25 rad /sec ;
wc2 = 1/3 = 0.33 rad /sec
Choose a lower corner frequency and a higher Corner frequency
wl= 0.025 rad/sec ;
wh = 3.3 rad / sec
Calculation of Gain (A) (MAGNITUDE PLOT)
A @ wl ; A= 20 log [ 20 / 0.025 ] = 58 .06 dB
A @ wc1 ; A = [Slope from wl to wc1 x log (wc1 / wl ] + Gain (A)@wl
= - 20 log [ 0.25 / 0.025 ] + 58.06
= 38.06 dB
A @ wc2 ; A = [Slope from wc1 to wc2 x log (wc2 / wc1 ] + Gain (A)@ wc1
= - 40 log [ 0.33 / 0.25 ] + 38
= 33 dB
A @ wh ; A = [Slope from wc2 to wh x log (wh / wc2 ] + Gain (A) @ wc2
= - 60 log [ 3.3 / 0.33 ] + 33
=-27 dB
Calculation of Phase angle for different values of frequencies [PHASE PLOT]
Ø = -90O- tan -1 3w – tan -1 4w
When
Frequency in rad / sec Phase angles in Degree
w=0 Ø= -90 0
w = 0.025 Ø= -990
w = 0.25 Ø= -1720
w = 0.33 Ø= -1880
w =3.3 Ø= -2590
w =∞ Ø= -2700

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Calculations of Gain cross over frequency

The frequency at which the dB magnitude is Zero
wgc = 1.1 rad / sec

Calculations of Phase cross over frequency

The frequency at which the Phase of the system is - 180o
wpc = 0.3 rad / sec
Gain Margin
The gain margin in dB is given by the negative of dB magnitude of G(jw) at phase cross
over frequency
GM = - { 20 log [G( jwpc )] = - { 32 } = -32 dB

Phase Margin
Ґ = 1800+ Øgc= 1800 + (- 2400o) = -600

Conclusion
For this system GM and PM are negative in values. Therefore the system is unstable in
nature.

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Polar plot

To sketch the polar plot of G(jω) for the entire range of frequency ω, i.e., from 0 to
infinity, there are four key points that usually need to be known:
(1) the start of plot where ω = 0,
(2) the end of plot where ω = ∞,
(3) where the plot crosses the real axis, i.e., Im(G(jω)) = 0, and
(4) where the plot crosses the imaginary axis, i.e., Re(G(jω)) = 0.

BASICS OF POLAR PLOT:

The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) is a plot of the magnitude of G(jω)
Vs the phase of G(jω) on polar co-ordinates as ω is varied from 0 to ∞.
(ie) |G(jω)| Vs angle G(jω) as ω → 0 to ∞.
Polar graph sheet has concentric circles and radial lines.
Concentric circles represents the magnitude.
Radial lines represents the phase angles.
In polar sheet
+ve phase angle is measured in ACW from 00
-ve phase angle is measured in CW from 00

PROCEDURE
Express the given expression of OLTF in (1+sT) form.
Substitute s = jω in the expression for G(s)H(s) and get G(jω)H(jω).
Get the expressions for | G(jω)H(jω)| & angle G(jω)H(jω).
Tabulate various values of magnitude and phase angles for different values of ω ranging
from 0 to ∞.
Usually the choice of frequencies will be the corner frequency and around corner
frequencies.
Choose proper scale for the magnitude circles.
Fix all the points in the polar graph sheet and join the points by a smooth curve.
Write the frequency corresponding to each of the point of the plot.

MINIMUM PHASE SYSTEMS:

Systems with all poles & zeros in the Left half of the s-plane – Minimum Phase
Systems.
For Minimum Phase Systems with only poles
Type No. determines at what quadrant the polar plot starts.
Order determines at what quadrant the polar plot ends.
Type No. → No. of poles lying at the origin
Order → Max power of‘s’ in the denominator polynomial of the transfer function.
GAIN MARGIN
Gain Margin is defined as “the factor by which the system gain can be increased to drive
the system to the verge of instability”.
For stable systems,
ωgc< ωpc
Magnitude of G(j )H(j ) at ω=ωpc < 1

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GM = in positive dB
More positive the GM, more stable is the system.
For marginally stable systems,
ωgc = ωpc
magnitude of G(j )H(j ) at ω=ωpc = 1
GM = 0 dB
For Unstable systems,
ωgc> ωpc
magnitude of G(j )H(j ) at ω=ωpc > 1
GM = in negative dB
Gain is to be reduced to make the system stable

Note:
If the gain is high, the GM is low and the system’s step response shows high overshoots
and long settling time.
On the contrary, very low gains give high GM and PM, but also causes higher ess, higher
values of rise time and settling time and in general give sluggish response.
Thus we should keep the gain as high as possible to reduce ess and obtain acceptable
response speed and yet maintain adequate GM & PM.
An adequate GM of 2 i.e. (6 dB) and a PM of 30 is generally considered good enough as
a thumb rule.
At w=w pc , angle of G(jw )H(jw ) = -1800
Let magnitude of G(jw)H(jw ) at w = wpc be taken a B
If the gain of the system is increased by factor 1/B, then the magnitude of G(jw)H(j w) at
w = wpc becomes B(1/B) = 1 and hence the G(jw)H(jw) locus pass through -1+j0 point
driving the system to the verge of instability.
GM is defined as the reciprocal of the magnitude of the OLTF evaluated at the phase
cross over frequency.
GM in dB = 20 log (1/B) = - 20 log B
PHASE MARGIN
Phase Margin is defined as “ the additional phase lag that can be introduced before the
system becomes unstable”.
‘A’ be the point of intersection of G(j )H(j ) plot and a unit circle centered at the origin.
Draw a line connecting the points ‘O’ & ‘A’ and measure the phase angle between the
line OA and
+ve real axis.
This angle is the phase angle of the system at the gain cross over frequency.
Angle of G(jwgc)H(jw gc) =φ gc
If an additional phase lag of φ PM is introduced at this frequency, then the phase angle
G(jwgc)H(jw gc) will become 180 and the point ‘A‘ coincides with (-1+j0) driving the system to
the verge of instability.
This additional phase lag is known as the Phase Margin.
γ= 1800 + angle of G(jwgc)H(jw gc)
γ= 1800 + φ gc
[Since φ gc is measured in CW direction, it is taken as negative]
For a stable system, the phase margin is positive.
A Phase margin close to zero corresponds to highly oscillatory system.
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A polar plot may be constructed from experimental data or from a system transfer
function
If the values of w are marked along the contour, a polar plot has the same information as
a bode plot.
Usually, the shape of a polar plot is of most interest.

Nyquist Plot:
The Nyquist plot is a polar plot of the function

The Nyquist stability criterion relates the location of the roots of the characteristic
equation to the open-loop frequency response of the system. In this, the computation of closed-
loop poles is not necessary to determine the stability of the system and the stability study can be
carried out graphically from the open-loop frequency response. Therefore experimentally
determined open-loop frequency response can be used directly for the study of stability. When
the feedback path is closed. The Nyquist criterion has the following features that make it an
alternative method that is attractive for the analysis and design of control systems. 1. In addition
to providing information on absolute and relative.
Nyquist Plot Example
Consider the following transfer function

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Change it from “s” domain to “jw” domain:

Find the magnitude and phase angle equations:

Evaluate magnitude and phase angle at ω= 0+ and ω = +∞

Draw the nyquist plot:

Frequency domain specifications

The resonant peak Mr is the maximum value of jM(jw)j.
The resonant frequency !r is the frequency at which the peak resonance Mr occurs.
The bandwidth BW is the frequency at which(jw) drops to 70:7% (3 dB) of its zero-
frequency value.

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Mr indicates the relative stability of a stable closed loop system.

A large Mr corresponds to larger maximum overshoot of the step response.
Desirable value: 1.1 to 1.5
BW gives an indication of the transient response properties of a control system.
A large bandwidth corresponds to a faster rise time. BW and rise time tr are
inversely proportional.
BW also indicates the noise-filtering characteristics and robustness of the system.
Increasing wn increases BW.
BW and Mr are proportional to each other.
Constant M and N circles
Consider a candidate design of a loop transfer function L( jω) shown on the RHS.

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Evaluate T( jω) from L( jω) in the manner of frequency point by frequency point.
Alternatively, the Bode plot of L( jω) can also be show on the complex plane to form its Nyquist
plot.

M circles (constant magnitude of T)

In order to precisely evaluate |T( jω)| from the Nyquist plot of L( jω), a tool called M circle is
developed as followed.
Let L( jω)=X+jY, where X is the real and Y the imaginary part . Then

Rearranging the above equations, it gives

X2(1-M2)-2M2X-M2+(1-M2)Y2 = 0
That is, all (X, Y) pair corresponding to a constant value of M for a circle on the complex plane.
Therefore, we have the following (constant) M circles on the complex plane as shown below.

N circles (constant phase of T)

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Similarly, it can be shown that the phase of T( jω) be

It can be shown that all (X, Y) pair which corresponds to the same constant phase of T
(i.e., constant N) forms a circle on the complex plane as shown below.

Example
Nyquist plot of L( jω), and M-N circles of T( jω)

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Nichols Chart
The Nyquist plot of L( jω) can also be represented by its polar form using dB as
magnitude and degree as phase.

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And ll L( jω) which corresponds to a constant α( jω) can be draw as a locus of M circle
on this plane as shown below.

Combining the above two graphs of M circles and N circles, we have the Nicholas chart
below.

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TYPES OF COMPENSATION
Series Compensation or Cascade Compensation
This is the most commonly used system where the controller is placed in series with the
controlled process.
Figure shows the series compensation

Feedback compensation or Parallel compensation

This is the system where the controller is placed in the sensor feedback path as shown in
fig.

State Feedback Compensation

This is a system which generates the control signal by feeding back the state variables
through constant real gains. The scheme is termed state feedback. It is shown in Fig.

The compensation schemes shown in Figs above have one degree of freedom, since there
is only one controller in each system. The demerit with one degree of freedom controllers is that
the performance criteria that can be realized are limited.
That is why there are compensation schemes which have two degree freedoms, such as:
(a) Series-feedback compensation
(b) Feed forward compensation

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Series-Feedback Compensation
Series-feedback compensation is the scheme for which a series controller and a feedback
controller are used. Figure 9.6 shows the series-feedback compensation scheme.

Feed forward Compensation

The feed forward controller is placed in series with the closed-loop system which has a
controller in the forward path Orig. 9.71. In Fig. 9.8, Feed forward the is placed in parallel with
the controller in the forward path. The commonly used controllers in the above-mentioned
compensation schemes are now described in the section below.

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Lead Compensator
It has a zero and a pole with zero closer to the origin. The general form of the transfer
function of the load compensator is

Subsisting

Transfer function

Lag Compensator
It has a zero and a pole with the zero situated on the left of the pole on the negative real
axis. The general form of the transfer function of the lag compensator is

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Therefore, the frequency response of the above transfer function will be

Now comparing with

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Therefore

Lag-Lead Compensator
The lag-lead compensator is the combination of a lag compensator and a lead
compensator. The lag-section is provided with one real pole and one real zero, the pole being to
the right of zero, whereas the lead section has one real pole and one real came with the zero
being to the right of the pole.
The transfer function of the lag-lead compensator will be

The figure shows lag lead compensator

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The above transfer functions are comparing with

Then

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Therefore

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