UNIT MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC

3
EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

“The magnetic force is animate, or imitates a soul; in many respects it surpasses

the human soul while it is united to an organic body” – William Gilbert

Learning Objectives

In this unit, the student is exposed to

• Earth’s magnetic field and magnetic elements

• Basic properties of magnets
• Statement of Coulomb inverse square law of magnetism
• Magnetic dipole
• Magnetic field due to a dipole along axial line and equatorial line
• Torque acting on a bar magnet in a uniform magnetic field
• Potential energy of a bar magnet placed in a uniform magnetic field
• Magnetic properties – permeability, susceptibility etc
• Classification of magnetic materials – dia, para and ferro magnetic materials
• Concept of Hysteresis
• Magnetic effects of electric current – long straight conductor and circular coil
• Right hand thumb rule and Maxwell’s right hand cork screw rule
• Biot-Savart’s law – applications
• Tangent law and Tangent Galvanometer
• Current loop as a magnetic dipole
• Magnetic dipole moment of revolving electron
• Ampère’s circuital law – applications
• Solenoid and toroid
• Lorentz force – charged particle moving in an electromagnetic field
• Cyclotron
• Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field
• Force between two long parallel current carrying conductor
• Torque on a current loop in a magnetic field
• Moving Coil Galvanometer

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 3.1 Magnetism exists everywhere from tiny
particles like electrons to the entire universe.
INTRODUCTION TO
Historically the word ‘magnetism’ was
MAGNETISM
derived from iron ore magnetite (Fe3O4).
In olden days, magnets were used as
magnetic compass for navigation, magnetic
therapy for treatment and also used in
magic shows.
In modern days, many things we use in
our daily life contain magnets (Figure 3.2).
Motors, cycle dynamo, loudspeakers,
magnetic tapes used in audio and video
recording, mobile phones, head phones, CD,
pen-drive, hard disc of laptop, refrigerator
door, generator are a few examples.
Figure 3.1: Magnetic levitation Earlier, both electricity and magnetism
were thought to be two independent
Magnets! No doubt, their behaviour will branches in physics. In 1820, H.C. Oersted
attract everyone. The world enjoys their observed the deflection of magnetic compass
benefits, to lead a modern luxurious life. needle kept near a current carrying wire.
The study of magnets fascinated scientists This unified the two different branches,
around our globe for many centuries and electricity and magnetism as a single subject
even now, door for research on magnets is ‘electromagnetism’ in physics.
still open (Figure 3.1). In this unit, basics of magnets and
their properties are given. Later, how a
Many birds and animals current carrying conductor (here only
have magnetic sense in steady current, not time-varying current
their eyes using Earth’s is considered) behaves like a magnet is
magnetic field for navigation. presented.

(a) (b)

Magnetic sensing in eyes - for Zebra (c) (d)

finch bird, due to protein cryptochromes
Figure 3.2 Uses of magnets in modern
Cry4 present in retina; the bird uses world – (a) speakers (b) head phones
Earth's magnetic field for navigation (c) MRI scan (d) Hard disc of laptop

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 3.1.1 Earth’s magnetic field The north pole of magnetic compass
and magnetic elements needle is attracted towards the magnetic
south pole of the Earth which is near the
Magnetic Geographic
South
Pole
North Pole geographic north pole (Figure 3.3). Similarly,
the south pole of magnetic compass needle is
attracted towards the magnetic north-pole of
the Earth which is near the geographic south
pole. The branch of physics which deals
with the Earth’s magnetic field is called
Magnetic
Geomagnetism or Terrestrial magnetism.
Geographic
North
Pole
There are three quantities required to
South Pole
specify the magnetic field of the Earth on its
Figure 3.3 Earth’s magnetic field surface, which are often called as the elements
of the Earth’s magnetic field. They are
From the activities performed in lower
(a) magnetic declination (D)
classes, you might have noticed that the needle
(b) magnetic dip or inclination (I)
in a magnetic compass or freely suspended
(c) 
the horizontal component of the
magnet comes to rest in a position which is
Earth’s magnetic field (BH)
approximately along the geographical north-
south direction of the Earth. Earth magnetic
“True” North pole - the
Earth rotates around
south pole this axis
Earth
William Gilbert in 1600 Magnetic
field lines
proposed that Earth itself N

behaves like a gigantic Axis around which

the Earth rotates
powerful bar magnet. But this S once a day

theory is not successful because the Earth magnetic

temperature inside the Earth is very north pole
Bar magnet “True” South pole
high and so it will not be possible for Geographic
Magnetic Geographic
meridian

a magnet to retain its magnetism. D

Equator meridian

Geographic
Gover suggested that the Earth’s Equator Angle of
declination

magnetic field is due to hot rays coming Magnetic

meridian
out from the Sun. These rays will heat up Magnetic
meridian
Geographic
meridian Magnetic
D = Angle of

the air near equatorial region. Once air declination

meridian

becomes hotter, it rises above and will Figure 3.4 Declination angle
move towards northern and southern
hemispheres and get electrified. This Day and night occur because Earth spins
may be responsible to magnetize the about an axis called geographic axis. A vertical
ferromagnetic materials near the Earth’s plane passing through the geographic axis is
surface. Till date, so many theories called geographic meridian and a great circle
have been proposed. But none of the perpendicular to Earth’s geographic axis is
theorium completely explains the cause called geographic equator.
for the Earth’s magnetism. The straight line which connects magnetic
poles of Earth is known as magnetic axis.
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 A vertical plane passing through magnetic BV
axis is called magnetic meridian and a great tan I = (3.3)
BH
circle perpendicular to Earth’s magnetic axis
is called magnetic equator. (i) At magnetic equator
When a magnetic needle is freely The Earth’s magnetic field is parallel to the
suspended, the alignment of the magnet surface of the Earth (i.e., horizontal) which
does not exactly lie along the geographic implies that the needle of magnetic compass
meridian as shown in Figure 3.4. The angle rests horizontally at an angle of dip, I = 0o.
between magnetic meridian at a point
BH = BE
and geographical meridian is called the
BV = 0
declination or magnetic declination (D). At
higher latitudes, the declination is greater This implies that the horizontal
whereas near the equator, the declination is component is maximum and vertical
smaller. In India, declination angle is very component is zero at the equator.
small and for Chennai, magnetic declination (ii) At magnetic poles
angle is –1o 16ʹ (which is negative (west)). The Earth’s magnetic field is
The angle subtended by the Earth’s perpendicular to the surface of the Earth

total magnetic field B with the horizontal (i.e., vertical) which implies that the needle
direction in the magnetic meridian is of magnetic compass rests vertically at an
called dip or magnetic inclination (I) angle of dip, I = 90o. Hence,
at that point (Figure 3.5). For Chennai, BH = 0
inclination angle is 14o 28ʹ. The component BV = BE
of Earth’s magnetic field along the
This implies that the vertical component
horizontal direction in the magnetic
is maximum at poles and horizontal
meridian is called horizontal component
component is zero at poles.
of Earth’s magnetic field, denoted by BH.
Let BE be the net Earth’s magnetic field E X A M P L E 3.1
at any point on the surface of the Earth. The horizontal component and vertical
BE can be resolved into two perpendicular component of Earth’s magnetic field at a place
components. are 0.15 G and 0.26 G respectively. Calculate
Horizontal component BH = BE cos I(3.1) the angle of dip and resultant magnetic field.
(G-gauss, cgs unit for magnetic field
Vertical component BV = BE sin I (3.2)
1G = 10–4 T)
Dividing equation (3.2) and (3.1), we get Solution:
BH = 0.15 G and BV = 0.26 G
Horizontal
BH tan I =
0.26
⇒ I = tan−1 (1.732) = 60
I 0.15
The resultant magnetic field of the Earth is
B B = BH2 + BV2 = 0.3 G
Figure 3.5 Inclination angle

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 Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis
People living at high latitude regions (near Arctic or Antarctic) might
experience dazzling coloured natural lights across the night sky. This ethereal
display on the sky is known as aurora borealis (northern lights) or aurora
australis (southern lights). These lights are often called as polar lights. The lights are seen above
the magnetic poles of the northern and southern hemispheres. They are called as “Aurora
borealis” in the north and “Aurora australis” in the south. This occurs as a result of interaction
between the gaseous particles in the Earth’s atmosphere with highly charged particles released
from the Sun’s atmosphere through solar
wind. These particles emit light due to
collision and variations in colour are due
to the type of the gas particles that take
part in the collisions. A pale yellowish –
green colour is produced when the ionized
oxygen takes part in the collision and a blue
or purplish – red aurora is produced due to
ionized nitrogen molecules.

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 3.1.2 Basic properties of  1 
B= F (3.5)
magnets qm
Some basic terminologies and properties Its unit is N A–1 m–1.
used in describing bar magnet. (c) Types of magnets
(a) Magnetic dipole moment Magnets are classified into natural
Consider a bar magnet as shown in magnets and artificial magnets. For
Figure 3.6. Let qm be the pole strength of example, iron, cobalt, nickel, etc. are natural
the magnetic pole and let l be the distance magnets. Strengths of natural magnets are
between the geometrical centre of bar very weak and the shapes of the magnet are
magnet O and one end of the pole. The irregular. Artificial magnets are made in
magnetic dipole moment is defined as the order to have desired shape and strength.
product of its pole strength and magnetic If the magnet is in the form of rectangular
length. It is a vector quantity, denoted shape or cylindrical shape, then it is known
 as bar magnet.
by pm .
Properties of magnet
S O N The following are the properties of bar
d
magnet (Figure 3.7),
qm qm 1. A freely suspended bar magnet will always
l l
point along the north-south direction.
2l
2. A magnet attracts or repels another
magnet or magnetic substances towards
Figure 3.6 A bar magnet itself. The attractive or repulsive force
is maximum near the end of the bar
  magnet. When a bar magnet is dipped
pm = qmd (3.4)
into iron filling, they cling to the ends of
 the magnet.
where d is the vector drawn from south
 3. When a magnet is broken into pieces, each
pole to north pole and its magnitude d = 2l . piece behaves like a magnet with poles at
The magnitude of magnetic dipole its ends.
moment is pm = 2 qm l 4. Two poles of a magnet have pole strength
The SI unit of magnetic moment is A m2. equal to one another.
The direction of magnetic moment is from 5. The length of the bar magnet is called
south pole to north pole. geometrical length and the length between
two magnetic poles in a bar magnet is
(b) Magnetic field
called magnetic length. Magnetic length
Magnetic field is the region or space is always slightly smaller than geometrical
around every magnet within which its length. The ratio of magnetic length and
influence will be felt by keeping another 5
 geometrical length is .
magnet in that region. The magnetic field B 6
at a point is defined as a force experienced Magnetic length 5
= = 0.833
by the bar magnet of unit pole strength. Geometrical length 6

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 ON
CTI
D IRE
RLY
THE
NOR

Geometrical length of a
N

bar magnet
S

Magnetic field lines

L

S N
N

N
S

qm qm

2l

Magnetic length of a
bar magnet
N

Cut into two pieces

S N S N S N

=
qm qm qm qm qm qm
2l l l

Figure 3.7 Properties of bar magnet

E X A M P L E 3.2 S
S N qm
Let the magnetic moment of a bar magnet 2
 S
be pm whose magnetic length is d = 2l and qm
qm qm
pole strength is qm. Compute the magnetic 2
2l 2l
moment of the bar magnet when it is cut
Cut into two pieces along the axis
into two pieces
(a) along its length S N
S N qm qm
(b) perpendicular to its length. 2 2
S N
Solution qm qm
qm qm 2 2
(a) a bar magnet cut into two 2lpieces along 2l
its length: Cut into two pieces along the axis

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 When the bar magnet is cut along the axis 12 cm

into two pieces, new magnetic pole strength S N

qm
is qm′ = but magnetic length does not
2
change. So, the magnetic moment is
Solution
pm′ = qm′ 2l Geometrical length of the bar magnet is 12 cm
qm 1 1 5 5
pm 
2
2l  (qm 2l )  pm
2 2 Magnetic length = × ( geometrical length ) = × 12 = 10 cm
6 6
 1 5 5
In vector notation, pm  Magnetic
2
pm length = × ( geometrical
length ) = × 12 = 10 cm
6 6

(b) 
a bar magnet cut into two pieces In this figure, the dot implies the pole
perpendicular to the axis: points.
12 cm
Cut in to two pieces
S N
S N S N S N

qm qm qm 1qm
cm qm 10 cm qm 1 cm
2l l l
eces

N S N S N (i) Pole strength is a scalar

Note quantity with dimension
[M LT A]. Its SI unit is N T–1
o o

qm qm qm qm qm (newton per tesla) or A m (ampere-metre).

l l
(ii) Like positive and negative charges
in electrostatics, north pole of a magnet
When the bar magnet is cut perpendicular experiences a force in the direction of magnetic
to the axis into two pieces, magnetic pole field while south pole of a magnet experiences
strength will not change but magnetic length force opposite to the magnetic field.
will be halved. So the magnetic moment is (iii) Pole strength depends on the nature
of materials of the magnet, area of cross-
1 1 1 section and the state of magnetization.
pm  qm  2l   (qm  2l)  pm
2 2 2 (iv) If a magnet is cut into two equal halves
 1 along the length then pole strength is
In vector notation, pm  pm
2 reduced to half.
(v) If a magnet is cut into two equal halves
perpendicular to the length, then pole
E X A M P L E 3.3 strength remains same.
(vi) If a magnet is cut into two pieces, we
Compute the magnetic length of a uniform
will not get separate north and south poles.
bar magnet if the geometrical length of the
Instead, we get two magnets. In other words,
magnet is 12 cm. Mark the positions of isolated monopole does not exist in nature.
magnetic pole points.
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 Magnetic field lines Special cases

1. Magnetic field lines are continuous closed (a) When B is normal to the surface i.e.,
curves. The direction of magnetic field lines θ = 0o, the magnetic flux is ΦB = BA
is from North pole to South pole outside the (maximum).
magnet and from South pole to North pole 
inside the magnet. (b) When B is parallel to the surface i.e.,
θ = 90o, the magnetic flux is ΦB = 0.
2. The direction of magnetic field at any point
on the curve is known by drawing tangent Suppose the magnetic field is not
to the magnetic field lines at that point. uniform over the surface, the equation (3.6)
3. Magnetic field lines never intersect each can be written as
other. Otherwise, the magnetic compass  
needle would point towards two different ΦB = ∫ B.d A
directions, which is not possible.
Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity. The
4. The degree of closeness of the field lines
SI unit for magnetic flux is weber, which
determines the relative strength of the
is denoted by symbol Wb. Dimensional
magnetic field. The magnetic field is
formula for magnetic flux is ML2 T −2 A −1  .
strong where magnetic field lines crowd
The CGS unit of magnetic flux is maxwell.
and weak where magnetic field lines are
well separated. 1 weber = 108 maxwell
(d) Magnetic flux The magnetic flux density is defined
The number of magnetic field lines as the number of magnetic field lines
crossing any area normally is defined crossing per unit area kept normal to
as magnetic flux ΦB through the area. the direction of lines of force. Its unit is
Mathematically, the magnetic flux through Wb m–2 or tesla (T).

a surface of area A in a uniform magnetic

field B is defined as (e) 
Uniform magnetic field and Non-
  uniform magnetic field
 B  B. A  BA cos  B A (3.6)
Uniform magnetic field
 
where θ is the angle between B and A as Magnetic field is said to be uniform if it
shown in Figure 3.8. has same magnitude and direction at all the

A
B
θ=0º θ
A
A A θ B

B B

Figure 3.8 Magnetic flux Figure 3.9 Uniform magnetic field

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 points in a given region. Example, locally Solution
Earth’s magnetic field is uniform. The total flux emanating from the
The magnetic field of Earth has same closed surface S enclosing the dipole is
value over the entire area of your school! zero. So,
Non-uniform magnetic field  
Magnetic field is said to be non-uniform ∫ B.d A = 0
ΦB = 
if the magnitude or direction or both vary
at different points in a region. Example: Here the integral is taken over closed
magnetic field of a bar magnet surface. Since no isolated magnetic pole
(called magnetic monopole) exists, this
(a) (b) (c) integral is always zero,
 
∫ .d A = 0
B

(d) This is similar to Gauss’s law in

electrostatics.
N

Magnetic field lines

3.2
N

N
S

COULOMB’S INVERSE
SQUARE LAW OF
MAGNETISM
N

Consider two bar magnets A and B as

Figure 3.10 Non-uniform magnetic field
shown in Figure 3.11. When the north pole
(a) direction is constant (b) direction is
not a constant (c) both magnitude and of magnet A and the north pole of magnet
direction are not constant (d) magnetic B or the south pole of magnet A and the
field of a bar magnet south pole of magnet B are brought closer,
they repel each other.
On the other hand, when the north pole
E X A M P L E 3.4
of magnet A and the south pole of magnet
Calculate the magnetic flux coming out B or the south pole of magnet A and the
from closed surface containing magnetic north pole of magnet B are brought closer,
dipole (say, a bar magnet) as shown in their poles attract each other.
figure. This looks similar to Coulomb’s
law for static charges studied in Unit I
S N
(opposite charges attract and like
charges repel each other). So analogous
to Coulomb’s law in electrostatics, we
can state Coulomb’s law for magnetism
(Figure 3.12) as follows:
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 Magnet A Magnet B
absolute permeability of free space (air or
N
vacuum) and H stands for henry.
N N N
Repulsive force
r
Magnet A Magnet B
N S N S

S Repulsive force S S S qmA qmB

Magnet A Magnet B

Figure 3.12 Coulomb’s law – force

Magnet A Attractive force Magnet B
between two magnetic poles
N S N S

Magnet B Attractive force Magnet A

E X A M P L E 3.5
N S N S

Opposite poles (unlike poles) attract each other

The repulsive force between two magnetic
poles in air is 9 × 10–3 N. If the two poles
are equal in strength and are separated
Figure 3.11: Magnetic poles behave like
electric charges – like poles repel and by a distance of 10 cm, calculate the pole
unlike poles attract strength of each pole.

Solution:
The force of attraction or repulsion The magnitude of the force between two
between two magnetic poles is directly poles is given by
proportional to the product of their pole
strengths and inversely proportional to qm A qm B
F =k
the square of the distance between them. r2

Mathematically, we can write Given : F = 9 × 10–3 N, r = 10 cm = 10 × 10–2 m

 q m qm Since qm = qm = qm, we have
F ∝ A2 B 
r A B
r
−3 −7 qm2
where qm and qm are pole strengths of 9 × 10 = 10 × ⇒ qm = 30 N T −1
(10 × 10 )
2
A B −2
two poles and r is the distance between two
magnetic poles.

 q m qm 3.2.1 Magnetic field at a point

F = k A2 B r (3.7)
r along the axial line of the
qm qm magnetic dipole (bar magnet)
In magnitude, F = k A 2 B (3.8)
r Consider a bar magnet NS as shown in
where k is a proportionality constant Figure 3.13. Let N be the north pole and S
whose value depends on the surrounding be the south pole of the bar magnet, each
medium. In SI unit, the value of k for free of pole strength qm and are separated by
µ a distance of 2l. The magnetic field at a
space is k = ≈ 10 −7 H m −1 , where μo is the
4π point C (lies along the axis of the magnet)
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 y axis
O is the geometrical center of bar magnet qmC = 1 Am

S O N BS
jˆ
C BN iˆ x axis
qmC –iˆ
–jˆ
l l r–l

2l
r+l

Figure 3.13 Magnetic field at a point along the axial line due to magnetic dipole

at a distance r from the geometrical centre  µ qm  µ qm  

B=  
i +−  i 
O of the bar magnet can be computed 4 π (r − l )2
 4 π (r + l )2 

by keeping unit north pole (qm = 1 Am)
C  µ q  1 1 

at C. B =  m  − i
4 π (r − l )2 (r + l )2 
The magnetic field at C due to the north
pole is  
 µ  2r  qm ⋅ (2l ) 
B=  
i (3.11)
4 π (r 2 − l 2 )2 
  
µ qm 
BN =  i (3.9)
4 π (r − l )2 Since the magnitude of magnetic dipole

moment is pm  pm  qm 2l , the magnetic
where (r – l) is the distance between north field at a point C can be written as
pole of the bar magnet and unit north pole
 
at C.  µ   2rpm 
Baxial =  i (3.12)
The magnetic field at C due to the south 4 π (r 2 − l 2 )2 
 
pole is
If the distance between two poles in a bar
 µ qm  magnet is small (looks like short magnet)
BS = −  i (3.10) when compared to the distance between
4 π (r + l )2
geometrical centre O of bar magnet and the
location of point C (r >>l),
where (r + l) is the distance between south
pole of the bar magnet and unit north pole (r 2 − l 2 )2 ≈ r 4  (3.13)
at C. Therefore, using equation (3.13) in
The net magnetic field due to the equation (3.12), we get
magnetic dipole at point C
 µ 2 p  µ 2 
   Baxial =   3m 
i =  3 pm (3.14)

4π  r  4π r
B = BN + BS

where pm = pmi .
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 3.2.2. Magnetic field at a The magnetic field at C due to the south
point along the equatorial line pole is
due to a magnetic dipole (bar

magnet) BN

Consider a bar magnet NS as shown in BN sinθ(j)

Figure 3.14. Let N be the north pole and S

be the south pole of the bar magnet, each BN cosθ(-i) 
with pole strength qm and separated by
BS cosθ(-i) 
a distance of 2l. The magnetic field at a
point C (lies along the equatorial line) at
a distance r from the geometrical centre BS sinθ(-j)

BS
O of the bar magnet can be computed
by keeping unit north pole (qmC = 1 A m)
at C.
Figure 3.15 Components of magnetic field

BN

BS = −BS cos θ
i −BS sin θ j (3.16)
 C qm = 1 Am
C
B
qmC µ  qm
where, BS =
BS
4 π r ′2
y axis
r' = (r 2 + l 2)½ From equations (3.15) and (3.16), the net
r
magnetic field at point C due to the dipole is
jˆ   
ˆi
x axis B = BN + BS .
–iˆ
  –jˆ 
S O N
B = −(BN + BS )cosθ 
i Since, BN = BS
l l
 2µ q 2µ q
B = −  m2 cos θ 
i = −  2 m 2 cos θ 
i
4π r ′ 4 π (r + l )
(3.17)
Figure 3.14 Magnetic field at a point
along the equatorial line due to a In a right angle triangle NOC as shown
magnetic dipole in Figure 3.14
adjacent l l
The magnetic field at C due to the north cos   
hypotenuse r 1

pole is  r 2  l2  2

(3.18)
 Substituting equation (3.18) in equation
BN = −BN cos θ
i + BN sin θ 
j (3.15)
(3.17), we get
µ  qm
where BN =
4 π r ′2  µ q ×(2l ) 
1 B =−  m i (3.19)
Here r’ = (r 2 + l 2 ) 2 4 π 2 2 23
(r + l )

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 Since, magnitude of magnetic dipole (a) When the point lies on the axial line

moment is pm  pm  qm 2l and substituting of the bar magnet, the magnetic field for
in equation (3.19), the magnetic field at a short magnet is given by
point C is  µ 2 p 
Baxial =   3m  
i
 µ pm 4 π  r 
Bequatorial = −  i (3.20)
3
4π   2×0.5 
(r 2 + l ) i = 1×10−4 

2 2
Baxial = 10−7 × i T
 (0.1)3 
If the distance between two poles in a bar Hence, the magnitude of the magnetic field
magnet is small (looks like short magnet) along axial is Baxial = 1 × 10–4 T and direction
when compared to the distance between is towards South to North.
geometrical centre O of bar magnet and the (b) When the point lies on the normal
location of point C (r >>l ), bisector (equatorial) line of the bar magnet,
3
the magnetic field for short magnet is given by
(r + l ) ≈ r 3 (3.21)
2 2 2

 µ p
Bequatorial = −  m3 
i
Therefore, using equation (3.21) in 4π r
equation (3.20), we get   0.5 
Bequatorial = −10−7  i = −0.5×10−4 i T
 µ p  (0.1)3 
Bequatorial = −  m3 i
4π r Hence, the magnitude of the magnetic field
 along axial is Bequatorial = 0.5 × 10–4 T and
Since pmi = pm , the magnetic field at
equatorial point is given by direction is towards North to South.


 Note that magnitude of Baxial is twice that of
 pm
Bequatorial   (3.22) magnitude of Bequatorial and the direction of
4 r 3
Baxial and Bequatorial are opposite.
Note that magnitude of Baxial is twice that
of magnitude of Bequatorial and the direction of
Baxial and Bequatorial are opposite. 3.3
TORQUE ACTING ON A
E X A M P L E 3.6 BAR MAGNET IN UNIFORM
MAGNETIC FIELD
A short bar magnet has a magnetic
moment of 0.5 J T –1. Calculate magnitude Consider a magnet of length 2l and pole
and direction of the magnetic field strength qm kept in a uniform magnetic

produced by the bar magnet which is kept field B as shown in Figure 3.16. Each pole
at a distance of 0.1 m from the centre of experiences a force of magnitude qmB but
the bar magnet along (a) axial line of the acting in opposite directions. Therefore, the
bar magnet and (b) normal bisector of the net force exerted on the magnet is zero and
bar magnet. hence, there is no translatory motion. These
two equal and opposite forces constitute a
Solution couple (about midpoint of bar magnet) tend
Given magnetic moment = 0.5 J T –1 and to align the magnet in the direction of the

distance r = 0.1 m magnetic field B .
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 The force experienced by north pole,
(a) Why a freely suspended
 
FN = qm B (3.23) bar magnet in your
laboratory experiences only
The force experienced by south pole, torque (rotational motion) but not any
  translatory motion even though Earth
FS  qm B (3.24)
has non-uniform magnetic field?
Adding equations (3.23) and (3.24), we It is because Earth’s magnetic field is
get the net force acting on the dipole as locally(physics laboratory)uniform.
    (b) Suppose we keep a freely suspended
F  FN  FS  0
bar magnet in a non-uniform
magnetic field. What will happen?
τ about O points inwards ⊗
It will undergo translatory motion
F = qmB
(net force) and rotational motion
N
(torque).
2l
N S
pm O 2l sinθ

S θ
3.3.1. Potential energy of
F = -qmB
a bar magnet in a uniform
magnetic field
Figure 3.16 Magnetic dipole kept in a
B
uniform magnetic field

The moment of force or torque N

experienced by north and south pole about
2l
point O is pm 2l sin
    
τ = ON × FN + OS × FS S 
    
τ = ON ×qm B + OS ×(−qm B )

By using right hand cork screw rule, we

conclude that the total torque is pointing into Figure 3.17: A bar magnet (magnetic
  dipole)
 ina uniform magnetic field
the paper. Since the magnitudes ON  OS  l and qm B  qm B
   
ON  OS  l and qm B  qm B , the magnitude of total When a bar magnet (magnetic dipole) of

torque about point O dipole moment pm is held at an angle θ with

the direction of a uniform magnetic field B ,
  l  qm B sin  l  qm B sin as shown in Figure 3.17 the magnitude of
the torque acting on the dipole is
  2l  qm B sin
  
 B  pm B sin
  pm B sin   qm  2l  pm 
   If the dipole is rotated through a very
In vector notation,   pm  B (3.25)
small angular displacement dθ against the
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 torque τ B at constant angular velocity, then From the above two results, We

the work done by external torque  ext  for infer that the potential energy of the
this small angular displacement is given by bar magnet is minimum when it is
 aligned along the external magnetic field
dW   ext d and maximum when the bar magnet is
The bar magnet has to be moved at aligned anti-parallel to external magnetic
constant angular velocity, which implies field.
 
that  B   ext

dW  pm B sin d E X A M P L E 3.7
Consider a magnetic dipole which
Total work done in rotating the dipole
on switching ON external magnetic
from θʹ to θ is
field orient only in two possible ways
θ θ
θ i.e., one along the direction of the
W = ∫ τdθ =∫ pm B sin θ dθ = pm B − cos θ  θ′
θ′ θ′
magnetic field (parallel to the field) and
another anti-parallel to magnetic field.
W   pm B(cos  cos )
Compute the energy for the possible
This work done is stored as potential orientation.
energy in bar magnet at an angle θ (when
Solution
it is rotated from θʹ to θ) and it can be 
written as Let pm be the dipole and before switching
ON the external magnetic field, there
U   pm B(cos  cos ) (3.26) is no orientation. Therefore, the energy
In fact, the equation (3.26) gives the U = 0.
difference in potential energy between the As soon as external magnetic field is
angular positions θʹ and θ. If we choose the switched ON, the magnetic dipole orient
reference point as θʹ = 90o, so that second parallel (θ = 0o) to the magnetic field with
term in the equation becomes zero, the energy,
equation (3.26) can be written as
U parallel = U min imum = − pm B cos0
U = − pm B (cos θ) (3.27)
U parallel = − pm B
The potential energy stored in a bar magnet
 since cos 0o = 1
in a uniform magnetic field is given by
  Otherwise, the magnetic dipole orients
U = − pm i B (3.28)
anti-parallel (θ = 180o) to the magnetic
field with energy,
Case 1
(i) If θ = 0o, then U anti−parallel = U max imum = − pm B cos180 ⇒ U anti−parallel = pm B
U = − pm B (cos 0 ) = − pm B

U anti−parallel = U max imum = − pm B cos180 ⇒ U anti−parallel = pm B
(ii) If θ = 180o, then
 since cos 180o = -1
U = − pm B (cos180 ) = pm B

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 3.4 (c) Intensity of magnetisation
Any bulk material (any object of finite
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES size) contains a large number of atoms. Each
atom consists of electrons which undergo
orbital motion. Due to orbital motion,
All materials are not magnetic in electron has magnetic moment which is a
nature. Further, all the magnetic materials vector quantity. In general, these magnetic
will not behave identically. So, in order to moments orient randomly, therefore, the net
differentiate one magnetic material from magnetic moment is zero per unit volume of
another, some basic parameters are used. the material.
They are:
When such a material is kept in an
(a) Magnetising field external magnetic field, atomic dipoles are
The magnetic field which is used to induced and hence, they will try to align
magnetize a sample or specimen is called partially or fully along the direction of
the magnetising field. Magnetising field is external field. The net magnetic moment

a vector quantity and is denoted by H and per unit volume of the material is known
its unit is A m–1. as intensity of magnetisation. It is a vector
quantity. Mathematically,
(b) Magnetic permeability
The magnetic permeability is the  Magneticmoment p

measure of ability of the material to M= = m (3.30)
Volume V
allow the passage of magnetic field lines
through it or measure of the capacity of The SI unit of intensity of magnetisation
the substance to take magnetisation or is ampere metre–1. For a bar magnet of
the degree of penetration of magnetic pole strength qm, length 2l and area of
field through the substance. cross-section A, the magnetic moment of
In free space, the permeability (or  
the bar magnet is pm = q m 2l and volume
absolute permeability) is denoted by µ0 
and for any other medium it is denoted by of the bar magnet is= 2l 2l A. The
V A=
µ.The relative permeability µr is defined as intensity of magnetisation for a bar
the ratio between absolute permeability magnet is
of the medium to the permeability of free
space. 


 Magnetic moment qm 2l
M= = (3.31)
 Volume 2l A
r  (3.29)

In magnitude, equation (3.31) is
Relative permeability is a dimensionless
number and has no units. For free space 
 q × 2l q
M =M= m ⇒M= m
(air or vacuum), the relative permeability is 2l × A A
unity i.e., µr = 1.

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 This means, for a bar magnet the Table 3.1 Magnetic susceptibility for
intensity of magnetisation can be defined various materials
as the pole strength per unit area (face
area). Material Magnetic susceptibility (χm)

(d) Magnetic induction or total magnetic Aluminium 2.3 × 10–5

field Copper −0.98 × 10 −5
When a substance like soft iron bar
Diamond −2.2 × 10 −5
is placed in a uniform magnetising field

H, the substance gets magnetised. The Gold −3.6 × 10 −5
magnetic induction (total magnetic
 Mercury −3.2 × 10 −5
field) inside the specimen B is equal to

the sum of the magnetic field Bo produced Silver −2.6 × 10 −5
in vacuum due to the magnetising field Titanium
 7.06 × 10 −5
and the magnetic field Bm due to the
induced magnetism of the substance. Tungsten 6.8 × 10 −5
Carbon dioxide
     −2.3 × 10 −9
B = Bo + Bm = m H + m M (1 atm)
     Oxygen (1 atm)
⇒ B = Bo + Bm = µ  (H + M ) (3.32) 2090 × 10 −9

E X A M P L E 3.8
(e) Magnetic susceptibility
When a substance is kept in Compute the intensity of magnetisation
 of the bar magnet whose mass, magnetic
a magnetising field H, magnetic
susceptibility gives information about moment and density are 200 g, 2 A m2 and
how a material responds to the external 8 g cm–3, respectively.
(applied) magnetic field. In other words, Solution
the magnetic susceptibility measures how Density of the magnet is
easily and how strongly a material can
Mass Mass
be magnetised. It is defined as the Density   Volume 
Volume Density
ratio of the intensity of magnetisation

( M ) induced in the
material to the Volume =
200 × 10 −3 kg
= 25 × 10 −6 m 3
magnetising field ( H ) (8 × 10 −3
)
kg × 10 m 6 −3

−3
200 × 10 kg
Volume = = 25 × 10 −6 m 3

M
−3 6
8 × 10 kg × 10 m(−3
)
 m   (3.33) Magnitude of magnetic moment pm = 2 A m2
H
Intensity of magnetization,
It is a dimensionless quantity. Magnetic Magnetic moment 2
M= =
susceptibility for some of the isotropic Volume 25 × 10 −6
substances is given in Table 3.1. M = 0.8 × 105 A m −1

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 E X A M P L E 3.9 3.5
   CLASSIFICATION OF
Using the relation B   (H  M ), show
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
that  m  r 1.

Solution The magnetic materials are generally

   classified into three types based on their
B   (H  M ),
behaviour in a magnetising field. They
But from equation (3.36), in vector form, are diamagnetic, paramagnetic and
  ferromagnetic materials.
M  m H
    (a) Diamagnetic materials
Hence, B   (  m  1)H  B   H
The orbital motion of electrons around
 the nucleus produces a magnetic field
where,    (  m  1)   m  1   r
 perpendicular to the plane of the orbit.
  m  r  1
Thus each electron orbit has finite orbital
magnetic dipole moment. Since the orbital
planes of the other electrons are oriented in
E X A M P L E 3.10 random manner, the vector sum of magnetic
moments is zero and there is no resultant
Two materials X and Y are magnetised magnetic moment for each atom.
whose values of intensity of magnetisation In the presence of a uniform external
are 500 A m–1 and 2000 A m–1 respectively. magnetic field, some electrons are speeded
If the magnetising field is 1000 A m–1, then up and some are slowed down. The electrons
which one among these materials can be whose moments were anti-parallel are
easily magnetized?. speeded up according to Lenz’s law and this
produces an induced magnetic moment in a
Solution direction opposite to the field. The induced
The susceptibility of material X is moment disappears as soon as the external
 field is removed.
M 500 When placed in a non-uniform magnetic
 m,X     0. 5
H 1000 field, the interaction between induced
magnetic moment and the external field
The susceptibility of material Y is creates a force which tends to move the
 material from stronger part to weaker part of
M 2000 the external field. It means that diamagnetic
 m,Y    2
H 1000 material is repelled by the field.
This action is called diamagnetic action
Since, susceptibility of material Y is greater and such materials are known as diamagnetic
than that of material X, which implies that materials. Examples: Bismuth, Copper and
material Y can be easily magnetized. Water etc.

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 The properties of diamagnetic materials
are Magnetic levitated train
i) Magnetic susceptibility is negative. Magnetic levitated train
ii) Relative permeability is slightly less than is also called Maglev train.
unity. This train floats few centimetres above
iii) The magnetic field lines are repelled or the guideway because of electromagnet
expelled by diamagnetic materials when used. Maglev train does not need wheels
placed in a magnetic field. and also achieve greater speed. The basic
iv) Susceptibility is nearly temperature mechanism of working of Maglev train
independent. involves two sets of magnets. One set is
used to repel which makes train to float
Superconductors are perfect above the track and another set is used to
Note diamagnetic materials. move the floating train ahead at very great
The expulsion of magnetic speed. These trains are quieter, smoother
flux from a superconductor during its and environmental friendly compared
transition to the superconducting state is conventional trains and have potential
known as Meissner effect. (see figure 3.18) for moving with much higher speeds with
technology in future.
B B

T > Tc T < Tc

In the presence of an external

Figure 3.18 Meissner effect –
magnetic field, the torque acting on the
superconductors behave like perfect
diamagnetic materials below atomic dipoles will align them in the field
transition temperature TC. direction. As a result, there is net magnetic
dipole moment induced in the direction
of the applied field. The induced dipole
moment is present as long as the external
(b) Paramagnetic materials field exists.
In some magnetic materials, each atom or When placed in a non-uniform
molecule has net magnetic dipole moment magnetic field, the paramagnetic
which is the vector sum of orbital and spin materials will have a tendency to move
magnetic moments of electrons. Due to from weaker to stronger part of the field.
the random orientation of these magnetic Materials which exhibit weak magnetism
moments, the net magnetic moment of the in the direction of the applied field
materials is zero. are known as paramagnetic materials.
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 Examples: Aluminium, Platinum, (c) Ferromagnetic materials
Chromium and Oxygen etc. An atom or a molecule in a ferromagnetic
The properties of paramagnetic materials material possesses net magnetic dipole
are: moment as in a paramagnetic material.
i) Magnetic susceptibility is positive and A ferromagnetic material is made up of
small. smaller regions, called ferromagnetic
ii) 
Relative permeability is greater than domains (Figure 3.20). Within each
unity. domain, the magnetic moments are
iii) 
The magnetic field lines are attracted spontaneously aligned in a direction. This
into the paramagnetic materials when alignment is caused by strong interaction
placed in a magnetic field. arising from electron spin which depends
iv) 
Susceptibility is inversely proportional on the inter-atomic distance. Each domain
to temperature. has net magnetisation in a direction.
However the direction of magnetisation
Curie’s law
varies from domain to domain and
When temperature is increased, thermal
thus net magnetisation of the specimen is
vibration will upset the alignment of
zero.
magnetic dipole moments. Therefore, the
magnetic susceptibility decreases with
increase in temperature. In many cases, the
susceptibility of the materials is

1 C H
m  or χm =
T T (a) Domains randomly (b) Domains aligned with
aligned external field

This relation is called Curie’s law. Here Figure 3.20 Magnetic domains –
C is called Curie constant and temperature ferromagnetic materials
T is in kelvin. The graph drawn between
magnetic susceptibility and temperature
In the presence of external magnetic
is shown in Figure 3.19, which is a
field, two processes take place
rectangular hyperbola.
(1) The domains having magnetic moments
χm parallel to the field grow bigger in size
(2) The other domains (not parallel to field)
are rotated so that they are aligned with
O T the field.
C
χm =
T As a result of these mechanisms,
there is a strong net magnetisation of the
Figure 3.19 Curie’s law – susceptibility vs
material in the direction of the applied field
temperature
(Figure 3.21).

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 When placed in a non-uniform
Unmagnetized
Iron in the magnetic field, the ferromagnetic materials
absence of a
magnetic field. will have a strong tendency to move
from weaker to stronger part of the field.
Materials which exhibit strong magnetism
Magnetized
Iron in the in the direction of applied field are called
presence of a
magnetic field. ferromagnetic materials. Examples: Iron,
Nickel and Cobalt.
H
The properties of ferromagnetic
Figure 3.21 Processes of domain
materials are:
magnetization

Magnetism plays interesting

role in various aspects of life. It has
connection with archeological place Keezhadi too.
To find whether any archeological structure exists
under the surface of a given place, well established
technique called ‘magnetometer surveying’ is used. Figure 2
In this technique, the variation of
the magnetic field in comparison with
the neighbouring place is studied. The
magnetic field variation is due to the
presence of magnetic mineral magnetite
and its related minerals present in the
archeological structures like buried wall,
pottery, bricks, buried tombs, monuments
and inhabited sites. Those minerals are
either diamagnetic or paramagnetic or
ferromagnetic in nature and each type has
Figure 1
different range of magnetic susceptibilities.
Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (IIG), Mumbai conducted magnetometer survey on
Keezhadi site and found out that there were archeological structures like wall, pottery etc.
From the picture (Figure 1), there was magnetic field variation in the range of 10 to 100nT
over the particular area (coloured portion). In fact, the existence of massive brick structures at
Keezhadi has been revealed through magnetism (Figure 2).

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 i) Magnetic susceptibility is positive and
large. Spin
Like mass and charge for
ii) Relative permeability is large. particles, spin is also another
iii) 
The magnetic field lines are strongly important attribute for an elementary
attracted into the ferromagnetic particle. Spin is a quantum mechanical
materials when placed in a magnetic phenomenon which is responsible for
field. magnetic properties of the material.
Spin in quantum mechanics is entirely
iv) 
Susceptibility is inversely proportional
different from spin we encounter in
to temperature.
classical mechanics. Spin in quantum
mechanics does not mean rotation; it
Curie-Weiss law is intrinsic angular momentum which
As temperature increases, the does not have classical analogue. For
ferromagnetism decreases due to the historical reason, the name spin is
increased thermal agitation of the atomic retained. Spin of a particle takes only
dipoles. At a particular temperature, positive values but the orientation of the
ferromagnetic material becomes spin vector takes plus or minus values
paramagnetic. This temperature is known in an external magnetic field. For an
as Curie temperature TC . The susceptibility 1
example, electron has spin s = . In the
of the material above the Curie temperature 2
is given by presence of magnetic field, the spin will
orient either parallel or anti-parallel to
C the direction of magnetic field.
m 
T  TC
mS mS
This relation is called Curie-Weiss law.
B B
The constant C is called Curie constant and
temperature T is in kelvin scale. A plot of
magnetic susceptibility with temperature is
Spin is parallel to the Spin is anti-parallel to the
as shown in Figure 3.22. magnetic field direction magnetic field direction
(Spin up) (Spin down)

χ
This implies that the magnetic spin
ms takes two values for an electron, such
1 1
O Tc T
as ms = (spin up) and ms = − (spin
2 2
C
χm (T >Tc) =
T–Tc
down). Spin for proton and neutron is
1
s= . For photon, spin s = 1.
Figure 3.22 Curie-Weiss law – 2
susceptibility vs temperature

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 Comparison of Types of Magnetism (NOT FOR EXAMINATION)
Type of Magnetising field is Magnetising field is Magnetisation of Relative
Susceptibility
magnetism absent (H = 0) present ( H ≠ 0 ) the material permeability

Diamagnetism M Negative Less than

unity

(Zero magnetic O H
moment) (Aligned opposite to
the field)
Paramagnetism M Positive and Greater than
small unity

(Net magnetic moment O H

but random alignment) (Aligned with the field)

Ferromagnetism M Positive and Very large

large

(Net magnetic moment O H

in a domain but they are (Aligned with the
randomly aligned) field)

3.6 B Flux density

Saturation
Retentivity C
HYSTERESIS D

Coercivity
When a ferromagnetic material is kept Magnetising field
in opposits direction K H
in a magnetising field, the material gets –H E A Magnetising field
magnetised by induction. An important
characteristic of ferromagnetic material is
G
that the variation of magnetic induction AD-AG: residual magnetism
  AE-AK: coercivity
B with magnetising field H is not linear. F
B Saturation Flux density
It means that the ratio = µ is not a in opposits direction –B in opposits direction
H
constant. Let us study this behaviour in Figure 3.23 Hysteresis – plot for B vs H
detail.
A ferromagnetic material (example, response of the material is depicted by
Iron) is magnetised slowly by a magnetising the path AC as shown in Figure 3.23.
 
field H . The magnetic induction B of the Saturation magnetization is defined as
material increases from point A with the maximum point up to which the
the magnitude of the magnetising field material can be magnetised by applying
and then attains a saturation level. This the magnetising field.
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 If the magnetising field is now reduced, Hysteresis loss
the magnetic induction also decreases During the magnetisation of the
but does not retrace the original path specimen through a cycle, there is loss of
CA. It takes different path CD. When the energy in the form of heat. This loss is
magnetising field is zero, the magnetic attributed to the rotation and orientation
induction is not zero and it has positive of molecular magnets in various
value. This implies that some magnetism directions. It is found that the energy lost
is left in the specimen even when (or dissipated) per unit volume of the
H = 0. The residual magnetism AD present material when it is carried through one
in the specimen is called remanence or cycle of magnetisation is equal to the area
retentivity. Remanence is defined as of the hysteresis loop.
the ability of the materials to retain
the magnetism in them even after the Hard and soft magnetic materials
magnetising field disappears. Based on the shape and size of
In order to demagnetise the material, the hysteresis loop, ferromagnetic
the magnetising field is gradually materials are classified as soft magnetic
increased in the reverse direction. Now the materials with smaller area and hard
magnetic induction decreases along DE magnetic materials with larger area.
and becomes zero at E. The magnetising The comparison of the hysteresis loops
field AE in the reverse direction is required for two magnetic materials is shown in
to bring residual magnetism to zero. The Figure 3.24. Properties of soft and hard
magnitude of the reverse magnetising magnetic materials are compared in
field for which the residual magnetism Table 3.2.
of the material vanishes is called its
coercivity. B Silicon steel (soft)

Further increase of H in the reverse
direction causes the magnetic induction Carbon steel (hard)
to increase along EF until it reaches
saturation at F in the reverse direction. If
magnetising field is decreased and then –H H
increased with direction reversed, the
magnetic induction traces the path FGKC.
This closed curve ACDEFGKC is called
hysteresis loop and it corresponds to one
cycle of magnetisation.
In the entire cycle, the magnetic
induction B lags behind the magnetising –B

field H. This phenomenon of lagging

of magnetic induction behind the Figure 3.24 Comparison of two
ferromagnetic materials based on
magnetising field is called hysteresis.
hysteresis loop
Hysteresis means ‘lagging behind’.

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 Table 3.2 Differences between soft and hard ferromagnetic materials
S.No. Properties Soft ferromagnetic Hard ferromagnetic
materials materials
1 When external field is Magnetisation disappears Magnetisation persists
removed
2 Area of the loop Small Large
3 Retentivity Low High
4 Coercivity Low High
5 Susceptibility and High Low
magnetic permeability
6 Hysteresis loss Less More
7 Uses Solenoid core, transformer Permanent magnets
core and electromagnets
8 Examples Soft iron, Mumetal, Carbon steel, Alnico,
Stalloy etc. Lodestone etc.

Applications of hysteresis loop iii) Core of the transformer:

The significance of hysteresis loop is that The materials with high initial
it provides information such as retentivity, permeability, large magnetic induction and
coercivity, permeability, susceptibility and thin hysteresis loop with smaller area are
energy loss during one cycle of magnetisation needed to design transformer cores.
for each ferromagnetic material. Therefore, Examples: Soft iron
the study of hysteresis loop will help us in
selecting proper and suitable material for a E X A M P L E 3.11
given purpose. Some examples:
The following figure shows the variation of
i) Permanent magnets:
intensity of magnetisation with the applied
The materials with high retentivity, high magnetic field intensity for three magnetic
coercivity and low permeability are suitable materials X, Y and Z. Identify the materials
for making permanent magnets. X,Y and Z.
Examples: Carbon steel and Alnico
M Z
X
ii) Electromagnets:
The materials with high initial
permeability, low retentivity, low coercivity Y

and thin hysteresis loop with smaller area

are preferred to make electromagnets.
Examples: Soft iron and Mumetal (Nickel O H
Iron alloy).
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 Solution (a) compass shows no deflection when no
current flows through the wire
The slope of M-H graph is a measure of the
magnetic susceptibility, which is given by

M
χm =
H

Material X: Slope is positive and larger

value. So, it is a ferromagnetic material.

Material Y: Slope is positive and lesser (b) deflection shown by compass needle
value than X. So, it could be a paramagnetic due to current flowing through
the wire.
material.

Material Z: Slope is negative and hence, it

is a diamagnetic material.

3.7
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF Figure 3.25 Oersted’s experiment -
CURRENT current carrying wire and deflection of
magnetic needle

3.7.1 Oersted experiment 3.7.2 Magnetic field around

a straight current-carrying
In 1820 Hans Christian Oersted, conductor and circular loop
while preparing for his lecture in physics,
noticed that electric current passing (a) Current carrying straight conductor:
through a wire deflects the nearby Suppose we keep a magnetic compass
magnetic needle in the compass. By near a current-carrying straight conductor,
proper investigation, he observed that then the needle of the magnetic compass
the deflection of magnetic needle is due experiences a torque and deflects to align
to the change in magnetic field produced in the direction of the magnetic field
around current carrying conductor at that point. Tracing out the direction
(Figure 3.25). When the direction of shown by magnetic needle , we can draw
current is reversed, the magnetic needle is the magnetic field lines at a distance.
deflected in the opposite direction. This For a straight current-carrying conductor,
lead to the development of the theory the nature of magnetic field is like concentric
‘electromagnetism’ which unifies two circles having their common centre on the
branches in physics namely, electricity axis of the conductor as shown in Figure
and magnetism. 3.26 (a).
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 The strength of the magnetic field is
increased if either the current in the coil or
the number of turns or both are increased.
The polarity (north pole or south pole)
depends on the direction of current in the
loop.

(a) the photograph of magnetic field lines curling around the

conductor carrying current

(b) the variation of

strength of magnetic
field and distance r are
shown

Figure 3.26 Magnetic field lines around

straight, long wire carrying current
Circular coil
carrying current

The direction of circular magnetic field

lines will be clockwise or anticlockwise
depending on the direction of current in the
A
conductor. If the strength (or magnitude) B

of the current is increased then the density

of the magnetic field will also increase. The
strength of the magnetic field (B) decreases as Magnetic lines
the distance (r) from the conductor increases of force

(Figure 3.26 (b)). (•)

(b) Circular coil carrying current

Suppose we keep a magnetic compass Figure 3.27 The magnetic field lines
near a current carrying circular conductor, curling around the circular coil carrying
then the needle of the magnetic compass current.
experiences a torque and deflects to align
in the direction of the magnetic field at that
point. We can notice that at the points A and
B in the vicinity of the coil, the magnetic field 3.7.3 Right hand thumb rule
lines are circular. The magnetic field lines are
The right hand rule is used to find
nearly parallel to each other near the centre
the direction of magnetic field when the
of the loop, indicating that the field present
direction of current in a conductor is
near the centre of the coil is almost uniform
known.
(Figure 3.27).

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 Assume that we hold the current
carrying conductor in our right hand such I

that the thumb points in the direction of

current flow, then the fingers encircling
the conductor point in the direction of the
magnetic field lines produced.
The Figure 3.28 shows the right hand B

rule for current carrying straight conductor

and circular coil.

Figure 3.29 Maxwell’s right hand cork

I screw rule
I

E X A M P L E 3.12
Current in wire
B

Resulting B field

The magnetic field shown in the figure is

due to the current
B carrying wire. In which
direction does the current flow in the wire?.
I
B B

I
B I

B
B

I
I

B-field points out of the page

Figure 3.28 Right hand rule – straight B-field points into the page
conductor and circular loop
Solution
3.7.4 Maxwell’s right hand
cork screw rule
I
This rule can also be used to find the
direction of the magnetic field around the
current-carrying conductor. If we rotate a
B
right-handed screw using a screw driver,
then the direction of current is same as
the direction in which screw advances
and the direction of rotation of the screw
gives the direction of the magnetic field. Using right hand rule, current flows
(Figure 3.29) upwards.

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 3.8 (iv) inversely as the square of the distance r
between

the point P and length element
BIOT - SAVART LAW dl .
This is expressed as
Soon after Oersted’s discovery, both
Idl
Jean-Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart in dB ∝ sinθ
r2
1819 did quantitative experiments on the
force experienced by a magnet kept near I dl
dB = k sinθ
current carrying wire and arrived at a r2
mathematical expression that gives the µ
where k = in SI units.
magnetic field at some point in space in 4π
terms of the current that produces the In vector notation,
magnetic field. This is true for any shape

of the conductor.  µ  I dl ×r
dB = 2
(3.34)
4π r
3.8.1 Definition and 
explanation of Biot- Savart law Here vector dB is perpendicular to both

Idl (pointing the direction of current flow)
and the unit vector  r directed from dl
V
toward point P (Figure 3.31).
–
+ dB
r +
dl  P
I r̂ dB

r Idℓ
Idℓ
Figure 3.30 Magnetic field at a point P ^r
due to current carrying conductor

Biot and Savart experimentally observed Figure 3.31 The direction of magnetic

that the magnitude of magnetic field dB at a field using right hand rule
point P (Figure 3.30) at a distance r from the
small elemental length taken on a conductor The equation (3.34) is used to compute
carrying current varies the magnetic field only due to a small
elemental length dl of the conductor.
(i) directly as the strength of the current I
The net magnetic field at P due to the
(ii) directly as the magnitude of the length conductor is obtained from principle
element dl of superposition by considering the
contribution

from all current elements
directly as the sine of the angle θ
(iii)  I dl . Hence integrating equation (3.34),

between dl and r . we get

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  Differences between electric field (from
  µ I dl ×r
B = ∫ dB = Coulomb’s law) and magnetic field (from
4π ∫ r 2
(3.35)
Biot-Savart’s law)
where the integral is taken over the entire S. No. Electric field Magnetic field
current distribution.
1 Produced Produced by a
Cases by a scalar vector source i.e.,
source i.e., current element
1. If the point P lies on the conductor, then 
 an electric I dl
θ = 0o. Therefore, | dB | is zero. charge q
2. 
If the point lies perpendicular to the 2 It is directed It is directed

conductor, then θ = 90o. Therefore, dB is along the perpendicular to

position the position vector
µ o I dl 
maximum and is given by dB = 
n vector r and the current
4π r 2 
joining the element Idl
where n is the unit vector perpendicular source and

to both I dl and 
r the point
at which
the field is
Electric current is not a calculated
Note vector quantity. It is a scalar
3 Does not Depends on the
quantity. But electric current
depend on angle between the
in a conductor has direction of flow. 
Therefore, the electric current flowing angle position vector r
in a small elemental conductor can be and the current

taken as vector quantity i.e. I element Idl

The exponent of charge

Similarities between electric field (from Note q (source) and exponent
Coulomb’s law) and magnetic field (from
of electric field E is unity.
Biot-Savart’s law) Similarly, the exponent of current
Electric and magnetic fields element Idl (source) and exponent of
magnetic field B is unity. In other words,
• obey inverse square law, so they are long electric field E is proportional only
range fields. to charge (source) and not on higher
powers of charge (q2, q3, etc). Similarly,
• obey the principle of superposition magnetic field B is proportional to
and are linear with respect to source. current element I (source) and not
In magnitude, on square or cube or higher powers of
current element. The cause and effect
E ∝q have linear relationship.
B ∝ Idl

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 3.8.2 Magnetic field due To apply trigonometry, draw a
to long straight conductor perpendicular AC to the line BP as shown
carrying current in Figure 3.32.
AC
In triangle ∆ABC, sinq =
AB
Y
⇒ AC = ABsinq
A
C But AB = dl ⇒ AC = dl sinq
dl θ
Let df be the angle subtended between
B AP and BP
dϕ
r
i.e., ∠APB = ∠BPC = df
ϕ ϕ
O a
2
P
ϕ1 AC
In a triangle ∆APC,sin(df) =
I AP
Since, df is very small, sin(df )  df

But AP = r ⇒ AC = rdf

∴ AC = dl sinθ = rdφ
Y´
 µµ0 II µµ Id
Idφφ
∴ dB
∴ = 0 22 ((rd
dB = ˘˘ˆ=
rdφφ))nn = 00 ˘n
nn˘ˆ
Figure 3.32 Magnetic field due to a long 44ππ rr 44ππ rr
straight current carrying conductor
Let f be the angle between BP and OP
Let YY ¢ be an infinitely long straight OP a
conductor and I be the steady current In a ∆OPA, cosf = =
BP r
through the conductor as shown in Figure
a
3.32. In order to calculate magnetic field at ⇒r =
cosf
a point P which is at a distance a from the
wire, let us consider a small line element dl  µ I  µI
dB = 0 dφn˘nˆ⇒ dB = 0 cos φdφn˘
(segment AB). 4π a 4πa
The magnetic field at a point P due to cos φ
 µfromI
current element Idl can be calculated  µI
dB = 0 dφn˘ ⇒ dB = 0 cos φdφn˘nˆ
Biot-Savart’s law, which is 4π a 4πa
cos φ
 µ Idl sin θ The total magnetic field at P due to the
dB = 0 n
ˆ conductor YY ¢ is
4π r 2
where nˆ is the unit vector which points into  φ2  φ2 µ0 I
B = ∫ dB = ∫ cos φdφn˘nˆ
the page at P, θ is the angle between current −φ −φ1
4 πa
1
element Idl and line joining dl and the point
µ0 I  µI
P. Let r be the distance between line element =
φ
[sin φ ]−2φ1 nn˘ˆ ⇒ B = 0 (sin φ1 + sin φ2 )n˘
at A to the point P. 4πa 4πa

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  µI According to Biot-Savart’s law, the
µ0 I φ
[sin φ ]−2φ1 n˘ ⇒= B = 0 (sin φ1 + sin φ2 )n˘nˆ magnetic field at P due to the current
4πa 4πa
element at C is
For infinitely long conductor, 
 µ  I dl ×r
f 1 = f 2 = 90° dB = 2
4π r

 µ  I dl ×
r
 µµ00II   µµ00II The magnitude of dB =
is
∴ BB=
∴ = × ⇒ BB=
×22nnˆ ⇒ = n˘n˘ˆ(3.36) 4π r 2
44ππaa 22ππaa
µ  I d l sin θ µ  I d l
dB = =
4π r2 4π r 2
 
3.8.3 Magnetic field where θ is the angle between Idl and r .
produced along the axis of the Here θ = 90°. 
 µ  I dl × r
current-carrying circular coil The direction of dB =is perpendicular
4 π r 2

Consider a current carrying circular to the current element Idl and CP. It is
loop of radius R and let I be the current therefore along PR perpendicular to CP.
flowing through the wire in the direction as The magnitude of magnetic field at P due
shown in Figure 3.33. to current element at D is same as that for
The magnetic field at a point P on the axis the element at C because of equal distances

from the coil. But its direction is along PS.
of the circular coil at a distance z from the  µ  I dl × r
centre of the coil O is computed by taking The magnetic field dB due= to each current
4π r 2
two diametrically opposite line elements of element is resolved into two components;

the coil each of length dl at C and D. Let dBcosϕ along y-direction and dBsinϕ along
 z-direction. The horizontal components
r be the vector joining the current element

(I dl ) at C and the point P. cancel out while the vertical components
(dBsinϕ k ) alone contribute to the net

magnetic field B at the point P.
dB sin ϕ

dB sin ϕ

R S
dB dB
 
ϕ P ϕ B = ∫ dB = ∫ dB sinf 
k
dB cos ϕ dB cos ϕ
ϕ µ0 I dl
z
= ∫ 2
sin φ 
k
r 4π r
r O
y

z x From ∆OCP,
R
r̂ r̂ sinf = 1
and r 2 = R 2 + z 2 .
dl R O dl
(R 2
+ z2 ) 2

C D
Substituting these in the above equation,
we get
I
 µ I R
Figure 3.33 Magnetic field due to B= 0
4π R 2 + z 2 3 2

k (∫ dl)
current-carrying circular loop ( )
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 If we integrate the line elementfrom 0 to magnet type galvanometer. Its working is
2πR, we get the net magnetic field B at point based on tangent law (Figure 3.34).
P due to the current-carrying circular loop.
 µ I R2
B= 0
k
( )
3
2 R2 + z 2 2

If the circular coil contains N turns, then

the magnetic field is
 µ NI R2
B= 0 
k (3.37)
3
2 R2 + z 2 2
( )
The magnetic field at the centre of the
coil is
 µ NI
B= 0  k since z = 0 (3.38) Figure 3.34 Tangent Galvanometer
2R

Tangent law
E X A M P L E 3.13
When a magnetic needle or magnet
What is the magnetic field at the centre of
is freely suspended in two mutually
the loop shown in figure?
perpendicular uniform magnetic fields,
it will come to rest in the direction of the
I I
resultant of the two fields.
O

+ Let B be the magnetic field produced

– by passing current through the coil of
the tangent galvanometer and BH be the
Solution horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic
field. Under the action of two magnetic
The magnetic field due to current in the fields, the needle comes to rest making angle
upper semicircle and lower semicircle of θ with BH, such that
the circular coil are equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction. Hence, the net
B = BH tan θ(3.39)
magnetic field at the centre of the loop (at
 
point O) is zero B = 0 .
Construction
Tangent Galvanometer (TG) consists
3.8.4 Tangent law and of copper coil of several turns wound on a
Tangent Galvanometer non-magnetic circular frame. The frame is
Tangent galvanometer is a device used made up of brass or wood which is mounted
to detect very small currents. It is a moving vertically on a horizontal base table (turn
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 table) with three levelling screws. The TG is field. When the circuit is closed, the electric
provided with two or more coils of different current will pass through the circular coil
number of turns. Most of the equipments we and produce magnetic field at the centre of
use in laboratory, contains coils of 2 turns, the coil. Now there are two fields which are
5 turns and 50 turns which are of different acting mutually perpendicular to each other.
thickness and are used for measuring currents They are:
of different strengths. (1) the magnetic field (B) due to the electric
At the centre of turn table, there is a small current in the coil acting normal to the
upright projection on which a compass plane of the coil.
box is placed. Compass box consists of a (2) the horizontal component of Earth’s
small magnetic needle which is pivoted magnetic field (BH)
at its centre, such that the centres of both
magnetic needle and circular coil exactly BH
coincide. A thin aluminium pointer attached
perpendicular to the magnetic needle moves N
over a graduated circular scale. The circular 
scale is divided into four quadrants and they
B
are graduated in degrees, each quadrant
being numbered from 0° to 90° In order S
to avoid parallax error in measurement,
a mirror is placed below the aluminium
pointer. Figure 3.35 Resultant position of
Precautions pivoted needle
1. All the nearby magnets and magnetic Because of these crossed fields, the
materials are kept away from the instrument. pivoted magnetic needle deflects through an
2. Using spirit level, the levelling screws at angle θ. From tangent law (equation 3.39),
the base are adjusted so that the small
magnetic needle is exactly horizontal B = BH tan θ
and also coil (mounted on the frame) is When an electric current is passed
exactly vertical. through a circular coil of radius R having N
3. The plane of the coil is kept parallel to the turns, the magnitude of magnetic field at the
small magnetic needle by rotating the coil centre is (from equation (3.38))
about its vertical axis. So that, the coil
NI
remains in magnetic meridian. B   (3.40)
2R
4. The compass box alone is rotated such
that the aluminium pointer reads 0o – 0o. From equation (3.39) and equation
(3.40), we get
Theory
In the tangent galvanometer experiment, NI
  BH tan
when no current is passed through the 2R
coil, the small magnetic needle lies along The horizontal component of Earth’s
horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic magnetic field is given by
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 Let A be the area of the circular loop
µN I
BH =  (3.41) A = π R2. So rewriting the equation (3.42) in
2R tan q
terms of area of the loop, we have

E X A M P L E 3.14  µI A
B=  3 k
2π z
A coil of a tangent galvanometer of
(or)
diameter 0.24 m has 100 turns. If the  µ 2 IA
horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic B=  3  k (3.43)
4π z
field is 25 × 10–6 T then, calculate
Comparing equation (3.43) with
the current which gives a deflection
equation (3.14) dimensionally, we get
of 60o.
pm = I A
Solution
where pm is called magnetic dipole moment.
The diameter of the coil is 0.24 m.
In vector notation,
Therefore, radius of the coil is 0.12 m.
 
Number of turns is 100 turns. pm = I A(3.44)

Earth’s magnetic field is 25 × 10–6 T This implies that a current carrying

circular loop behaves as a magnetic dipole
Deflection is 
of magnetic moment pm . So, the magnetic
  60  tan 60  3  1.732 dipole moment of any current loop is
equal to the product of the current and
2RBH
I= 2RB tan θ
I =µ N H tan θ area of the loop.
µ N
Right hand thumb rule

2×0.12× ×25
25× 10−−66
== 2×0−.−12 ×10
××11.732
.732== 0.82
0.82 1 −1 A.
×−10
×10 A.
4×4×
77
1010 × ×33..14× 100
×100 In order to determine the direction of
I = 0.082 A magnetic moment, we use right hand thumb
rule which states that
If we curl the fingers of right hand in the
direction of current in the loop, then the
3.8.5 Current loop as a
stretched thumb gives the direction of the
magnetic dipole
magnetic moment associated with the loop.
The magnetic field at a point on the axis of
the current-carrying circular loop of radius Table 3.3 End rule – polarity with
R at a distance z from its centre is given by direction of current in circular loop
 µI R2 Current in circular loop Polarity Picture
B=  3
k  (From eqn. 3.37)
2
(R 2
+z )
2 2

Anti-clockwise current North Pole

At larger distance z >> R, therefore Anti-clockwise current
Polarity: North Pole
R + z 2 ≈ z 2 , we have
2

 µ I R2  µ I πR2 Clockwise current South Pole

B =  3 k or B =  k (3.42) Clockwise current
2 z 2π z 3 Polarity: South Pole

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 3.8.6 Magnetic dipole 2πR
T= (3.47)
moment of revolving electron v
Suppose an electron undergoes circular Using equation (3.46) and equation
motion around the nucleus as shown in (3.47) in equation (3.45), we get
Figure 3.36. The circulating electron in a
e ev R
loop is like current in a circular loop (since µL = − πR 2 = − (3.48)
2πR 2
flow of charge constitutes current). The v
magnetic dipole moment due to current
carrying circular loop is where A = πR2 is the area of the circular
loop. By definition, angular momentum of
  the electron about O is
µ L = I A (3.45)
  
L = R× p
In magnitude,
In magnitude,
µL = I A
L = Rp = mv R (3.49)

v Using equation (3.48) and equation

(3.49), we get
L
v
R m m
O
e 
R
O µL ev R 2 e 
=− =− ⇒ µL = − L
L mv R 2m 2m
L
(3.50)

The negative sign indicates that the

Figure 3.36 (a) Electron revolving in magnetic moment and angular momentum
a circular orbit (b) Direction of
are in opposite direction.
magnetic dipole moment vector and
orbital angular momentum vector are In magnitude,
opposite
µL e 1.60×10−19
= = −31
= 0.0878×1012 C kg −1
L 2m 2×9.11×10
If T is the time period of revolution of an
electron, the current due to circular motion µL
= 8.78×1010 C kg −1 = constant
of the electron is L

µL
−e The ratio is a constant known as
I= (3.46) L
T  e 
gyro-magnetic ratio   . It must be noted
 2m 
where −e is the charge of an electron. If R that the gyro-magnetic ratio is a constant
is the radius of the circular orbit and v is the of proportionality which connects angular
velocity of the electron in the circular orbit, momentum of the electron and the magnetic
then moment of the electron.

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 According to Neil’s Bohr quantization symmetry in the problem. This is similar to
rule, the angular momentum of an electron Gauss’s law in electrostatics.
moving in a stationary orbit is quantized
which means 3.9.1 Ampère’s circuital law
h Ampère’s law: The line integral of
L = n = n
2π magnetic field over a closed loop is μ0
times net current enclosed by the loop.
where h is the Planck’s constant  
(h = 6.63 x 10–34 J s ) and number n is the ∫ B.dl = µ I  enclosed (3.51)
orbit number, i.e., n = 1,2,3,..... Hence, C

where Ienclosed is the net current linked by

the closed loop C. Note that the line integral
e eh
µL = L=n Am2 does not depend on the shape of the path
2m 4 πm
or the position of the conductor with the
(1.60×10−19 )h magnetic field.
µL = n × A m2
4 πm

(1.60×10−19 )(6.63×10−34 ) Line integral means integral

= n× Note over a line or curve, symbol
4 ×3.14 ×(9.11×10−31 )
used is
−24 2
µ L = n×9.27 ×10 Am
Closed line integral means integral
over a closed curve (or line), symbol is
The minimum value of magnetic moment
can be obtained by substituting n = 1,

µ L = 9.27 ×10−24 A m2 = 9.27 ×10−24 JT-1

= (µ L )min = µ B 3.9.2 Magnetic field due to the
current carrying wire of infinite
eh length using Ampère’s law
where µ B = = 9.27 ×10−24 A m 2 is called
4 πm
Bohr magneton which is used to measure
I
atomic magnetic moments.

C O r

A 
n dB
3.9
AMPÈRE’S CIRCUITAL
LAW Figure 3.37 Ampèrian loop for current
carrying straight wire
Ampère’s circuital law is used to calculate
magnetic field at a point whenever there is a Consider a straight conductor of
infinite length carrying current I and
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 the direction of magnetic field lines is E X A M P L E 3.15
shown in Figure 3.37. Since the wire is
geometrically cylindrical in shape and Compute the magnitude of the magnetic
symmetrical about its axis, we construct field of a long, straight wire carrying
an Ampèrian loop in the form of a circular a current of 1 A at distance of 1m
shape at a distance r from the centre of the from it. Compare it with Earth’s magnetic
conductor as shown in Figure 3.37. From field.
the Ampère’s law, we get
Solution
 
∫ .dl = µ I
B Given that I = 1 A and radius r = 1 m
C

 µ  I 4 π ×10−7 ×1
where dl is the line element along the Bstraightwire = = = 2×10−7 T
2πr 2π ×1
Amperian loop (tangent to the circular loop).
Hence, the angle between magnetic field But the Earth’s magnetic field is
−5
vector and line element is zero. Therefore, BEarth  10 T
So, Bstraightwire is one hundred times smaller
∫ Bdl = µI than BEarth .
C

where I is the current enclosed by the Solenoid

Ampèrian loop. Due to the symmetry, the
A solenoid is a long coil of wire closely
magnitude of the magnetic field is uniform
wound in the form of helix as shown in
over the Ampèrian loop. Hence
Figure 3.38. When electric current is
passed through the solenoid, the magnetic
 dl = µ I
B∫
field is produced. The magnetic field of
C
the solenoid is due to the superposition
For a circular loop, the circumference is of magnetic fields of each turn of the
2πr, which implies, solenoid. The direction of magnetic field
2 πr due to solenoid is given by right hand
B ∫ dl = µ  I palm-rule.
0 Inside the solenoid, the magnetic field
B ⋅ 2πr = µ  I is nearly uniform and parallel to its axis
whereas, outside the solenoid the field is
µI
B= negligibly small. Based on the direction of
2πr
the current, one end of the solenoid behaves
In vector form, the magnetic field is like North Pole and the other end behaves
like South Pole.
 µI
B=  n The current carrying solenoid is held
2πr
in right hand. If the fingers curl in the
where  n is the unit vector along the direction of current, then extended thumb
tangent to the Ampèrian loop as shown in gives the direction of magnetic field of
the Figure 3.37. current carrying solenoid. It is shown in

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 The solenoid is assumed to be long
which means that the length of the solenoid
is large when compared to its diameter. The
winding need not to be always circular, it
can also be in other shapes. We consider
here only circularly wound solenoid as
shown in Figure 3.40.

3.9.3 Magnetic field due to a

long current carrying solenoid

Consider a solenoid of length L having

N turns. The diameter of the solenoid
Bubbin with Wound Over Molded Coil Can
Terminals Coil Coil (flux cage) and is assumed to be much smaller when
Flux Washer
compared to its length and the coil is wound
Figure 3.38 Solenoid very closely.

points out h
I I d c
points in i

B a b
S N

l Magnetic field of a solenoid

Figure 3.41 Amperian loop for solenoid

Figure 3.39 Solenoid as a bar magnet
In order to calculate the magnetic field at
any point inside the solenoid, we use Ampere’s
circuital law. Consider a rectangular loop
Field (North)
abcd as shown in Figure 3.41. Then from
Ampère’s circuital law,
N S  
∫ B ⋅dl = µ  I enclosed
C
= µ  ×(total current enclosed by Amperianloo
op)
Current
The left hand side of the equation is
Figure 3.40 The direction of magnetic
field of solenoid   b   c
  d
  a
 
∫ ⋅ dl = ∫ B. dl +
B ∫ . dl +
B ∫ . dl +
B ∫ . dl
B
Figure 3.39. Hence, the magnetic field of a C a b c d

solenoid looks like the magnetic field of a Since the elemental lengths along bc and
bar magnet. da are perpendicular to the magnetic field

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 which is along the axis of the solenoid, the
integrals Solenoid can be used as
Note electromagnet. It produces
c
  c
  strong magnetic field that
∫ ∫

B. dl = B dl cos 90 = 0
b b
can be turned ON or OFF. This is not
Similarly possible in case of permanent magnet.
Further the strength of the magnetic
a
 
∫ B. dl = 0 field can be increased by keeping iron
d bar inside the solenoid. This is because
the magnetic field of the solenoid
Since the magnetic field outside the
magnetizes the iron bar and hence
d
  the net magnetic field is the sum of
solenoid is zero, the integral ∫ B. dl = 0
magnetic field of the solenoid and
c
magnetic field of magnetised iron.
For the path along ab, the integral is
Because of these properties, solenoids
b
  b b are useful in designing variety of
∫ B. dl = B ∫ dl cos 0 = B ∫ dl

electrical appliances.
a a a

where the length of the loop ab as shown in

the Figure 3.41 is h. But the choice of length
E X A M P L E 3.16
of the loop ab is arbitrary. We can take very
large loop such that it is equal to the length Calculate the magnetic field inside a
of the solenoid L. Therefore the integral is solenoid, when
b
  (a) 
the length of the solenoid becomes
∫ B. dl = BL twice with fixed number of turns
a
(b) both the length of the solenoid and
Let I be the current passing through the number of turns are doubled
solenoid of N turns, then (c) the number of turns becomes twice for
the fixed length of the solenoid
b
  NI
∫ B. dl = BL = µ  NI ⇒ B = µ 
L Compare the results.
a

The number of turns per unit length is Solution

N The magnetic field of a solenoid (inside) is
given by = n, Then
L NI
BL ,N = µ 
L
nLI
B = µ = µ nI (3.52) (a) length of the solenoid becomes twice
L
with fixed number of turns
Since n is a constant for a given solenoid L→2L (length becomes twice)
and μ0 is also constant. For a fixed current I,  N→N (number of turns remains
the magnetic field inside the solenoid is also constant)
a constant. The magnetic field is
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 (c) the number of turns becomes twice
but the length of the solenoid remains
same
L→L (length is fixed)
 N→2N (number of turns becomes
twice)
The magnetic field is
2NI
BL ,2 N = µ  = 2 BL ,N
L
From the above results,

BL ,2 N > B2 L ,2 N > B2 L , N

MRI is Magnetic Resonance Imaging Thus, strength of the magnetic field is

which helps the physicians to diagonise increased when we pack more loops into
or monitor treatment for a variety of the same length for a given current.
abnormal conditions happening within
the head, chest, abdomen and pelvis.
It is a non invasive medical test. The 3.9.5 Toroid
patient is placed in a circular opening A solenoid is bent in such a way its ends
(actually interior of a solenoid which are joined together to form a closed ring
is made up of superconducting wire) shape, is called a toroid which is shown in
and large current is sent through the Figure 3.42. The magnetic field has constant
superconducting wire to produce a magnitude inside the toroid whereas in the
strong magnetic field. So, it uses more interior region (say, at point P) and exterior
powerful magnet, radio frequency region (say, at point Q), the magnetic field
pulses and a computer to produce is zero.
pictures of organs which helps the
physicians to examine various parts of
the body.

NI 1
B2 L ,N = µ  = BL ,N
2L 2
(b) both the length of the solenoid and
number of turns are doubled
L→2L (length becomes twice) Figure 3.42 Toroid
 N→2N (number of turns becomes
twice) (a) Open space interior to the toroid
The magnetic field is
Let us calculate the magnetic field BP at
2NI point P. We construct an Amperian loop 1
B2 L ,2 N = µ = BL ,N
2L of radius r1 around the point P as shown in
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 Q
Ampère’s circuital law for the loop 3 is
 
3 r3
∫ BQ . dl = µ  I enclosed
loop 3

Since in each turn of the toroid loop,

current coming out of the plane of paper is
P cancelled by the current going into the plane
2 1 r1
of paper. Thus, Ienclosed = 0
 
r2 ∫
loop 3
BQ . dl = 0

S
This is possible only if the magnetic field
at point Q vanishes i.e.

BQ = 0
Figure 3.43 Toroid – Amperian loop
(c) Inside the toroid
Figure 3.43. For simplicity, we take circular Let us calculate the magnetic field BS at
loop so that the length of the loop is its point S by constructing an Amperian loop 2
circumference. of radius r2 around the point S as shown in
Figure 3.43. The length of the loop is
L1 = 2π r1
L2 = 2πr2
Ampère’s circuital law for the loop 1 is
  Ampere’s circuital law for the loop 2 is
∫ BP . dl = µ  I enclosed  
loop1 ∫ BS . dl = µ  I enclosed
loop 2
Since the loop 1 encloses no current, Let I be the current passing through the
Ienclosed = 0 toroid and N be the number of turns of the
  toroid, then
∫ B . dl = 0
P
Ienclosed = NI
loop1

This is possible only if the magnetic field Therefore,

 
at point P vanishes i.e. ∫  BS dl cos θ = BS 2πr2
BS . dl = ∫
 loop 2 loop 2
BP = 0  
∫ BS . dl = µ  NI
loop 2

(b) Open space exterior to the toroid NI

BS = µ 
2πr2
Let us calculate the magnetic field BQ at
point Q. We construct an Amperian loop 3 If the number of turns per unit length
of radius r3 around the point Q as shown in N
n= , then the magnetic field at point S is
Figure 3.43. The length of the loop is 2πr2

L3 = 2πr3 BS = µ nI (3.53)

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 
3.10 3. Fm is directly proportional to sine of the
angle between the velocity and magnetic
LORENTZ FORCE field

4. Fm is directly proportional to the
When an electric charge q is kept at magnitude of the charge q

rest in a magnetic field, no force acts on 5. The direction of Fm is always perpendicular
  
it. At the same time, if the charge moves in to v and B as Fm is the cross product of
 
the magnetic field, it experiences a force. v and B
This force is different from Coulomb
force, studied in unit 1. This force is Fm
known as magnetic force. It is given by
B
the equation _
B 
  
( )
F = q v × B (3.54) +
 v

In general, if the charge is moving in v

both the electric and magnetic fields, the Fm
total force experienced by the charge is (a) (b)
   
given by F = q ( E + v × B ). It is known as
Figure 3.44 Direction of the Lorentz force
Lorentz force. on (a) positive charge (b) negative charge


6. The direction of Fm on negative charge is
3.10.1 Force on a moving 
opposite to the direction of Fm on positive
charge in a magnetic field charge provided other factors are identical
When an electric charge q is moving as shown Figure 3.44 (b)
  
with velocity v in the magnetic field B , it 7. If velocity v of the charge q is along
 
experiences a force, called magnetic force magnetic field B then, Fm is zero

Fm . After careful experiments, Lorentz Definition of tesla
deduced the force experienced by a moving
 The strength of the magnetic field is one
charge in the magnetic field Fm
tesla if a unit charge moving in it with unit
  
( )
Fm = q v × B (3.55) velocity experiences unit force.
1N s N
In magnitude, Fm = qv B sinθ (3.56) 1 T= =1 =1N A −1m −1
Cm Am

The equations (3.55) and (3.56) imply E X A M P L E 3.17


1. Fm is directly proportional to the magnetic A particle of charge q moves with
 
field B velocity v along positive y - direction in
 
2. Fm is directly proportional to the velocity a magnetic field B . Compute the Lorentz

v of the moving charge force experienced by the particle (a) when

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 magnetic field is along positive y-direction (c) Magnetic field is in zy - plane and making
(b) when magnetic field points in positive an angle θ with the velocity of the particle,

z - direction (c) when magnetic field is which implies B = B cos θ j + B sin θ k
in zy - plane and making an angle θ with z
velocity of the particle. Mark the direction B
of magnetic force in each case. 
ν
+q
y
Solution
F

Velocity of the particle is v = v j x

(a) 
Magnetic field is along positive
r From Lorentz force,
y - direction, this implies, B = B j 
Fm = q ( vj )×(B cos θ
j + B sin θ k)
z = q v Bsin θ i

ν
+q
y
E X A M P L E 3.18
B
x
Compute the work done and power
  delivered by the Lorentz force on the
From Lorentz force, Fm = q (v j × B j ) = 0 
particle of charge q moving with velocity v .
So, no force acts on the particle when it Calculate the angle between Lorentz force
moves along the direction of magnetic and velocity of the charged particle and
field. also interpret the result.

(b) Since the magnetic field points in Solution

positive z - direction, this implies, For a charged particle moving on a

  

B = B
k magnetic field, F = q ( v × B )
z
B The work done by the magnetic field is
ν    
+q W = ∫ F .dr = ∫ F .v dt
y
F   
W = q ∫ ( v × B ).v dt = 0
x
   
Since v ´B is perpendicular to v ´B
and hence
   
 (v × B)⋅v = 0 This means that Lorentz force
= qq((v 
From Lorentz force, Fmm = j × Bk) = qv B 
i
does no work on the particle. From work-

Fm = q (v 
j × Bk ) =
= qvB
qv B 
i kinetic energy theorem, (Refer section
Therefore, the magnitude of the Lorentz 4.2.6, XI th standard Volume I)
force is qvB and direction is along positive dW
=P =0
x - direction. dt

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       
Since, F .v = 0 ⇒ F and v are perpendicular F = q (v × B )
to each other. The angle between Lorentz
Since Lorentz force alone acts on the
force and velocity of the charged particle
particle, the magnitude of the net force on
is 90o. Thus Lorentz force changes the
the particle is
direction of the velocity but not the
magnitude of the velocity. Hence Lorentz
∑F = F
i m = qv B
force does no work and also does not alter i

kinetic energy of the particle. This Lorentz force acts as centripetal

force for the particle causing it to execute
circular motion. Therefore,
v2
3.10.2 Motion of a charged qv B = m
r
particle in a uniform magnetic
field The radius of the circular path is
mv p
r= = (3.57)
B in qB qB
where p = mv is the magnitude of the
r
linear momentum of the particle. Let T be
the time taken by the particle to finish one
F
complete circular motion, then
+
+q ν
2πr
T= (3.58)
v
Hence substituting (3.57) in (3.58), we
Figure 3.45 Circular motion of a charged get
particle in a perpendicular uniform
magnetic field 2πm
T= (3.59)
qB
Consider a charged particle of charge Equation (3.59) is called the cyclotron
q having mass m entering into a region of
   period. The reciprocal of time period is the
uniform magnetic field B with velocity ´B frequency f, which is
v
such that velocity is perpendicular to the
1
magnetic field. As soon as the particle enters f =
T
into the field, Lorentz force acts on it in a
direction perpendicular to both magnetic qB
  f = (3.60)
 2πm
field B and velocity v ´B
.
As a result, the charged particle moves In terms of angular frequency ω,
in a circular orbit as shown in Figure 3.45.
q
The Lorentz force on the charged particle is ω = 2πf = B (3.61)
m
given by

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 Equations (3.60) and (3.61) are called as E X A M P L E 3.19
cyclotron frequency or gyro-frequency.
An electron moving perpendicular to a
From equations (3.59), (3.60) and (3.61), uniform magnetic field 0.500 T undergoes
we infer that time period and frequency circular motion of radius 2.50 mm. What is
depend only on charge-to-mass ratio the speed of electron?
(specific charge) but not on velocity or the
radius of the circular path. Solution
If a charged particle moves in a region of Charge of an electron q = –1.60 × 10–19 C
uniform magnetic field such that its velocity ⇒ q = 1.60 × 10−19 C
is not perpendicular to the magnetic field,
then the velocity of the particle is split up Magnitude of magnetic field B = 0.500 T
into two components; one component
Mass of the electron, m = 9.11 × 10–31 kg
is parallel to the field while the other
component perpendicular to the field. Radius of the orbit, r = 2.50 mm
The component of velocity parallel to field = 2.50 × 10–3 m
remains unchanged and the component rB
perpendicular to the field keeps changing Speed of the electron, v = q
m
due to Lorentz force. Hence the path of the
2.50 × 10 −3 × 0.500
particle is not a circle; it is a helical around v = 1.60 × 10 −19
×
9.11 × 10 −31
the field lines as shown in Figure 3.46.
v = 2.195 × 108 ms −1
B
E X A M P L E 3.20
–
–q
A proton moves in a uniform magnetic
field of strength 0.500 T magnetic field
Figure 3.46 Helical path of the electron is directed along the x-axis. At initial
in a uniform magnetic field time, t = 0 s, the proton has velocity

For an example, the helical path of an ( )
v = 1.95 ×105 i + 2.00 ×105 k ms−1 . Find
electron when it moves in a magnetic field
is shown in Figure 3.47. Inside the particle (a) At initial time, what is the acceleration
detector called cloud chamber, the path is made of the proton.
visible by the condensation of water droplets. (b) Is the path circular or helical? If helical,
calculate the radius of helical trajectory
and also calculate the pitch of the helix
(Note: Pitch of the helix is the distance
travelled along the helix axis per
revolution).
Solution
Figure 3.47 Helical path of the electron 
inside the cloud chamber Magnetic field B = 0.500
iT

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 Velocity of the particle number but different mass number) are
 sent with velocity 1.00 × 105 m s–1 into a
v = (1.95×105i + 2.00×105 
k )ms−1
magnetic field of strength 0.500 T normally.
Charge of the proton q = 1.60×10−19 C Compute the distance between the two
isotopes after they complete a semi-circle.
Mass of the proton m = 1.67 ×10−27 kg Also compute the time taken by each
isotope to complete one semi-circular
(a) The force experienced by the proton is path. (Given: masses of the isotopes:
  
F = q (v × B ) m235 = 3.90 × 10–25 kg and m238 = 3.95 × 10–25 kg)
(
= 1.60×10−19 × (1.95×105 
i +2.00×105 k )×(0.500 )
i )
B

F = 1.60×10−14 
j N
238U
Therefore, from Newton’s second law, 235U

 1 
a= F=
m
1
1.67 × 10 −27 (
1.60 × 10 −14 
j) ν d

= 9.58 × 1012 
2r235
j m s− 2 2r238

(b) Trajectory is helical

Solution
Radius of helical path is Since isotopes are singly ionized, they have
mv z 1.67 ×10−27 ×2.00×105 equal charge which is equal to the charge
R= =
qB 1.60×10−19 ×0.500 of an electron, q = – 1.6 × 10–19 C. Mass of
= 4.175×10−3 m = 4.18mm uranium 23592 U and 92 U are 3.90 × 10
238 –25
kg
and 3.95 × 10 kg respectively. Magnetic
–25
Pitch of the helix is the distance travelled
field applied, B = 0.500 T. Velocity of the
along x-axis in a time T, which is P = vx T
electron is 1.00 × 105 ms–1, then
But time,
2π 2πm 2×3.14 ×1.67 ×10−27 92 U is r235
(a) the radius of the path of 235
T= = =
ω qB 1.60×10−19 ×0.500
m235v 3.90×10−25 ×1.00×105
= 13.1×10 s −8 r235 = =
qB 1.6×10−19 ×0.500
Hence, pitch of the helix is = 48.8×10−2 m
P = v xT = (1.95×105 )(13.1×10−8 ) r235 = 48.8 cm
= 25.5×10−3 m = 25.5 mm The diameter of the semi-circle due to 235
92 U
is d235 = 2r235 = 97.6 cm
The proton experiences appreciable
acceleration in the magnetic field, hence The radius of the path of 238
92 U is r238 then
the pitch of the helix is almost six times m238v 3.95×10 ×1.00×105
−25
r238 = =
greater than the radius of the helix. qB 1.6×10−19 ×0.500
= 49.4 ×10−2 m
E X A M P L E 3.21
r238 = 49.4 cm
Two singly ionized isotopes of uranium
The diameter of the semi-circle due to 238
92 U
92 U and 92 U (isotopes have same atomic
235 238
is d238 = 2r238 = 98.8 cm

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 Therefore the separation distance between Let us consider an experimental
the isotopes is ∆d = d 238 − d 235 = 1.2 cm arrangement to illustrate velocity selector
as shown in Figure 3.48. In the region
(b) 
The time taken by each isotope to
of space between the parallel plates of a
complete one semi-circular path are
capacitor which produce uniform electric
 
magnitudeof the displacement field E , a uniform magnetic field B is
t 235 =
velocity maintained perpendicular to the direction
97.6×10 −2
of electric field.
= = 9.76×10−6 s = 9.76 …s
1.00×105 Suppose a charged particle with
magnitudeof the displacement charge q enters the space from left side
t 238 = 
velocity with a velocity v , the net force on the
98.8×10 −2
particle is
= 5
= 9.88×10−6 s = 9.88 …s
1.00×10    
Note that even though the difference (
F = q E +v × B )
between mass of two isotopes are very small,
For a positive charge, the electric force
this arrangement helps us to convert this
on the charge acts in downward direction
small difference into an easily measurable
whereas the Lorentz force acts upwards.
distance of separation. This arrangement
When these two forces balance each other,
is known as mass spectrometer. A mass
then
spectrometer is used in many areas in
sciences, especially in medicine, in space qE = qv  B
science, in geology etc. For example, in
E
medicine, anaesthesiologists use it to ⇒ v = (3.62)
B
measure the respiratory gases and biologist
use it to determine the reaction mechanisms
in photosynthesis.
This principle is used in
Note Bainbridge mass spectrograph
3.10.3 Motion of a charged
particle under crossed electric to separate the isotopes. This
and magnetic field (velocity concept is explained in Example (3.21).
selector)
Schematic diagram of
Bainbridge mass spectrometer
S1
A B
++++++++++++++++++++++ Beam of positive ions
S2
qνB
2r
E q ν
+ m2>m1
qE m1 m2

Vacuum chamber
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− Magnetic field
prependicular to the
diagram and into
the plane

B into the page

Figure 3.48 Velocity selector

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 This means, for a given magnitude of Since the mass of the electron,
  −31
E - field and B - field, the forces act only on the m = 9.1×10 kg and charge of an electron,
E q = e = 1.6 × 10 −19 C. The velocity acquired
particle moving with particular speed v  = .
B by the electron due to accelerating potential
This speed is independent of mass and of 200 V is
charge. 2(1.6×10−19 )(200)
v 200 = = 8.39×106 ms−1
By proper choice of (9.1×10 )
−31

electric and magnetic

fields, the particle with Since the speed v200 > v, the electron is
particular speed can be deflected towards direction of Lorentz
selected. Such an arrangement of fields is force. So, in order to have null deflection,
called a velocity selector. the potential, we have to supply is
2
1 mv 2 (9.1×10 )×(7.23×10 )
−31 6

E X A M P L E 3.22 V= =
2 e 2×(1.6×10−19 )
V = 148.65 V
Let E be the electric field of magnitude
6.0 × 106 N C–1 and B be the magnetic
field magnitude 0.83 T. Suppose an 3.10.4 Cyclotron
electron is accelerated with a potential
Cyclotron (Figure 3.49) is a device used
of 200 V, will it show zero deflection?. If
to accelerate the charged particles to gain
not, at what potential will it show zero
large kinetic energy. It is also called as
deflection.
high energy accelerator. It was invented by
Lawrence and Livingston in 1934.
Solution:
Principle
Electric field, E = 6.0 × 106 N C–1 and When a charged particle moves
magnetic field, B = 0.83 T. perpendicular to the magnetic field, it
Then experiences magnetic Lorentz force.

E 6.0×106
v= =
B 0.83
= 7.23×106 ms−1
When an electron goes with this velocity, it
shows null deflection. Since the accelerating
potential is 200 V, the electron acquires
kinetic energy because of this accelerating
potential. Hence,
1 2
mv = eV
2
2eV Figure 3.49 Cyclotron invented by
v=
m Lawrence and Livingston

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 Source of protons of the Dees are reversed so that the ion is
D.P now accelerated towards Dee-2 with a
greater velocity. For this circular motion,
High-speed
proton beam the centripetal force on the charged particle
q is provided by Lorentz force.
S
mv 2
= qv B
r
m
D1 D2 ⇒r = v
qB

⇒ r ∝ v (3.63)
High frequency
accelerating
voltage
From the equation (3.63), the increase
in velocity increases the radius of circular
Figure 3.50 Working of cyclotron
path. This process continues and hence
the particle moves in spiral path of
Construction increasing radius. Once it reaches near
The schematic diagram of a cyclotron the edge, it is taken out with the help
is shown in Figure 3.50. The particles are of deflector plate and allowed to hit the
allowed to move in between two semi- target T.
circular metal containers called Dees (hollow The important condition in cyclotron
D - shaped objects). Dees are enclosed in an operation is that when the frequency f
evacuated chamber and it is kept in a region at which the positive ion circulates
with uniform magnetic field controlled by in the magnetic field must be equal to
an electromagnet. The direction of magnetic the constant frequency of the electrical
field is normal to the plane of the Dees. The oscillator f osc . This is called resonance
two Dees are kept separated with a gap and condition.
the source S (which ejects the particle to be From equation (3.60), we have
accelerated) is placed at the centre in the qB
fOSC =
gap between the Dees. Dees are connected 2πm
to high frequency alternating potential The time period of oscillation is
difference. 2πm
T=
Working qB
Let us assume that the ion ejected from The kinetic energy of the charged particle is
source S is positively charged. As soon as 1 2 q 2 B 2r 2
ion is ejected, it is accelerated towards a Dee
KE = mv = (3.64)
2 2m
(say, Dee – 1) which has negative potential at
that time. Since the magnetic field is normal Limitations of cyclotron
to the plane of the Dees, the ion moves in (a) the speed of the ion is limited
a circular path. After one semi-circular (b) electron cannot be accelerated
path inside Dee-1, the ion reaches the gap (c) 
uncharged particles cannot be
between Dees. At this time, the polarities accelerated

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 Deutrons (bundles of one L
Note proton and one neutron) can
be accelerated because it has d
same charge as that of proton. But neutron q –
(electrically neutral particle) cannot be
accelerated by the cyclotron. When a Bin
deutron is bombarded with a beryllium A
target, a beam of high energy neutrons are FB

produced. These high-energy neutrons are

Figure 3.51 Current carrying conductor
sent into the patient’s cancerous region to in a magnetic field
break the bonds in the DNA of the cancer
cells (killing the cells). This is used in and current I as shown in Figure 3.51.
treatment of fast-neutron cancer therapy. The free electrons drift opposite to the
direction of current. So the relation between
E X A M P L E 3.23 current I and magnitude of drift velocity vd
(Refer Unit 2) is
Suppose a cyclotron is operated to
accelerate protons with a magnetic field I = neAvd(3.65)
of strength 1 T. Calculate the frequency in
which the electric field between two Dees If the conductor is kept in a magnetic

could be reversed. field B , then average force experienced by
the charge (electron) in the conductor is
Solution
  
Magnetic field B = 1 T (
f = − e vd × B )
Mass of the proton, mp = 1.67 ×10−27 kg If n is the number of free electrons
Charge of the proton, q = 1.60×10−19 C present in unit volume, then
qB (1.60×10−19 )(1) n=
N
f= =
2πmp 2(3.14)(1.67 ×10−27 ) V
= 15.3×106 Hz = 15.3 MHz where N is the number of free electrons in
the small element of volume V = Adl.
Hence Lorentz force on the elementary
section of length dl is the product of the
3.10.5 Force on a current
number of the electrons (N = nAdl) and the
carrying conductor placed in
force acting on each electron.
a magnetic field   
When a current carrying conductor
F = −enAdl vd × B ( )
is placed in a magnetic field, the force The current element in the conductor
 
experienced by the conductor is equal is Idl = −enAv d dl . Therefore the force on
to the sum of Lorentz forces on the the small elemental section of the current-
individual charge carriers in the conductor. carrying conductor is
Consider a small segment of conductor   
of length dl, with cross-sectional area A
(
dF = I dl × B (3.66) )
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 Thus the force on a straight current the middle finger in the direction of the
carrying conductor of length l placed in a electric current, then thumb will point in
uniform magnetic field is the direction of the force experienced by
the conductor.
r r r
(
Ftotal = I l × B ) (3.67)

In magnitude, E X A M P L E 3.24

Ftotal = BIlsinθ A metallic rod of linear density is 0.25

kg m–1 is lying horizontally on a smooth
(a) If the conductor is placed along the
inclined plane which makes an angle of 45o
direction of the magnetic field, the
with the horizontal. The rod is not allowed
angle then θ = 0o. Hence, the force
to slide down by flowing a current through
experienced by the conductor is zero.
it when a magnetic field of strength 0.25
(b) If the conductor is placed perpendicular
T is acting on it in the vertical direction.
to the magnetic field, then the angle
Calculate the electric current flowing in
θ =90o Hence, the force experienced by
the rod to keep it stationary.
the conductor is maximum, which is
Ftotal = BIl.

B BI
Fleming’s left hand rule B
When a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, the direction mg sin45°
of the force experienced by it is given by I mg
45°
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule (FLHR) as shown
in Figure 3.52.
Solution
Force
Magnet The linear density of the rod i.e., mass per
unit length of the rod is 0.25 kg m–1
m
⇒ = 0.25 kg m −1
Current l

Let I be the current flowing in the metallic

rod. The direction of electric current is
into the plane of the paper. The direction
Figure 3.52 Fleming’s Left Hand Rule of magnetic force IBl is given by Fleming’s
(FLHR) left hand rule.

Stretch out forefinger, the middle 

B BIl cos45°
B
finger and the thumb of the left hand 45° BIl
such that they are in three mutually mg sin45°
I mg
perpendicular directions. If the forefinger 45°

points in the direction of magnetic field,

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 For equilibrium of the rod, Let us consider a small elemental length
dl in conductor B at which the magnetic
mg sin 45 = IBl cos 45 
field B1 is present. From equation
1m 3.66, Lorentz force on the element dl of
⇒I= g tan 45
B l conductor B is
0.25 kg m −1
= × 1 × 9.8 m s −2   
0.25 T µI
dF = ( I 2dl × B1 ) = −I 2dl  1 (
k×
i)
2πr
⇒ I = 9.8 A
µ I I dl
=−  1 2  j
So, we need to supply current of 9.8 A to 2πr
keep the metallic rod stationary.
Therefore the force on dl of the wire
B is directed towards the conductor A. So
3.10.6 Force between two the element of length dl in B is attracted
long parallel current carrying towards the conductor A. Hence the force
conductors per unit length of the conductor B due to
Let two long straight parallel current current in the conductor A is
carrying conductors separated by a distance 
F µII
r be kept in air medium as shown in Figure =−  1 2 
j
l 2πr
3.53. Let I1 and I2 be the electric currents
passing through the conductors A and B Similarly, the net magnetic induction
in same direction (i.e. along z - direction) due to current I2 (in conductor B) at a
respectively. The net magnetic field at a distance r in the elemental length dl of
distance r due to current I1 in conductor A is conductor A is
 µI µI 
B1 =  1 (−
i )=−  1
i µI
B2 =  2 
i
2πr 2πr 2πr

r z r From the thumb rule, direction of

O
y magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane
x of the paper and outwards (arrow out of
B1
F2 the page  ) i.e., along positive 
i direction.
I1 I2
Hence, the magnetic force acting on element
B1
dl of the conductor A is
I1 I2
   µI
A B ( )
dF = I1dl × B2 = I1dl  2 (
2πr
k ×
i)
Figure 3.53 Two long straight parallel µ I I dl
wires = 1 2  j  (3.68)
2πr

From thumb rule, the direction of Therefore the force on dl of conductor A

magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane is directed towards the conductor B. So the
of the paper and inwards (arrow into the length dl is attracted towards the conductor
page ⊗ ) i.e. along negative i direction. B as shown in Figure (3.54).
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 z
Current in the opposite direction
y
A B O
x

Current
I1 I2 F
dl

B2 • ×
B1
F F F
Current

r
Figure 3.54 Current in both the conductors Figure 3.56 Two parallel conductors
are in the same direction - attracts each other carrying current in opposite direction
experience a repulsive force
The force acting per unit length of the
conductor A due to the current in conductor Definition of ampere
B is One ampere is defined as that constant
 current which when passed through each
F µ  I1 I 2 
= j of the two infinitely long parallel straight
l 2πr
conductors kept side by side parallelly
Thus the force between two parallel
at a distance of one metre apart in air
current carrying conductors is attractive if
or vacuum causes each conductor to
they carry current in the same direction.
experience a force of 2 × 10−7 newton per
(Figure 3.55)
metre length of conductor.
Current in the same direction
3.11
F TORQUE ON A CURRENT
LOOP

The force on a current carrying wire in a

F magnetic field is responsible for the motor
Current operation.

3.11.1 Torque on a current

Figure 3.55 Two parallel conductors loop placed in a magnetic
carrying current in same direction field
experience an attractive force
Consider a rectangular loop PQRS
The force between two parallel current  I is placed in a uniform
carrying current
carrying conductors is repulsive if they magnetic field B . Let a and b be the length
carry current in opposite directions and breadth of rectangular loop respectively.
(Figure 3.56). The unit vector nˆ normal to the plane of the

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 loop makes an angle θ with the magnetic
FPQ
field as shown in Figure 3.57.
θ b n̂
2 B
B θ θ
×
b sinθ τ
FSP 2
FPQ
P θ
I FRS
^
n S
a θ B
Figure 3.58 Side view of current loop
Q The magnitude of torque acting on the
N I S
R b 
b FRS
arm PQ about AB is τ PQ =  sinq  IaB and it
 2 
FQR
A points in the direction of AB. The magnitude

Figure 3.57 Rectangular coil placed in a of the torque acting on the arm RS about
magnetic field b 
AB is τ RS =  sinq  IaB
 2 
The magnitude of the magnetic force and points also in the same
acting on the current-carrying arm PQ is
direction AB as shown in
2 ( )
FPQ = IaB sin p = IaB . The direction Figure 3.58.
of the force is found using right hand cork The total torque acting on the entire loop
screw rule and its direction is upwards. about an axis AB is given by
The magnitude of the force on the arm
b  b 
QR is FQR = IbB sin π − θ = IbB cos θ
2 ( ) τ =  sin q  FPQ +  sin q  FRS
 2   2 
and its direction is as shown in Figure 3.57. = Ia(b sin q )B
The magnitude of the force on the arm RS
τ = IAB sinq along the direction AB
( )
is FRS = IaB sin p = IaB and its direction
2
is downwards. In vector form,
  
The magnitude of the force acting on the
( )
τ = IA × B
arm SP is FSP = IbB sin π + θ = IbB cos θ
2 ( ) The above equation can also be written
and its direction is also as shown in the in terms of magnetic dipole moment
Figure 3.57.     
τ = pm × B where pm = IA
Since the forces FQR and FSP are equal,
opposite and collinear, they cancel each The tendency of the torque is to rotate
the loop so as to align its normal vector with
other. But the forces FPQ and FRS , which
the direction of the magnetic field.
are equal in magnitude and opposite in
If there are N turns in the rectangular
direction, are not acting along same straight
loop, then the torque is given by
line. Therefore, FPQ and FRS constitute a
couple which exerts a torque on the loop.
τ = NIAB sinq

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 Special cases: Mirror
Translucent

(a) When θ = 90°or the plane of the loop

scale
Flying spot

is parallel to the magnetic field, the torque

on the current loop is maximum. Permanent
magnet

τ max = IAB Lens and

graticule
Fixed core Moving
coil
Lamp
(b) When θ = 0°/180° or the plane of the
loop is perpendicular to the magnetic field,
the torque on the current loop is zero.

3.11.2 Moving coil

galvanometer
Moving coil galvanometer is a device
which is used to detect the flow of current N S
in an electrical circuit.
Principle When a current carrying loop
is placed in a uniform magnetic field, it
experiences a torque. Coil

Construction Figure 3.59 Moving coil galvanometer –

A moving coil galvanometer consists its parts
of a rectangular coil PQRS of insulated
thin copper wire. The coil contains a Working
large number of turns wound over a light Consider a single turn of the rectangular
metallic frame. A cylindrical soft-iron core coil PQRS whose length is l and breadth
is placed symmetrically inside the coil as b. PQ = RS = l and QR = SP = b. Let I be
shown in Figure 3.59. The rectangular coil the electric current flowing through the
is suspended freely between two pole pieces rectangular coil PQRS as shown in Figure
of a horse-shoe magnet. 3.60. The horse-shoe magnet has hemi -
The upper end of the rectangular spherical magnetic poles which produces
coil is attached to one end of fine strip of a radial magnetic field. Due to this radial
phosphor bronze and the lower end of the field, the sides QR and SP are always parallel
coil is connected to a hair spring which is to the magnetic field B and experience
also made up of phosphor bronze. In a fine no force. The sides PQ and RS are always
suspension strip, a small plane mirror is perpendicular to the magnetic field
attached in order to measure the deflection and experience equal forces in opposite
of the coil with the help of lamp and scale directions. Due to this, torque is produced.
arrangement. The other end of the mirror is
For single turn, the deflecting torque is
connected to a torsion head. In order to pass
electric current through the galvanometer, τ = bF = bBIl= (lb) BI = ABI
the suspension strip and the spring S are since area of the coil, A = lb
connected to terminals. For coil with N turns, we get
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 Force upwards
Figure of merit of a galvanometer
I is the current
P
flowing through It is defined as the current required to
the coil
Magnetic
produce a deflection of one scale division
l
in the galvanometer.
field
S
Q

l
Magnetic field Sensitivity of a galvanometer
R
The galvanometer is said to be
Force downwards
sensitive if it shows large scale deflection
Figure 3.60 Force acting on current even for a small current passed through
carrying coil it or a small voltage applied across it.
Current sensitivity
τ = NABI(3.69) It is defined as the deflection
produced per unit current flowing
Due to this deflecting torque, the coil
through galvanometer.
gets twisted and restoring torque (also
known as restoring couple) is developed. θ NAB 1
IS = = ⇒ I S = (3.72)
Hence the moment of the restoring torque is I K G
proportional to the amount of twist θ.Thus
The current sensitivity of a galvanometer
τ = K θ(3.70) can be increased by
(i) increasing the number of turns, N
where K is the restoring couple per unit (ii) increasing the magnetic induction, B
twist. (iii) increasing the area of the coil, A
At equilibrium, the deflecting couple (iv) decreasing the couple per unit
must be equal to the restoring couple. twist of the suspension wire, K.
Therefore we get, Phosphor - bronze wire is used as the
suspension wire because the couple per
NABI = K θ unit twist is very small.
K Voltage sensitivity
⇒I= θ (3.71)
NAB
It is defined as the deflection
(or) I = G θ
produced per unit voltage applied
K across galvanometer.
where G = is called galvanometer
NAB θ
constant or current reduction factor of the VS =
V
galvanometer.
θ NAB 
Since the suspended moving coil VS = = (or)
IRg K Rg
galvanometer is very sensitive, we have
1 I
to handle with high care while doing VS = = S (3.73)
GRg Rg
experiments. Most of the galvanometer
we use are pointer type moving coil where Rg is the resistance of galvanometer.
galvanometer.

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 E X A M P L E 3.25 E X A M P L E 3.26
The coil of a moving coil galvanometer has The resistance of a moving coil galvanometer
5 turns and each turn has an effective area is made twice its original value in order to
of 2 × 10–2 m2. It is suspended in a magnetic increase current sensitivity by 50%. Find
field whose strength is 4 × 10–2 Wb m–2. If the percentage change in voltage sensitivity.
the torsional constant K of the suspension
fibre is 4 × 10–9 N m deg–1. Solution
(a) Find its current sensitivity in division IS
Voltage sensitivity is VS =
per micro - ampere. Rg

(b) Calculate the voltage sensitivity of the When the resistance is doubled, then new
galvanometer for it to have full scale resistance is Rg ′ = 2Rg
deflection of 50 divisions for 25 mV. Increase in current sensitivity is
(c) 
Compute the resistance of the  50  3
I S′ = 1 + I = I
galvanometer.  100  S 2 S

Solution The new voltage sensitivity is

N = 5 turns 3
IS
3
A = 2 × 10–2 m2 VS′ = 2 = VS
2R g 4
B = 4 × 10–2 Wbm–2
K = 4 × 10–9 N m deg–1 Hence the voltage sensitivity decreases. The
(a) Current sensitivity percentage decrease in voltage sensitivity is

VS − VS′
NAB 5 × 2 × 10 −2 × 4 × 10 −2 ×100% = 25%
IS = = VS
K 4 × 10 −9
= 106 divisions per ampere
Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter
1µA = 1microampere = 10−6 ampere
and voltmeter
Therefore,
A galvanometer is very sensitive
div div div instrument to detect the current. It can
I S = 106 = 1 −6 = 1
A 10 A µA be easily converted into ammeter and
I S = 1 div (µA)
−1
voltmeter.

(b) Voltage sensitivity Galvanometer to an Ammeter

θ 50 div Ammeter is an instrument used to
VS = = = 2×103 div V−1
V 25 mV measure current flowing in the electrical
(c) The resistance of the galvanometer is circuit. The ammeter must offer low
resistance such that it will not change the
div
IS 106 current passing through it. So ammeter is
Rg = = A = 0.5×103 V = 0.5 kΩ
VS
2×103
div A connected in series to measure the circuit
V current.
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 A galvanometer is converted into an Since, the deflection in the galvanometer
ammeter by connecting a low resistance is proportional to the current passing
in parallel with the galvanometer. This low through it,
resistance is called shunt resistance S. The
1
scale is now calibrated in ampere and the θ= I g ⇒ θ ∝ I g ⇒ θ ∝ I So,
G
range of ammeter depends on the values of
the shunt resistance. the deflection produced in the
galvanometer is a measure of the current I
S passing through the circuit.
C D
Shunt resistance is connected in parallel
I – Ig I – Ig to galvanometer. Therefore, resistance
of ammeter (Ra) can be determined by
G
I A Ig Ig E I computing the effective resistance, which is

1 1 1 Rg S
Ammeter = + ⇒ Reff = = Ra
Reff Rg S Rg + S
Figure 3.61 Shunt resistance connected
in parallel Since, the shunt resistance is a very
S
low resistance and the ratio is also
Rg
Let I be the current passing through
small. This means, Ra is also small, i.e., the
the circuit as shown in Figure 3.61. When
current I reaches the junction A, it divides resistance offered by the ammeter is small.
into two components. Let Ig be the current So, when we connect ammeter in series, the
passing through the galvanometer of ammeter will not change appreciably the
resistance Rg through a path AGE and current in the circuit. For an ideal ammeter,
the remaining current (I – Ig) passes the resistance must be equal to zero. But in
along the path ACDE through shunt reality, the reading in ammeter is always
resistance S. The value of shunt resistance less than the actual current in the circuit.
is so adjusted that current Ig produces full Let Iideal be the current measured by ideal
scale deflection in the galvanometer. The ammeter and Iactual be the actual current
potential difference across galvanometer in the circuit. Then, the percentage error
is same as the potential difference across in measuring a current through an ammeter
shunt resistance. is

∆I I − I actual
Vgalvanometer = Vshunt ×100% = ideal ×100%
I Iideal
⇒ I g R g = ( I − I g )S
Key points
Ig
S= Rg or 1. An ammeter is a low resistance instrument
(I − I ) g
and it is always connected in series to the
S circuit
Ig = I
S + Rg
2. An ideal ammeter has zero resistance
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 3. 
In order to increase the range of an I = Ig
ammeter n times, the value of shunt
resistance to be connected in parallel is potential difference
I = Ig ⇒ Ig =
total resistance
Rg
S=
n −1 Since the galvanometer and high
Galvanometer to a voltmeter resistance are connected in series, the total
resistance or effective resistance in the
A voltmeter is an instrument used to circuit is the sum of their resistances. This
measure potential difference across any two gives the resistance of voltmeter. Thus the
points in the electrical circuits. It should not voltmeter resistance is
draw any current from the circuit otherwise
the value of potential difference to be Rv = Rg + Rh
measured will change. Therefore,
Voltmeter must have high resistance
V
and when it is connected in parallel, it will Ig =
Rg + Rh
not draw appreciable current so that it will
V
indicate the true potential difference. ⇒ Rh = − Rg
Ig

Rh Note that I g ∝ V
G
A B
Ig The deflection in the galvanometer is
proportional to current Ig. But current Ig
Voltmeter is proportional to the potential difference.
Hence the deflection in the galvanometer
Figure 3.62 High resistance connected in
is a measure of potential difference. Since
series
the resistance of voltmeter is very large,
A galvanometer is converted into a a voltmeter connected in parallel in an
voltmeter by connecting high resistance Rh electrical circuit will draw least current in the
in series with galvanometer as shown in circuit. An ideal voltmeter is one which has
Figure 3.62. The scale is now calibrated in infinite resistance.
volt and the range of voltmeter depends on
Key points
the values of the resistance Rh connected
1. Voltmeter is a high resistance instrument
in series i.e. the value of resistance is so
and it is always connected in parallel
adjusted so that current Ig produces full
with the circuit element across which the
scale deflection in the galvanometer.
potential difference is to be measured.
Let Rg be the resistance of galvanometer
and Ig be the current with which the 2. An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance
galvanometer produces full scale deflection. 3. In order to increase the range of voltmeter
Since the galvanometer is connected in n times the value of resistance to be
series with high resistance, the current in connected in series with galvanometer is
the electrical circuit is same as the current
Rh = (n-1) Rg
passing through the galvanometer.
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 SUMMARY

„ A vertical plane passing through geographic axis is called geographic meridian.

„ A vertical plane passing through magnetic axis is called magnetic meridian.
„ The angle between magnetic meridian at a point with the geographic meridian is
called the declination or magnetic declination.

„ The angle subtended by the Earth’s total magnetic field B with the horizontal
direction in the magnetic meridian is called dip or magnetic inclination at that point.
„ The magnetic moment is defined as the product  of its pole strength and magnetic
length. It is a vector quantity, denoted by m . p
„ The region surrounding magnet where magnetic pole of strength unity experiences

a force is known as magnetic field. It is a vector quantity and denoted by B . Its unit
is N A–1 m–1 .
„ The number of magnetic field lines crossing normally through a given area is called
magnetic flux ΦB. It is a scalar quantity. In SI unit, magnetic flux ΦB is weber, symbol Wb.
„ Statement of Coulomb’s law in magnetism “The force of attraction or repulsion
between two magnetic poles is proportional to the product of their pole strengths
and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them”.
„ Magnetic dipole kept in a uniform magnetic field experiences torque.
„ Tangent galvanometer is a device used to measure very small currents. It is a moving
magnet type galvanometer. Its working is based on tangent law.
„ Tangent law is B = BH tan θ.
„ The magnetic field which is used to magnetize a sample or specimen is called the

magnetising field. It is a vector quantity and denoted by H and its unit is A m–1.
„ The measure of ability of the material to allow the passage of magnetic lines of force
through it is known as magnetic permeability.
„ The net magnetic moment per unit volume of material is known as intensity of
magnetisation.

„ Magnetic susceptibility is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetisation ( I )

induced in the material due to the magnetising field ( H ).
„ Magnetic materials are classified into three categories: diamagnetic, paramagnetic
and ferromagnetic materials.

„ The lagging of magnetic induction B behind the cyclic variation in magnetising field

H is defined as “Hysteresis”, which means “lagging behind”.
„ The right hand thumb rule “Assume that we hold the current carrying conductor in
our right hand such that the thumb points in the direction of current flow, then the
rest of the fingers encircling the wire point in the direction of the magnetic field lines
produced”.
„ Maxwell right hand cork screw rule “If we rotate a screw by a screw driver, then
the direction of current is same as the direction in which screw advances, and the
direction of rotation of the screw will determine the direction of the magnetic field”.

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„ Ampère’s circuital law is ∫ ⋅ dl = µIenclosed .
B
C
„ Magnetic field inside the solenoid is B = µ nI , where n is the number of turns per
unit length.
„ Magnetic field interior to the toroid is B = µ nI , where n is the number of turns per
unit length.
   
„ Lorentz force is F = q ( E + v × B ).
„ Charged particle moving in a uniform magnetic field will undergo circular motion.
„ Fleming’s Left Hand Rule: Stretch forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the left
hand such that they are in mutually perpendicular directions. If we keep the forefinger in
the direction of magnetic field, the middle finger in the direction of the electric current,
then the thumb points in the direction the force experienced by the conductors.
„ One ampere is defined as that constant current when it is passed through each of the
two infinitely long parallel straight conductors kept at a distance of one meter apart
in vacuum causes each conductor to experience a force of 2 × 10–7 newton per metre
length of the conductor.
„ When a current carrying coil is placed in a uniform magnetic field, the net force on
it is always zero but net torque is not zero. The magnitude of net torque is τ = NABI
sin θ.
„ Moving coil galvanometer is an instrument used for the detection and measurement
of small currents.
„ In moving coil galvanometer, current passing through the galvanometer is directly
K
proportional to the deflection. Mathematically, I = Gθ, where G = is called
NAB
galvanometer constant or current reduction factor of the galvanometer.
„ Current sensitivity is defined as the deflection produced per unit current flowing
θ NAB 1
through it, I s = = ⇒ Is = .
I K G
„ Voltage sensitivity is defined as the deflection produced per unit voltage which is
θ 1 I
applied across it, Vs = = = S , where, Rg is the resistance of galvanometer.
V GRg Rg
„ Ammeter is an instrument used to measure current in an electrical circuit.
„ A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter of given range by connecting a
suitable low resistance S called shunt in parallel to the given galvanometer.
„ An ideal ammeter has zero resistance.
„ Voltmeter is an instrument used to measure potential difference across any element
in an electrical circuit.
„ A galvanometer can be converted into suitable voltmeter of given range by connecting
a suitable high resistance Rh in series with the given galvanometer.
„ An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance.

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 188
CONCEPT MAP

UNIT-3(XII-Physics_Vol-1).indd 188
Magnetism and Magnetic effects of
electric current
Magnetic effects of
electric current
Magnetism

Biot Savart’s Ampere

Bar Magnetics Earth’s Magnetic law law
Magnetism materials

Magnetic field of
current carrying
Coulomb’s Magnetic
Properties conductor
law elements

Tangent
Galvanometer Toroid Solenoid

Magnetic Magnetic field Torque

Lorentz force
field axial line equitorial line

Unit 3 M agnetism and magnetic effects of electric current

Potential energy Torque Moving coil
Cyclotron
Galvanometer

14-02-2020 20:05:06
 EVALUATION

I Multiple choice questions

2q 3 BV q 3 B 2V
1. The magnetic field at the centre O of (a) (b)
m 2m
the following current loop is
2q 3 B 2V 2q 3 BV
(c) (d)
I m m3
4. A circular coil of radius 5 cm and 50
r turns carries a current of 3 ampere. The
I I
O magnetic dipole moment of the coil is
nearly
µI µI (a) 1.0 A m2  (b) 1.2 A m2
(a) Ä (b) 
4r 4r
(c) 0.5 A m2  (d) 0.8 A m2
µI µI
(c)  Ä (d)   5. A thin insulated wire forms a plane
2r 2r
spiral of N = 100 tight turns carrying a
2. An electron moves in a straight line current I = 8 m A (milli ampere). The
inside a charged parallel plate capacitor radii of inside and outside turns are
of uniform charge density σ. The time a = 50 mm and b = 100 mm respectively.
taken by the electron to cross the The magnetic induction at the centre of
parallel plate capacitor undeflected the spiral is
when the plates of the capacitor are
(a) 5 µT (b) 7 µT
kept under constant magnetic field of
 (c) 8 µT (d) 10 µT
induction B is
6. Three wires of equal lengths are bent in
the form of loops. One of the loops is
E circle, another is a semi-circle and the
v third one is a square. They are placed
B e
in a uniform magnetic field and same
electric current is passed through
l
them. Which of the following loop
configuration will experience greater
elB lB torque ?
(a) ε  (b) ε 
σ σl (a) Circle (b) Semi-circle
lB lB
(c) ε  (d) ε  (c) Square (d) All of them
eσ σ
3. A particle having mass m and charge 7. Two identical coils, each with N turns
q accelerated through a potential and radius R are placed coaxially at a
difference V. Find the force experienced distance R as shown in the figure. If
when it is kept under perpendicular I is the current passing through the
 loops in the same direction, then the
magnetic field B .

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 magnetic field at a point P at a distance 3
(a) pm (b) pm
of R/2 from the centre of each coil is π

2 1
R (c) pm (d) pm
π 2
10. A non-conducting charged ring
 
R carrying a charge of q, mass m and
radius r is rotated about its axis with
P
constant angular speed ω. Find the
ratio of its magnetic moment with
angular momentum is
q 2q
8N µ  I 8N µ  I (a) (b)
(a) (b) 3
m m
5R 5 2R
q q
8N µ  I 4N µI (c) (d)
(c) (d) 2m 4m
5R 5R
11. The BH curve for a ferromagnetic
8. A wire of length l carrying a material is shown in the figure. The
current I along the Y direction is material is placed inside a long solenoid
kept in a magnetic field given by which contains 1000 turns/cm.
 β    The current that should be passed
B= ( i + j + k )T . The magnitude of
3 in the solenonid to demagnetize the
Lorentz force acting on the wire is ferromagnet completely is

(a) 2 (b) 1
βIl βIl B in tesla
3 3 4.0

1 3.0
(c) 2 βIl (d) βIl
2 2.0

9. A bar magnet of length l and magnetic 1.0 H in ampere

moment pm is bent in the form of an arc per metre

as shown in figure. The new magnetic –250 –200 –150 –100 –50 50 100 150 200 250
dipole moment will be –1.0

–2.0
(NEET 2013)
–3.0

–4.0

r 60° r (a) 1.00 m A (b) 1.25 mA

(c) 1.50 mA (d) 1.75 mA

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 12. Two short bar magnets have magnetic 15. The potential energy of magnetic
moments 1.20 Am2 and 1.00 Am2 dipole whose dipole moment is

respectively. They are kept on a pm = (−0.5i + 0.4 j) Am 2 kept in
 
horizontal table parallel to each other uniform magnetic field B = 0.2 i T
with their north poles pointing towards (a) –0.1 J (b) –0.8 J
south. They have a common magnetic
(c) 0.1 J (d) 0.8 J
equator and are separated by a distance
of 20.0 cm. The value of the resultant Answers
horizontal magnetic induction at the 1) a 2) d 3) c 4) b 5) b
mid-point O of the line joining their
6) a 7) b 8) a 9) b 10) c
centres is (Horizontal components
of Earth’s magnetic induction is 11) c 12) c 13) b 14) d 15) c
3.6 × 10–5 Wb m–2 )
II Short answer questions:
(NSEP 2000-2001)
1. What is meant by magnetic induction?
(a) 3.60 × 10 Wb m
–5 –2
2. Define magnetic flux.
(b) 3.5 × 10 Wb m
–5 –2
3. Define magnetic dipole moment.
(c) 2.56 × 10 Wb m
–4 –2
4. State Coulomb’s inverse law.
(d) 2.2 × 10 Wb m
–4 –2
5. What is magnetic susceptibility?
13. The vertical component of Earth’s 6. State Biot-Savart’s law.
magnetic field at a place is equal to the
7. What is magnetic permeability?
horizontal component. What is the
value of angle of dip at this place? 8. State Ampere’s circuital law.
(a) 30o (b) 45o 9. Compare dia, para and ferro-magnetism.
(c) 60o (d) 90o 10. What is meant by hysteresis?
14. A flat dielectric disc of radius R carries 11. Define magnetic declination and
an excess charge on its surface. The inclination.
surface charge density is σ. The disc 12. What is resonance condition in
rotates about an axis perpendicular to cyclotron?
its plane passing through the centre 13. Define ampere.
with angular velocity ω. Find the 14. State Fleming's left hand rule.
magnitude of the torque on the disc if 15. Is an ammeter connected in series or
it is placed in a uniform magnetic field parallel in a circuit? Why?
whose strength is B which is directed
16. Explain the concept of velocity selector.
perpendicular to the axis of rotation
17. Why is the path of a charged particle
(a) 1 σωπBR (b) 1 σωπBR 2 not a circle when its velocity is not
4 2 perpendicular to the magnetic field?
18. Give the properties of dia / para /
(c) 1 σωπBR3 (d) 1 σωπBR 4
4 4 ferromagnetic materials.

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 19. What happens to the domains in a 15. Compare the properties of soft and
ferromagnetic material in the presence hard ferromagnetic materials.
of external magnetic field? 16. Derive the expression for the force
20. How is a galvanometer converted into on a current-carrying conductor in a
(i) an ammeter and (ii) a voltmeter? magnetic field.

III Long answer questions IV. Numerical problems

1. Discuss Earth’s magnetic field in detail. 1. A bar magnet
 having a magnetic
2. Deduce the relation for the magnetic moment pm is cut into four pieces i.e.,
field at a point due to an infinitely long first cut into two pieces along the axis
straight conductor carrying current. of the magnet and each piece is further
3. Obtain a relation for the magnetic field cut along the axis into two pieces.
at a point along the axis of a circular Compute the magnetic moment of
coil carrying current. each piece.
4. Compute the torque experienced by a  1
 Answer pm = pm
magnetic needle in a uniform magnetic
new 4
field. 2. A conductor of linear mass density
0.2 g m–1 suspended by two flexible
5. Calculate the magnetic field at a point
wire as shown in figure. Suppose the
on the axial line of a bar magnet.
tension in the supporting wires is zero
6. Obtain the magnetic field at a point on when it is kept inside the magnetic
the equatorial line of a bar magnet. field of 1 T whose direction is into the
7. Find the magnetic field due to a long page. Compute the current inside the
straight conductor using Ampere’s conductor and also the direction of the
circuital law. current. Assume g = 10 m s–2
8. Discuss the working of cyclotron in
detail.
9. What is tangent law? Discuss in detail.
10. Derive the expression for the torque on a
current-carrying coil in a magnetic field. Bin
11. Discuss the conversion of galvanometer
into an ammeter and also a voltmeter.
12. Calculate the magnetic field inside  Answer 2 mA
and outside of the long solenoid using 3. A circular coil with cross-sectional area
Ampere’s circuital law. 0.1 cm2 is kept in a uniform magnetic
13. Derive the expression for the force field of strength 0.2 T. If the current
between two parallel, current-carrying passing in the coil is 3 A and plane
conductors. of the loop is perpendicular to the
direction of magnetic field. Calculate
14. Give an account of magnetic Lorentz
force. (a) total torque on the coil

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 (b) total force on the coil wrapped tightly around it with each
(c) average force on each electron in the turns concentric with the sphere. This
coil due to the magnetic field. (The free sphere is placed on an inclined plane
electron density for the material of the wire such that plane of coil is parallel to the
is 1028 m–3). inclined plane. A uniform magnetic
Answer (a) zero (b) zero (c) 0.6 x 10–23 N field of 0.5 T exists in the region in
4. A bar magnet is placed in a uniform vertically upward direction. Compute
magnetic field whose strength is 0.8 T. the current I required to rest the sphere
If the bar magnet is oriented at an angle 2
in equilibrium. Answer A
30o with the external field experiences a π
torque of 0.2 Nm. Calculate:
(i) the magnetic moment of the magnet
(ii) the work done by the magnetic field
in moving it from most stable configuration
to the most unstable configuration and
also compute the work done by the applied
magnetic field in this case.
Answer (i) 0.5 A m2 (ii) W = 0.8 J and
Wmag = -0.8 J
5. A non - conducting sphere has a 6. Calculate the magnetic field at the
mass of 100 g and radius 20 cm. A flat centre of a square loop which carries
compact coil of wire with turns 5 is a current of 1.5 A, length of each side
being 50 cm. Answer 3.4 x 10–6 T

BOOKS FOR REFERENCE

1. H. C. Verma, Concepts of Physics – Volume 2, Bharati Bhawan Publisher.

2. Halliday, Resnick and Walker, Fundamentals of Physics, Wiley Publishers, 10th edition.
3. Serway and Jewett, Physics for scientist and engineers with modern physics, Brook/Coole
publishers, Eighth edition.
4. David J. Griffiths, Introduction to electrodynamics, Pearson publishers.
5. Rita John, Solid State Physics (Magnetism chapter), McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt.
Ltd.
6. Paul Tipler and Gene Mosca, Physics for scientist and engineers with modern physics,
Sixth edition, W.H. Freeman and Company.
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 ICT CORNER
Magnetism

Topic: Cyclotron
In this activity you will be able to visualize
and understand the working of cyclotron.

STEPS:
• Open the browser and type ‘physics.bu.edu/~duffy/HTML5/cyclotron.html’ in the address bar.
• Click ‘play’ to release the positively charged particle between the D-shaped sections.
• Observe trajectory of positively charged particle under the magnetic field between D-shaped
sections.
• Note the kinetic energy of the particle after some time (say t = 20 s)

Step1 Step2

Step3 Step4

Double the electric and magnetic fields by clicking corresponding buttons and observe the change in kinetic
energy for a particular given time t.

URL:
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/HTML5/cyclotron.html
* Pictures are indicative only.
*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.

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