Epimers- Differ in the configuration of atoms attached to a chiral carbon.
One of a pair of diastereomers
Not mirror images
Only one chiral centre with different configuration.
Anomers – When the molecule is converted to cyclic form, it generates new chiral centre. This carbon is called the anomeric
carbon and the configuration about it is denoted by prefixes ɑ – and β.
These are epimers that differ in position of anomeric carbon.
Mutarotation - Mutarotation is a difference in the specific rotation of plane-polarized light, due to the change in the
equilibrium between two anomers in the solution.
Any molecule to show mutarotation must have hemiketal or hemiacetal group.
Mutarotation property was first observed in sugar.
The specific rotation of sugar in aqueous solution varies from sugar to sugar.
It is the process by which reducing sugars may undergo structural changes in solution.
Cyclic form
to
Open chain form
to
Recyclization
Buffer range: pH range where a buffer can effectively neutralize added acids and bases.
Prokaryotes
and
Eukaryotes
Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria
Cell Signaling and
Biological Transport
❑ Cells typically communicate using chemical signals.
❑ These chemical signals, which are proteins or other molecules produced by a sending cell, secreted from
the cell and released into the extracellular space.
❑ There, they can float – like messages in a bottle – over to neighboring cells.
❑ To detect a signal (that is, to be a target cell), a neighbor cell must have the right receptor for that signal.
❑ When a signaling molecule binds to its receptor, it alters the shape or activity of the receptor, triggering a
change inside of the cell. Signaling molecules are often called ligands.
❑ The message carried by a ligand is often relayed through a chain of chemical messengers inside the cell.
❑ Thus, the original intercellular (between-cells) signal is converted into an intracellular (within-cell) signal
that triggers a response.
❑ Types/Forms of Cell Signaling:
➢ Paracrine
➢ Autocrine
➢ Endocrine
➢ Direct contact
❑ Cells that are near one another communicate through the
release of chemical messengers.
❑ Paracrine signaling allows cells to locally coordinate
activities with their neighbors - important during
development.
❑ In autocrine signaling, a cell signals to itself, releasing a
ligand that binds to receptors on its own surface.
❑ It is important during development, helping cells take on
and reinforce their correct identities.
❑ In endocrine signaling, signals are produced by specialized
cells and released into the bloodstream, which carries them
to target cells in distant parts of the body, Eg: Hormones.
❑ Cell-Cell Contact: Gap junctions in animals and
plasmodesmata in plants are tiny channels that directly
connect neighboring cells.
❑ In another form of direct signaling, two cells may bind to
one another as they carry complementary proteins on their
surfaces.
Synaptic signaling
❑ One unique example of paracrine signaling is synaptic
signaling, in which nerve cells transmit signals.
❑ This process is named for the synapse, the junction between
two nerve cells where signal transmission occurs.
❑ When the sending neuron fires, an electrical impulse moves
rapidly through the cell, traveling down a long, fiber-like
extension called an axon.
❑ When the impulse reaches the synapse, it triggers the release of
ligands called neurotransmitters, which quickly cross the
small gap between the nerve cells.
❑ When the neurotransmitters arrive at the receiving cell, they
bind to receptors and cause a chemical change inside of the cell
(often, opening ion channels and changing the electrical
potential across the membrane).
❑ Transport refers to the act or the means by which a molecule or ion is moved across the cell membrane or via
the bloodstream.
❑ There are two types of transport (1) passive transport and (2) active transport.
➢ Passive transport is a kind of transport by which ions or molecules move along a concentration gradient,
which means movement from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
➢ The four major types of passive transport are diffusion, facilitated diffusion, filtration, and osmosis.
➢ Active transport is a kind of transport wherein ions or molecules move against a concentration gradient.
➢ This means the movement is from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration.
➢ This type of transport requires expenditure of energy and the assistance of proteins (i.e. carrier protein).
