10

PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
AND POLAR COORDINATES
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS & POLAR COORDINATES

10.4
Areas and Lengths
in Polar Coordinates
In this section, we will:
Develop the formula for the area of a region
whose boundary is given by a polar equation.
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES Formula 1

We need to use the formula for the area

of a sector of a circle
A = ½ r2 θ
where:

 r is the radius.
 θ is the radian measure
of the central angle.
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES

Formula 1 follows from the fact that

the area of a sector is proportional to
its central angle:
A = (θ/2π)πr2 = ½ r2θ
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES

Let R be the region bounded by the polar

curve r = f(θ) and by the rays θ = a and θ = b,
where:

 f is a positive
continuous
function.
 0 < b – a ≤ 2π
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES

We divide the interval [a, b] into subintervals

with endpoints θ0, θ1, θ2, …, θn, and equal
width ∆θ.

 Then, the rays

θ = θi divide R
into smaller
regions with
central angle
∆θ = θi – θi–1.
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES
If we choose θi* in the i th subinterval [θi–1, θi]
then the area ∆Ai of the i th region is the area
of the sector of a circle with central angle ∆θ
and radius f(θ*).
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES Formula 2

Thus, from Formula 1, we have:

∆Ai ≈ ½ [f(θi*)]2 ∆θ

So, an approximation to the total area

A of R is: n
A   [ f (i )] 
1
2
* 2

i 1
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES

It appears that the approximation

in Formula 2 improves as n → ∞.
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES

However, the sums in Formula 2 are

Riemann sums for the function g(θ) = ½ [f(θ)]2.

So,
n
lim  [ f (i )]   
b
1
2
* 2 1
[ f ( )] d
2
n  a 2
i 1
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES Formula 3

Therefore, it appears plausible—and can, in

fact, be proved—that the formula for the area
A of the polar region R is:

b
A 1
[ f ( )] d
2
a 2
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES Formula 4

Formula 3 is often written as

b
A 1
r d
2
a 2

with the understanding that r = f(θ).

 Note the similarity between Formulas 1 and 4.

AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES Formula 4

When we apply Formula 3 or 4, it is helpful

to think of the area as being swept out by
a rotating ray through O that starts with
angle a and ends with angle b.
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES Example 1

Find the area enclosed by one loop of

the four-leaved rose r = cos 2θ.

 The curve r = cos 2θ

was sketched in
Example 8 in
Section 10.3
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES Example 1

Notice that the region enclosed by the right

loop is swept out by a ray that rotates from
θ = –π/4 to θ = π/4.
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES Example 1

Hence, Formula 4 gives:

 4
A 1
r 2 d
 4 2
 4
  cos 2 d
1 2
2  4
 4
 cos 2 d 2
0
 4
 1
2 (1  cos 4 ) d
0


  sin 4 0 
 4
 1
2
1
4
8
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES Example 2

Find the area of the region that lies

inside the circle r = 3 sin θ and outside
the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ.
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES Example 2

The values of a and b in Formula 4

are determined by finding the points
of intersection of the two curves.
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES Example 2

They intersect when 3 sin θ = 1 + sin θ,

which gives sin θ = ½ .

 So, θ = π/6 and 5π/6.

AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES Example 2

The desired area can be found by subtracting

the area inside the cardioid between θ = π/6
and θ = 5π/6 from the area inside the circle
from π/6 to 5π/6.
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES Example 2

Thus,
5 6
A  (3sin  ) d
1 2
2 6
5 6
  (1  sin  ) d
1 2
2 6
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES Example 2

As the region is symmetric about the vertical

axis θ = π/2, we can write:
 2  2
A  2 2  9sin  d  2  (1  2sin   sin 2  ) d 
 1 2 1
  6  6 
 2
 (8sin 2   1  2sin  ) d
 6
 2
 (3  4 cos 2  2sin  ) d as sin 2  12 (1  cos 2 ) 
 6

 3  2sin 2  2 cos  
 2
6


AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES

Example 2 illustrates the procedure for

finding the area of the region bounded by
two polar curves.
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES

In general, let R be a region that is

bounded by curves with polar equations
r = f(θ), r = g(θ), θ = a, θ = b,
where:
 f(θ) ≥ g(θ) ≥ 0
 0 < b – a < 2π
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES

The area A of R is found by subtracting

the area inside r = g(θ) from the area inside
r = f(θ).
AREAS IN POLAR COORDINATES

So, using Formula 3, we have:

1 b1
A [ f ( )] d   [ g ( )] d
b
2 2
a 2 a 2

  [ f ( )]  [ g ( )]  d
1 b 2 2

2 a
CAUTION

The fact that a single point has many

representations in polar coordinates
sometimes makes it difficult to find all
the points of intersection of two polar curves.
CAUTION

For instance, it is obvious from this figure

that the circle and the cardioid have three
points of intersection.
CAUTION

However, in Example 2, we solved

the equations r = 3 sin θ and r = 1 + sin θ
and found only two such points:
(3/2, π/6) and (3/2, 5π/6)
CAUTION

The origin is also a point of intersection.

However, we can’t find it by solving

the equations of the curves.

 The origin has no single representation in

polar coordinates that satisfies both equations.
CAUTION

Notice that, when represented as

(0, 0) or (0, π), the origin satisfies
r = 3 sin θ.

 So, it lies on the circle.

CAUTION

When represented as (0, 3 π/2),

it satisfies r = 1 + sin θ.

 So, it lies on the cardioid.

CAUTION

Think of two points moving along

the curves as the parameter value θ
increases from 0 to 2π.

 On one curve,
the origin is reached
at θ = 0 and θ = π.

 On the other, it is
reached at θ = 3π/2.
CAUTION

 The points don’t collide at the origin since

they reach the origin at different times.

 However, the curves

intersect there
nonetheless.
CAUTION

Thus, to find all points of intersection of two

polar curves, it is recommended that you
draw the graphs of both curves.

 It is especially convenient to use a graphing

calculator or computer to help with this task.
POINTS OF INTERSECTION Example 3

Find all points of intersection of

the curves r = cos 2θ and r = ½ .

 If we solve the equations r = cos 2θ and r = ½ ,

we get cos 2θ = ½ .

 Therefore, 2θ = π/3, 5π/3, 7π/3, 11π/3.

POINTS OF INTERSECTION Example 3

 Thus, the values of θ between 0 and 2π

that satisfy both equations are:

θ = π/6, 5π/6, 7π/6, 11π/6

POINTS OF INTERSECTION Example 3

We have found four points

of intersection:

(½ , π/6), (½ , 5π/6), (½ , 7π/6), (½ , 11π/6)

POINTS OF INTERSECTION Example 3

However, you can see that the curves have

four other points of intersection:
(½ , π/3), (½ , 2π/3), (½ , 4π/3), (½ , 5π/3)
POINTS OF INTERSECTION Example 3

These can be found using symmetry or

by noticing that another equation of the circle
is r = -½ .
Then, we solve
r = cos 2θ and r = -½ .
ARC LENGTH

To find the length of a polar curve r = f(θ),

a ≤ θ ≤ b, we regard θ as a parameter and
write the parametric equations of the curve
as:
x = r cos θ = f(θ)cos θ
y = r sin θ = f (θ)sin θ
ARC LENGTH

Using the Product Rule and differentiating

with respect to θ, we obtain:

dx dr
 cos   r sin 
d d

dy dr
 sin   r cos 
d d
ARC LENGTH

So, using cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1,we have:

2 2
 dx   dy 
   
 d   d 
2
 dr  dr
  cos   2r cos  sin   r sin 
2 2 2

 d  d
2
 dr  dr
  sin 2
  2 r sin  cos   r 2
cos 2

 d  d
2
 dr 
   r 2

 d 
ARC LENGTH Formula 5

Assuming that f’ is continuous, we can

use Theorem 6 in Section 10.2 to write
the arc length as:

2 2
b  dx   dy 
L     d
a
 d   d 
ARC LENGTH Formula 5

Therefore, the length of a curve with polar

equation r = f(θ), a ≤ θ ≤ b, is:

2
b  dr 
L r 
2
 d
a
 d 
ARC LENGTH Example 4

Find the length of the cardioid

r = 1 + sin θ

 We sketched it
in Example 7
in Section 10.3
ARC LENGTH

Its full length is given by the parameter interval

0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
So, Formula 5 gives:
2
2  dr 
L r 
2
 d
0
 d 
2
 (1  sin  )  cos  d
2 2
0
2
 2  2sin  d
0
ARC LENGTH

We could evaluate this integral by multiplying

and dividing the integrand by 2  2sin  or
we could use a computer algebra system.

 In any event, we find that the length

of the cardioid is L = 8.