CHAPTER 7

ALTERNATING CURRENTS
Prepared by
Midilaj M. Abubakkar
Don Bosco Higher Secondary School Silapathar

7.1 Introduction

The electric mains supply in our homes and offices is a voltage that varies
like a sine function with time. Such a voltage is called alternating voltage
(ac voltage) and the current driven by it in a circuit is called the alternating
current (ac current)

Today, most of the electrical devices we use require ac voltage. This is

mainly because most of the electrical energy sold by power companies is
transmitted and distributed as alternating current. The main reason for
preferring use of ac voltage over dc voltage is that ac voltages can be easily
and efficiently converted from one voltage to the other by means of
transformers. Further, electrical energy can also be transmitted economically
over long distances.
7.2 Representation of ac current and voltage by rotating vectors
— phasors
In order to show phase relationship between voltage and current in an AC
circuit, we use the notion of phasors.
A phasor is a vector which rotates about the origin in anticlockwise
direction with angular speed ω.

▪ The length of each phasor represents the amplitude or peak value of

the voltage or current.
▪ The projection of each phasor on the vertical axis gives the
instantaneous value of the quantity that the phasor represents.
▪ The rotation angle of each phasor is equal to the phase of
alternating quantity at that instant t.
▪ The angle between two phasors will give you the phase difference
between the corresponding quantities
1

 7.3 AC Voltage Applied to a Resistor

Apply Kirchhoff’s Loop rule ,Σε(t) = 0

vm sin ωt- i R = 0
vm sin ωt= iR
i = vRm sin ωt
= where =
i m is called amplitude of
current

Graph of voltage and current across a pure resistor versus

In a pure resistor, the voltage and current are in phase. The minima, zero and
maxima occur at the same.
Phasor diagram for the circuit

Power Dissipated in the Resistor

The ac current varies sinusoidally and has corresponding positive and
negative values during each cycle. Thus, the sum of the instantaneous
current values over one complete cycle is zero, and the average current is
zero.The fact that the average current is zero, however, does not mean that
the average power consumed is zero and that there is no dissipation of
electrical energy.

2
𝐦𝐢
𝐦
𝐑
𝐯
𝐢
𝐬
𝐢
𝐢
𝐧
𝜔
𝐭
𝜔
𝐭
 The instantaneous power dissipated in the resistor i
p=
p = vm sin ωt im sin ωt
p = v m i m sin2ωt
Avearage power consumed over one complete cycle
p̅ = < v m i m sin2ωt >
p̅ = vm im < sin2 ωt >
1
< sn2ωt > = 2
1
p̅ = vmim
2
im
P = ( v √m2) ( √2 )
=
Where is called rms current and V is called rms
voltage.

The rms current ( Root Mean Square Current) or Effective Current

1
To express AC power p̅ = v m i m in the same form as dc power P = VI ,
2
a special value of current is defined and used. It is called, root mean
square (rms) or effective current and is denoted by or I.
I= √⟨i2⟩
I= √ ⟨(im sin ωt)2 ⟩
I= im√⟨sin2ωt⟩
1
I=i m √2
= = 0.707
√

The rms current is the equivalent dc current that would produce the
same average power loss as the alternating current.

Similarly ,rms voltage or Effective voltage

V= = √
V= = 0.707
√

3
𝐢
𝐦
𝐏
𝐈
𝐦
𝐫
𝐯𝐦
𝐦
𝐦
𝐯
𝐬
𝐕
𝑣
𝐕
𝑖
𝐈
𝐈
𝐨
𝐫
𝐈
𝐯
𝐢
𝐨
𝐫
𝐕
𝐈
Why a shock from 220V ac is more fatal than that from 220Vdc?
The household line voltage of 220 V is an rms value.
V = 220V

Its peak voltage v m = √2 V

= 1.414 x 220 V
= 311 V
At some instant peak value of ac may reach upto 311V .So a shock from
220V ac is more fatal than that from 220Vdc.

Example
A light bulb is rated at 100W for a 220 V supply. Find
(a) the resistance of the bulb
(b) the peak voltage of the source
(c) the rms current through the bulb.

7.4 AC Voltage Applied to an Inductor

Apply Kirchhoff’s Loop rule ,Σε(t) = 0

vm sin ωt- L di
dt =0

vm sin ωt= L didt

di v m sin ωt
dt = L

di= v mL sin ωt dt

vm
i= L ∫ sin ωt dt

4
 vm −cos ωt
i= x
L ω
i = − vωL
m cos ωt

i = −im cos ωt

= ( − ) where
=
In a pure inductor, the current lags the voltage by π/2 or one-quarter (1/4)
cycle.

Inductive Reactance ( )
m vm
The current amplitude, i = ωL

im = v m
XL
The quantity ω L is analogous to the resistance and is called inductive
reactance, denoted by X L
= L =
▪ The dimension of inductive reactance is the same as that of
resistance and its SI unit is ohm (Ω).
▪ The inductive reactance limits the current in a purely inductive
circuit in the same way as the resistance limits the current in a
purely resistive circuit.
▪ The inductive reactance is directly proportional to the inductance and
to the frequency of the current.
▪ For DC , f=0 and so =0 i.e., an inductor offers an easy path to
DC.
▪ The value of increases as frequency is increased, hence offers a
resistive path to AC.

Graph of v and i versus ωt

=
= ( − )

5
𝛑
𝛑
𝐦𝐢
𝐦𝟐
𝐗
𝐯
𝐦𝟐𝐢
𝐯
𝐢
𝐢
𝐯
𝜔
𝐬
𝐬
𝐬
𝐢
𝐢
𝐢
𝐧
𝐢
𝐧
𝐧
𝜔
𝜔
𝟐
𝐗
𝜔
𝐭
𝐭
𝛑
𝐭
𝐟
𝐋
𝜔
𝐋
𝐗
𝐗
 Phasor diagram

The current lags the voltage by π/2 .

Power Dissipated in the Inductor

Instantaneous power p=iv
p= −im cos ωt x vm sin ωt
p= −im vm cos ωt sin ωt
p= − im v2m 2cos ωt sin ωt
p= − im v m2 sin( 2ωt)
The average power over a complete cycle
̅ = P = ⟨− im v m2 sin( 2ωt )⟩
P = − im v2m ⟨sin( 2ωt )⟩
⟨sin( 2ωt )⟩ =0
P=0
The average power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle is
zero.

Example
A pure inductor of 25.0 mH is connected to a source of 220 V. Find the
inductive reactance and rms current in the circuit if the frequency of the
source is 50 Hz.
Inductive reactance, = =
= 2x 3.14x50x25x −
= 7.85Ω
The rms current in the circuit is, =

= .
= 28A

6
𝟑
𝐕𝐗
𝟕
𝟖
𝟓
𝟐
𝟐
𝟎
𝟏
𝟎
𝐗
𝜔
𝐋
𝐈
𝟐
𝛑
𝐟
𝐋
 7.5 AC Voltage Applied to a Capacitor

Applying Kirchhoff’s Loop rule

q Σε(t) = 0
vm sin ωt- C = 0
vm sin ωt = qC
q = C vm sin ωt
d
i= dt (C vm sin ωt)
i = C vm dtd (sin ωt)
i = C vm ω cos ωt
i = ωC vm cos ωt
i = im cos ωt
= ( + )
where =
or = ( )

In a purely capacitive circuit, the current leads the voltage by π/2 or one-
quarter (1/4) cycle.

Capacitive Reactance
Current amplitude, = ( )
=
The quantity ( ) is analogous to the resistance and is called capacitive
reactance, denoted by
= =
▪ The dimension of capacitive reactance is the same as that of
resistance and its SI unit is ohm (Ω).
▪ The capacitive reactance limits the amplitude of the current in a purely
capacitive circuit in the same way as the resistance limits the current in
a purely resistive circuit.
▪ Capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency and the
capacitance.

7
𝛑
𝟏
𝐦
𝐦𝟐𝐢
𝒊𝒎
𝑚
𝜔
𝐗
𝜔
𝟏
𝐂𝐗
𝜔
𝟏
𝟏
𝑪
𝐂
𝐂
𝐂
𝑣
𝛎
𝐢
𝟐
𝟏
𝛑
𝐟
𝐂
𝛎
𝐬
𝐢
𝐢
𝐧
𝜔
𝜔
𝐭
𝐂
𝐢
𝐯
𝐗
 ▪ For DC , f=0 and hence X C = infinite i.e., the capacitor blocks DC.
▪ For AC, as the frequency increases, X C decreases and hence
capacitor allows AC to flow through it.

Graph of v and i versus ωt

v = vm sin ωt

i = i m sin (ωt + π2)

Phasor diagram

Power Dissipated in the Capacitor

P=iv
p= im cos ωt x vm sin ωt
p= i m v2m sin( 2ωt)
The average power over a complete cycle
̅ = P = ⟨im v m2 sin( 2ωt )⟩
P = i m v2m ⟨sin( 2ωt )⟩
⟨sin( 2ωt )⟩ =0
P=0
The average power supplied to a capacitor over one complete cycle is
zero.

Example
A 15.0 μF capacitor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz source. Find the
capacitive reactance and the current (rms and peak) in the circuit. If the
frequency is doubled, what happens to the capacitive reactance and the
current?

8
 The capacitive reactance =
=
= =212Ω
. −

The rms current is , =

= =1.04A

=√
The peak current is
= . x1.04 =1.47A
If the frequency is doubled, the capacitive reactance is halved , and
consequently, the current is doubled.
Example
A light bulb and an open coil inductor are connected to an ac source
through a key as shown in Figure.

The switch is closed and after sometime, an iron rod is inserted into the
interior of the inductor. The glow of the light bulb
(a)increases; (b) decreases; (c) is unchanged, as the iron rod is inserted. Give
your answer with reasons.
Solution:
As the iron rod is inserted, the magnetic field inside the coil magnetizes the
iron increasing the magnetic field inside it. Hence, the inductance of the coil
increases. Consequently, the inductive reactance of the coil increases. As a
result, a larger fraction of the applied ac voltage appears across the inductor,
leaving less voltage across the bulb. Therefore, the glow of the light bulb
decreases.
Example
An electric bulb B and a parallel plate capacitor C are connected in series as
shown in figure.

9
𝟐
𝟐
𝟎
𝟔
𝐂𝟏𝜔
𝟏𝟐
𝟏𝟐
𝐕𝐗𝟐
𝐈
𝛑
𝐱
𝟏
𝐂
𝟐
𝐟
𝟑
𝟏
𝐂
𝟏
𝟒
𝟒
𝐱
𝟏
𝟓
𝟎
𝟒
𝐱
𝟏
𝟓
𝐱
𝟏
𝟎
𝐈
𝐗
 The bulb glows with some brightness. How will the glow of the bulb
affected on introducing a dielectric slab between the plates of the
capacitor? Give reason in support of your answer
When a dielectric slabis introduced between the plates the capacitance
increases. Then capacitive reactance decreases. As a result, a smaller
fraction of the applied ac voltage appears across the capacitor, leaving
large voltage across the bulb. Therefore, the glow of the light bulb
increases.

7.6 AC Voltage Applied to a Series LCR Circuit

Applying Kirchhoff’s Loop qrule Σε(t) = 0

vm sin ωt − iR − L di − =0
dt C
= + ⅆ +
ⅆ

Phasor-diagram solution
Since L,C and R are in series the ac current i in each element is the same.
Let the current be = ( + ɸ)
Further, let VR , VL , VC , and V represent the voltage phasors across the
resistor, inductor , capacitor and the source, respectively.
For resistor , and .
For inductor , ⅆ π/2.
For capacitor , π/2.

10
𝐢
𝐪
𝐦𝐯
𝐭
𝐬
𝐢
𝐂
𝐧
𝜔
𝐭
𝐢
𝐑
𝐕
𝐕
𝐕
𝐥
𝐢
𝐞
𝐥
𝐋
𝐚
𝐚
𝐠
𝐬
𝐢
𝐬
𝐈
𝐈
𝐈
𝐬
𝐛
𝐛
𝐚
𝐢
𝐲
𝐲
𝐧
𝐫
𝐞
𝜔
𝐢
𝐧
𝐭
𝐩
𝐡
𝐚
𝐬
𝐞
 =
+( − ) −
=( ) +( )

= [( ) + ( − )]
=
( ) +( − )
=
√( ) +( − )

=
The quantity √( ) + ( − ) is analogous to resistance and is called
impedance Z in an ac circuit.

Impedance, = √( ) + ( − )
SI unit of Z is Ohm

vRm
tanϕ =
tanϕ = ivmCXmC−v
−i LmmX L

iLm R
tanϕ = X C −X
R

−
= −

Impedance diagram

The phase difference ϕ can be obtained using impedance diagram.

tanϕ = X C −X
R
L

−
= −

11
𝐗
𝐗
𝐗
𝐗
𝐂
𝐂
𝐋
𝐋
𝟐
𝟏
𝟏
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝐯
𝐯
𝐦
𝐦
𝐯
𝐦𝐢
𝐦𝐢
𝐦𝐢
𝐯𝐙
𝛟
𝛟
𝐑
𝐑
𝐑
𝐑
𝟐
𝐯
𝐗
𝐭
𝐭
𝐗
𝐚
𝐚
𝐯
𝐦
𝐯
𝐦
𝐢
𝐑
𝐢
𝐦
𝐧
𝐧
𝐗
𝐗
𝐯
𝐑
𝐑
𝐙
𝐑
𝐢
𝐦
𝐗
𝐑
𝐗
𝐂
𝐂
𝐗
𝐗
𝐢
𝐦
𝐋
𝐗
𝐗
𝐗
𝐋
𝐗
 Example
A resistor of 200 Ω and a capacitor of 15.0 μF are connected in series to a
220 50 Hz ac source.
(a) Calculate the current in the circuit
(b) Calculate the voltage (rms) across the resistor and the capacitor.
Is the algebraic sum of these voltages more than the source voltage? If
yes, resolve the paradox.
a) R = 200Ω , C =15.0 μF =15x − F, V = 220 V, =50Hz

Z = √R2 + XC2

1
Z= √R 2 +( 2πfC
)2
1
Z = √2002 + ( )2
2X 3.14X 50X 15x 10−6
Z = √2002 + 212.32
= 291.5Ω
The current in the circuit is
V
I= Z

= .
=0.755A
(b) The current is the same throughout the circuit.
VR = IR =0.755 Ax200 Ω =151V
VC = IXC=0.755 A x 212.3 Ω =160.3V
Algebraic sum of VR and VC =151V+160.3V=311.3V
This is more than source voltage and is not possible.

There is a phase difference of 900 betweenVR and VC . Therefore, the total

of these voltages must be obtained using the Pythagorean theorem.

V= √ + =√ + . =220V

12
𝟐
𝟐
𝟔
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝐈
𝐙
𝟐
𝟐
𝟗
𝟎
𝟏
𝟓
𝐕
𝐕
𝟏
𝟓
𝟏
𝟏
𝟔
𝟎
𝟑
𝟏
𝟎
𝐟
 Resonance

A system oscillating with its natural frequency is driven by an energy source

at a frequency that is near the natural frequency, the amplitude of oscillation
is found to be large. This phenomenon is called resonance.
A familiar example of this phenomenon is a child on a swing. If the child
pulls on the rope at regular intervals and the frequency of the pulls is almost
the same as the frequency of swinging, the amplitude of the swinging will
be large.

Condition for resonance in an LCR circuit

For an LCR circuit the current amplitude is given by

im v vm
= Zm = √ ( R ) + ( X C −X L ) 2
2

For resonance to happen impedance should be minimum and current

maximum. So the condition for resonance is,
=

Impedance at resonance
Z = √(R)2 + ( X C − X L ) 2
Z = √ ( R ) 2 + 02
Z= R
Impedance is minimum at resonance.

Current Amplitude at Resonance

=

=
Current amplitude is maximum at resonance.

Resonant Frequency
The condition for resonance , =
= L
=

=
√
is called Resonant frequency

13
𝟐
𝐗
𝐯𝐙𝐦
𝐦𝐢
𝐯𝐑
𝟏𝜔
𝟎𝟏𝐋
𝟎𝜔
𝜔
𝟏
𝟎𝜔
𝐦
𝐂
𝜔
𝐂
𝐚
𝐱
𝐗
𝐗
𝐗
 Variation of with

Example
Figure shows the variation of i m with ω in a RLC series circuit with
L = 1.00 mH, C = 1.00 nF for two values of R:
(i) R = 100 Ω and (ii) R = 200 Ω. For the source applied vm = 100 V.

For R = 100 Ω
= =
= A

For R = 200 Ω
= =
= . A

Tuning of a radio or TV
Resonant circuits have a variety of applications, for example, in the tuning
mechanism of a radio or a TV set. The antenna of a radio accepts signals of
dfferent frequencies from many broadcasting stations . But to hear one
particular radio station, we tune the radio. In tuning, we vary the capacitance
of a capacitor in the tuning circuit such that the resonant frequency of the
circuit becomes nearly equal to the frequency of the radio signal received.
When this happens, the amplitude of the current with the frequency of the
signal of the particular radio station in the circuit is maximum.
Resonance phenomenon is exhibited by a circuit only if both L and C are
present .Only then do the voltages across L and C cancel each other.
We cannot have resonance in RL and RC circuit.

14
𝐯
𝐦𝐢
𝐑
𝐯
𝐦𝐢
𝐑
𝟏
𝟎
𝟏
𝟐
𝟏
𝟏
𝟓
𝟎
𝟎
𝟎
𝟎
𝟎
𝟎
𝟎
𝟎
𝐢
𝜔
 7.7 Power In AC Circuit: The Power Factor
p= v i
p= ( + ɸ)

P= ⟨ ɸ− ( + ɸ)⟩
P= ɸ
P= √ √
ɸ
P= ɸ
So, the average power dissipated depends not only on the voltage and
current but also on the cosine of the phase angle ɸ between them.
The quantity cosɸ is called the power factor.
Power factor can be obtained from impedance diagram.

ɸ=

Case (i) Resistive circuit:

ɸ = 0,
P= cos 0=VI
There is maximum power dissipation.
Case (ii) Purely inductive or capacitive circuit:
ɸ = π/2
P= cos π/2=0
No power is dissipated even though a current is flowing in the
circuit.
This current is sometimes referred to as wattless current.
Case (iii) LCR series circuit:

ϕ = tan−1 X C −XRL
P= ɸ
So, ɸ may be non-zero and power may dissipate in a RL or RC or
RCL circuit. Even in such cases, power is dissipated only in the
resistor.
Case (iv) Power dissipated at resonance in LCR circuit:
At resonance − = 0, and ɸ = 0.
P= =PV
That is, maximum power is dissipated in a circuit (through R) at
resonance.

15
𝐯
𝐯
𝐯
𝐢
𝐢
𝐢
𝐑
𝐦
𝐦
𝐦
𝐦
𝐦
𝐦
𝟐
𝟐
𝐜
𝐙
𝐨
𝐬
𝐯
𝐕
𝐕
𝐕
𝐕
𝐕
𝐈
𝐈
𝐈
𝐈
𝐬
𝐈
𝐜
𝐜
𝐢
𝐜
𝐧
𝐜
𝐨
𝐨
𝐜
𝐨
𝐜
𝐨
𝐬
𝐬
𝐨
𝜔
𝐬
𝐨
𝐬
𝐬
𝟎
𝐭
𝐬
𝐗
𝐢
𝐜
𝐬
𝐢
𝐨
𝐧
𝐗
𝐬
𝜔
𝟐
𝜔
𝐭
𝐭
 7.8 Transformer

A transformer consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each other.

They are wound on a soft-iron core, One of the coils called the primary
coil has NPturns. The other coil is called the secondary coil; it has NS
turns. Often the primary coil is the input coil and the secondary coil is the
output coil of the transformer.
Transformer works on the Principle of Mutual Induction
When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, the resulting current
produces an alternating magnetic flux which links the secondary and induces
an emf in it.

The emf induced in the primary

dϕ
εP = −N
P dt
If the primary coil has negligible resistance εP = VP(input voltage)
dϕ
VP = −N P dt
------------(1)
The emf induced in thesecondary
dϕ
εs = −N
s dt
If the secondary coil has negligible resistance εs = Vs(output voltage)
dϕ
Vs = −Ns dt
-----------------(2)
( )
( )
−−− = ------------------- (3)

16
𝐕
𝐍
𝐬
𝐬
𝐞
𝐞
𝐕
𝐪
𝐪
𝟏
𝟐
𝐍
Step-up Transformer

For a step up transformer the number of turns in the secondary will be

greater than that in the primary( > )

Thus for a step up transformer secondary voltage will be greater than

primary voltage,but the secondary current will be less than primary
current.

Step-down Transformer

For a step down transformer the number of turns in the secondary will be
less than that in the primary( ˂ )

Thus for a step up transformer secondary voltage will be less than primary
voltage, but the secondary current will be greater than primary current.

17
𝐍
𝐍
𝐍
𝐍
Energy Losses in a Transformer
(i)Flux Leakage:
There is always some flux leakage; that is, not all of the flux due to primary
passes through the secondary due to poor design of the core or the air gaps
in the core. It can be reduced by winding the primary and secondary coils
one over the other.
(ii) Resistance of the windings :
The wire used for the windings has some resistance and so, energy is lost due
to heat produced in the wire(I2R). In high current, low voltage windings,
these are minimised by using thick wire.
(iii) Eddy currents loss:
The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron core and
causes heating. The effect is reduced by having a laminated core.
(iv)Hysteresis loss:
The magnetisation of the core is repeatedly reversed by the alternating
magnetic field. This produces hysteresis and energy is lost as heat. This can
be minimised by using a magnetic material which has a low hysteresis
loss(e.g- soft iron core)

18