NETWORKING AND DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS

UNIT CODE:ICT/CU/CS/CR/07/6/B

Unit description:

This unit specifies the competencies required to understanding networking and distributed
systems concept. It involves understanding networking and distributed systems, distributed
system architectures, distributed processing and file management, setting up a network in a
distributed environment understanding data communication standards and IP addressing and
troubleshooting a network.

Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Understand networking and distributed systems

2. Understand distributed systems architectures
3. Understand distributed processing and file management
4. Set up a network in a distributed environment
5. Understand Data Communication Standards and IP addressing
6. Troubleshoot a network

1)Understand networking and distributed systems concepts

 Fundamentals of networking
Definition of network
 A Computer Network is a system where two or more devices are linked together
to share data, resources and information.
 These networks can range from simple setups, like connecting two devices in
your home, to massive global systems, like the Internet. Below are some uses of
computer networks
 Definition of network terminologies

 Network: A group of connected computers and devices that can communicate and
share data with each other.
 Node: Any device that can send, receive, or forward data in a network. This
includes laptops, mobiles, printers, earbuds, servers, etc.
 Networking Devices: Devices that manage and support networking functions.
This includes routers, switches, hubs, and access points.
 Transmission Media: The physical or wireless medium through which data
travels between devices.
 Wired media: Wired media, also known as guided media, are physical pathways
like cables that transmit data between devices in a computer network. The three
main types are twisted pair cables, which are common for local networks; coaxial
cables, used for higher speed and longer distances like broadband; and fiber optic
cables, which use light to transmit data at extremely high speeds over long
 distances. Wired media offers higher speed, reliability, and security compared to
wireless alternatives.
 Wireless media: Wireless communication is also referred to as Unguided Media
or Unbounded transmission media.
In this mode, no physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic
signals. In wireless communication, we can transfer our message through the air,
water or vacuum i.e. Infrared, Radio wave, Microwave wave. So, we don't worry
about the cables or any material to transfer messages, as we can send out a message
without and medium. Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, infrared
 Service Provider Networks: Networks offered by external providers that allow
users or organizations to lease net

Network components

Network components : are the individual hardware and software pieces, like routers, switches,
servers, clients, transmission media, and protocols, that work together to create a communication
system, allowing devices to connect and share information.

These components provide the infrastructure and services for data transmission, network
operations, and resource sharing.

Hardware Components End Devices (Clients/Hosts): Devices used by people, such as :

computers, smartphones, and laptops, that connect to the network to access resources.
Servers: Powerful computers that store, manage, and provide data, applications, or other
network resources to clients.

Network Interface Cards (NICs): Hardware that enables a computer to connect to a network.

Transmission Media: The physical or wireless path used to connect devices, such as cables
(Ethernet, fiber optic) or wireless signals.

Switches: Devices that connect multiple devices within a local network, directing data to the
correct destination based on the physical address.

Routers: Connect different computer networks, directing data traffic between them and across
larger networks like the internet.

Wireless Access Points (WAPs): Allow devices to connect to a network wirelessly.

Firewalls: Security devices that monitor and control incoming and outgoing network traffic
based on predefined security rules.

Hubs: Older devices that connect multiple network devices, but they broadcast data to all
connected devices, unlike switches.

Software Components

Protocols: Sets of rules that govern how data is formatted, transmitted, and received across a
network, ensuring devices can communicate effectively.

Network Operating System (NOS): Software that runs on servers and other network devices,
managing network resources and services.

ASSINGMENT ONE: FULLY EXPLAIN AND DESCEIBE ALL NETWORKING DEVICES

EXPLAINING THEIR FUNCTIONS

 Application and benefits of networking

 Applications of Computer Networking
 Resource Sharing: Resource Sharing is one of the important applications of Computer
Networking. You can share a single software among Multiple users. We can also share
Hardware Devices via this technique.
 Communication: Communication Medium means various ways through which we can
communicate like Email Calls, broadcasts, etc.
 Home Applications: Home Applications are an important application of Computer
Networking. Examples are User-to-User Communication, Entertainment, E-Commerce, etc.
 Business Applications: Business Application is also an important application of Computer
Networking. Almost all companies are doing business online with the help of Computer
Networking.
 Social Media: Social Media is one of the recent and widely used applications of Computer
Networking. It helps people in getting news, feed, current trending topics of all types, etc.
 Access to Remote Information: Computer Networking helps in accessing remote
information from the end-users. For Example. details required for train tickets, plane
tickets, etc.
 Cloud Computing: Computer Networking has facilitated the development of cloud
computing, which allows users to store and access data and applications from remote
servers via the internet.
 Virtualization: Networking technologies also enable virtualization, which allows multiple
virtual machines to run on a single physical machine, improving resource utilization and
reducing costs.
 Online Education: Computer Networking has revolutionized education by providing
online learning platforms, distance education, and virtual classrooms.
 Remote Working: Networking technologies have enabled remote working, allowing
employees to work from home or other locations outside of the office. This has become
especially important during the COVID-19 pandemic.
 E-commerce: Computer Networking has facilitated the growth of e-commerce by allowing
businesses to sell their products and services online and reach a global market.
 Telemedicine: Networking technologies have also enabled telemedicine, allowing doctors
and healthcare providers to provide remote medical consultations and diagnosis to patients
in remote locations.
 Real-time Collaboration: Networking technologies enable real-time collaboration,
allowing people to work together on projects and share information in real-time, no matter
where they are located.
Advantages of Computer Networking
 Central Storage of Data: Files can be stored on a central node (the file server) that can be
shared and made available to every user in an organization.
 Connectivity: There is a negligible range of abilities required to connect to a modern
computer network. The effortlessness of joining makes it workable for even youthful kids
to start exploring the data.
 Faster Problem-solving: Since an extensive procedure is disintegrated into a few littler
procedures and each is taken care of by all the associated gadgets, an explicit issue can be
settled in lesser time.
 Reliability: Reliability implies backing up information. Due to some reason equipment
crashes, and so on, the information gets undermined or inaccessible on one PC, and another
duplicate of similar information is accessible on another workstation for future use, which
prompts smooth working and further handling without interruption.
 Flexible: This innovation is known to be truly adaptable, as it offers clients the chance to
investigate everything about fundamental things, for example, programming without
influencing their usefulness.
 Security through Authorization: Security and protection of information are additionally
settled through the system. As just the system clients are approved to get to specific records
or applications, no other individual can crack the protection or security of information.
 Storage capacity: Since you will share data, records, and assets with other individuals, you
need to guarantee all information and substance are legitimately put away in the
framework. With this systems administration innovation, you can do most of this with no
issue, while having all the space you require for capacity.
 Disadvantages of Computer Networking
 Expensive: Execution of the network can be expensive in the case of an initial setup, as the
wires and the cost of the cable are high and sometimes equipment is also costly.
 Virus and Malware: Computer Networking can lead to the spreading of viruses to another
computer through the network.
 Management of the network: Management of the Network is quite difficult as it requires
skilled persons to handle that large network. It requires training of people who are
employed in this work.
 Loss of Information: In case of a crash of the Computer Network, it can lead to the loss of
information or not being able to access information for some time.
 The system can be Hacked: In the case of Wide Area Networks(WAN), there is a threat
of Hacking of the System. Some security features should be added to prevent such things.

Types of Computer Networks

What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a system that connects many independent computers to share information
(data) and resources.
The integration of computers and other different devices allows users to communicate more
easily. A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems that are linked
together.
A network connection can be established using either cable or wireless media. Hardware and
software are used to connect computers and tools in any network.
It is a collection of two or more computer systems that are linked together. A network connection
can be established using either cable or wireless media. Hardware and software are used to
connect computers and tools in any network.

Uses of Computer Networks

 Communicating using email, video, instant messaging, etc.
 Sharing devices such as printers, scanners, etc.
 Sharing files.
 Sharing software and operating programs on remote systems.
 Allowing network users to easily access and maintain information.
Advantages of Computer Network
 Central Storage of Data: Files are stored on a central storage database which helps to easily
access and available to everyone.
 Connectivity: A single connection can be routed to connect multiple computing devices.
 Sharing of Files: Files and data can be easily shared among multiple devices which helps in
easily communicating among the organization.
 Security through Authorization: Computer Networking provides additional security and
protection of information in the system.
Disadvantages of Computer Network
 Virus and Malware: A virus is a program that can infect other programs by modifying
them. Viruses and Malware can corrupt the whole network.
 High Cost of Setup: The initial setup of Computer Networking is expensive because it
consists of a lot of wires and cables along with the device.
 loss of Information: In case of a System Failure, might lead to some loss of data.
 Management of Network: Management of a Network is somehow complex for a person, it
requires training for its proper use.

Types of Computer Networks

There are mainly five types of Computer Networks
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

Types of Computer Networks

Computer networks are classified based on several factors, such as geographical area, ownership,
architecture, topology, and transmission technology. The below is the classification of the
networks:

Classification Based on Geographical Area

This is the most common way of classifying networks below are the different types :
Network

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is the most basic type of computer network. It is a type of network designed to connect
devices within a short range, typically around one person. It allows your personal devices, like
smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearables, to communicate and share data with each other.
PAN offers a network range of 1 to 10 meters from person to device providing communication.
Its transmission speed is very high with very easy maintenance and very low cost.
Examples of PAN are Bluetooth connection between a phone and wireless earbuds , Infrared
communication between TV and remote.
Personal Area Network

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is the most frequently used network. It is a computer network that connects computers
through a common communication path, contained within a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN
encompasses two or more computers connected over a server. The two important technologies
involved in this network are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km & transmission speed is
very high with easy maintenance and low cost.

Examples of LAN are Wi-Fi in a home or school, wired LAN in a company's office.
Local Area Network
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer network that is
usually used in places like a school or colleges. This network covers a limited geographical area
that is, it spreads across several buildings within the campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet
technology with a range of few kilometers. Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate
maintenance cost and moderate cost.

Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges, buildings, etc.
Campus Area Network

4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network that
connects computers over a geographical distance through a shared communication path over a
city, town, or metropolitan area. This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the
technology with a range from 5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average. It is difficult to
maintain and it comes with a high cost.
Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area within
multiple buildings, etc.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large geographical distance
through a shared communication path. It is not restrained to a single location but extends over
many locations. WAN can also be defined as a group of local area networks that communicate
with each other with a range above 50km. Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its
transmission speed is very low and it comes with very high maintenance and very high cost.

Examples of WAN are the Internet (largest WAN), Banking networks linking global branches
Wide Area Network

Classification Based on Transmission Technology

1. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) :
WLAN is a type of computer network that acts as a local area network but makes use of wireless
network technology like Wi-Fi. This network doesn't allow devices to communicate over
physical cables like in LAN but allows devices to communicate wirelessly.
Most common example of WLAN is Wi-Fi.
WLAN

2. System Area Network (SAN)

A System Area Network is designed to connect high-performance computers within a localized,
high-speed environment, such as in data centers or supercomputing facilities. A SAN provides
access to block-level data storage.
Examples of SAN are a network of disks accessed by a network of servers.
SAN

3. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

A POLAN is a type of computer network that is an alternative to a LAN. POLAN uses optical
splitters to split an optical signal from a single strand of single-mode optical fiber to multiple
signals to distribute users and devices. In short, POLAN is a point to multipoint LAN
architecture.
Passive Optical Local Area Network

Classification Based on Ownership and Access Control

We can classify networks into three main types based on ownership and how access is
controlled: Private, Public, and Hybrid networks.
1. Private Network
These are networks completely owned and managed by a single organization or individual. The
owner controls who can connect, what they can do, and how data moves within the network.
Since there is no outside access, they are highly secure and reliable, often protected by firewalls
and strict policies.
Examples:
 A company’s internal office network (Intranet)
 School or college campus networks
 Hospital systems storing patient data
2. Public Network
These are networks open to the general public and are usually provided by Internet Service
Providers (ISPs) or businesses in public places. They offer basic or no authentication, making
them less secure and vulnerable to attacks if not used carefully. Examples: Public Wi-Fi at cafes
or airports, free hotspots in city centers, Internet (the largest public network).
3. Hybrid Network
A hybrid network blends private and public access, offering flexibility and role-based access
control. Some parts are restricted (like internal systems), while others are open (like guest Wi-
Fi). This setup is useful in environments where different users need different access levels.
Example: A university network with private access for staff and students and limited access for
guests.
Internetwork
An internetwork is a setup where two or more networks (like LANs or WANs) are
interconnected using routers or gateways, allowing communication between them. This process
is called internetworking.
There are two main types:

1. Intranet
An intranet is a private network used within an organization. It allows employees to access
internal tools, documents, and systems securely. It's not available to the public, and typically uses
private IP addresses. Examples: Company HR portals, Internal knowledge bases, Staff-only
communication tools.
2. Extranet
An extranet is an extension of the intranet that provides limited, secure access to outsiders such
as partners, vendors, or clients. It's used to collaborate across organizations while maintaining
internal security. Examples: Supplier portals, Client dashboards for project updates, Partner
login systems for shared services
 Types of Network Topology
 Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements like nodes, links, or
devices in a computer network. Common types of network topology include bus, star,
ring, mesh, and tree topologies, each with its advantages and disadvantages.
What is Network Topology?
 Network topology is the way devices are connected in a network. It defines how these
components are connected and how data transfer between the network.
 Understanding the different types of network topologies can help in choosing the right
design for a specific network.
 There are two major categories of Network Topology i.e.
Physical Network topology and Logical Network Topology.
 Physical Network Topology refers to the actual structure of the physical medium for the
transmission of data.
 Logical network Topology refers to the transmission of data between devices present in
the network irrespective of the way devices are connected. The structure of the network is
important for the proper functioning of the network. one must choose the most suitable
topology as per their requirement.
Types of Network Topology
Below mentioned are the types of Network Topology
 Point to Point Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology
Point to Point Topology
Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender and
receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and the
other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.
 Point to Point Topology

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. Every
device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are known as links. In
Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration
Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Mesh Topology

 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the
total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices
connected to each other, hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4. The
total number of ports required = N * (N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the
total number of dedicated links required to connect them is N C 2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1,
there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2
= 10.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices
through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of
devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet service
providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is also used in
military communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.
Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in
nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be
intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45
cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN
protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Star Topology
Advantages of Star Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will
crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all
computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks where
all devices are connected to a wireless access point.
Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a
single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because
if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access
Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha,
CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Bus Topology
Advantages of Bus Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10
Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small
networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well
known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various
protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected to a
single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television networks.
Ring Topology
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices. A
number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the
data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring
Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.
 Ring Topology

The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.

 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one node to
another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
 One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for performing
the operations.
 To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the
token is to be released for other stations to use.
 When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
 There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just
after transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token after the
acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
 Less secure.
Tree Topology
Tree topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of
data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic
Configuration) are used.

Tree Topology

In tree topology, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the
repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to
the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It
is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology
crashes.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance that
is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the top of the
tree is the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or divisions (child nodes) of the
company. Each department has its own hierarchy, with managers overseeing different teams
(grandchild nodes). The team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy, connected
to their respective managers and departments.
 Hybrid Topology
Hybrid Topology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied
above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these can be
individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies
seen above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Hybrid Topology

The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a combination
of all different types of networks.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 This topology is very flexible .
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and
network devices .
A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The network may have
a backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to the backbone through a switch or
router. Within each building, there may be a bus or ring topology connecting the different rooms
and offices. The wireless access points also create a mesh topology for wireless devices. This
 hybrid topology allows for efficient communication between different buildings while providing
flexibility and redundancy within each building.
Why is Network Topology Important?
Network Topology is important because it defines how devices are connected and how they
communicate in the network. Here are some points that defines why network topology is
important.
 Network Performance: Upon choosing the appropriate topology as per requirement, it helps
in running the network easily and hence increases network performance.
 Network Reliability: Some topologies like Star, Mesh are reliable as if one connection fails,
they provide an alternative for that connection, hence it works as a backup.
 Network Expansion : Chosing correct topology helps in easier expansion of Network as it
helps in adding more devices to the network without disrupting the actual network.
 Network Security: Network Topology helps in understanding how devices are connected
and hence provides a better security to the network.

In conclusion, network topologies play a crucial role in determining the efficiency and reliability
of a computer network. Each topology, whether it’s bus, star, ring, mesh, or tree, offers unique
benefits and potential drawbacks. By understanding these different arrangements, network
designers can choose the most appropriate topology to meet the specific needs of their systems,
ensuring optimal performance and connectivity.

Types of Transmission Media

Last Updated : 11 Jul, 2025


Transmission media is the physical medium through which data is transmitted from one device to
another within a network. These media can be wired or wireless. The choice of medium depends
on factors like distance, speed, and interference. In this article, we will discuss the transmission
media. In this article we will see types of transmission media in detail.
What is Transmission Media in Computer Networks?
A transmission media is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the path
along which data is sent from one device to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified
into the following types:

Types of Transmission Media

1. WIRED TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Wired tanmission : is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

Twisted Pair Cable
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires twisted about each other. Generally, several
such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used
Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around
one another. This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Unshielded Twisted Pair

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

 Least expensive
 Easy to install
 High-speed capacity
Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable consists of a special jacket (a
copper braid covering or a foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast data rate
Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
 Eliminates crosstalk
 Comparatively faster
Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
 Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
 More expensive
 Bulky
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon
and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial
cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and
Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television
networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cables has high bandwidth .
 It is easy to install.
 Coaxial cables are more reliable and durable.
 Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
 Coaxial cables support multiple channels
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cables are expensive.
 The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.
 As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.
 There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by hackers, this
compromises the security of the data.
Optical Fiber Cable
Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept of total internal reflection of light through a core made up
of glass. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the coating. It is
used for the transmission of large volumes of data. The cable can be unidirectional or
bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely
unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable

 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Lightweight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
Applications of Optical Fibre Cable
 Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
 Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
 For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
 Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the interior
and exterior of automobiles.
Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by Robert M.
Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest form of
the planar transmission line. It uses a conducting material to transmit high-frequency waves it is
also called a waveguide. This conducting material is sandwiched between two layers of the
ground plane which are usually shorted to provide EMI immunity.
Microstripline
A microstripline is a type of transmission media used to carry high-frequency signals,
commonly found in microwave and radio frequency circuits. It consists of a flat, narrow
conducting strip (usually made of metal) placed on top of a dielectric material (an insulating
layer), with a metal ground plane on the other side.
2. Unguided Media
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media . No physical medium is
required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features of Unguided Media
 The signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
Radio Waves
Radio waves are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz - 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless
phones use Radio waves for transmission.
Types of Radio Waves:
 Short Wave: AM Radio
 VHF (Very High Frequency): FM Radio/TV
 UHF (Ultra High Frequency): TV
Radio Wave Components:
 Transmitter: Responsible for encoding the signal.
 Receiver: Responsible for decoding the signal.

Radiowave

Microwaves
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height
of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz - 300GHz. Micro waves are majorly used for mobile
phone communication and television distribution.
Advantages:
 Cheaper than using cables
 Freedom from land acquisition
 Ease of communication in difficult terrains
 Communication over oceans
Disadvantages:
 Insecure communication.
 Out of phase signal.
 Susceptible to weather conditions.
 Bandwidth is limited.
 High cost of design, implementation, and maintenance.
Infrared
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through
obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz - 400THz. It is
used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Difference Between Radio Waves, Micro Waves, and Infrared Waves

Basis Radiowave Microwave Infrared wave

Direction These are omni- These are unidirectional These are

Basis Radiowave Microwave Infrared wave

unidirectional in
directional in nature. in nature.
nature.

At low frequency, they At low frequency, they

They cannot
can penetrate through can penetrate through
penetrate through
solid objects and walls solid objects and walls.
any solid object
but high frequency they at high frequency, they
and walls.
Penetration bounce off the obstacle. cannot penetrate.

Frequency range:
Frequency range: 3 KHz Frequency range: 1
Frequency 300 GHz to 400
to 1GHz. GHz to 300 GHz.
range GHz.

These offers poor These offers medium These offers high

Security security. security. security.

Attenuation Attenuation is high. Attenuation is variable. Attenuation is low.

Some frequencies in the Some frequencies in the

There is no need of
radio-waves require microwaves require
government license
Government government license to government license to
to use these waves.
License use these. use these.

Setup and usage Cost is Setup and usage Cost is Usage Cost is very
Usage Cost moderate. high. less.
Basis Radiowave Microwave Infrared wave

These are used in long These are used in long These are not used
distance distance in long distance
Communication communication. communication. communication.

Causes of Transmission Impairment

Transmission impairment refers to the loss or distortion of signals during data transmission,
leading to errors or reduced quality in communication. Common causes include signal distortion,
attenuation, and noise all of which can affect the clarity and reliability of transmitted data.

Transmission
Impairment

 Attenuation: It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing
distance which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also
known as attenuated signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives
the original signal back and compensate for this loss.
 Distortion: It means changes in the form or shape of the signal. This is generally seen in
composite signals made up with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its
own propagation speed travelling through a medium. And thats why it delay in arriving at the
final destination Every component arrive at different time which leads to distortion.
Therefore, they have different phases at receiver end from what they had at senders end.
 Noise: The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise.
There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and
impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.
 Factors Considered for Designing the Transmission Media
 Bandwidth: Assuming all other conditions remain constant, the greater a medium's
bandwidth, the faster a signal's data transmission rate.
 Transmission Impairment : Transmission Impairment occurs when the received signal
differs from the transmitted signal. Signal quality will be impacted as a result of transmission
impairment.
 Interference: Interference is defined as the process of disturbing a signal as it travels over a
communication media with the addition of an undesired signal.
Applications of Transmission Media in Computer Networks
Transmission media in computer networks are used to connect devices and transfer data. Here
are some common applications:

Transmission Media Application

Unshielded Twisted Pair

Local Area Networks (LAN), telephones
(UTP)

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Industrial networks, environments with high interference

Optical Fiber Cable Long-distance communication, internet backbones

Coaxial Cable Cable TV, broadband internet, CCTV

Stripline Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs), microwave circuits

Microstripline Antennas, satellite communication, RF circuits

Radio Wireless communication, AM/FM radio, mobile phones

Transmission Media Application

Infrared Remote controls, short-range communication

Microwave Satellite communication, radar, long-distance links