PERFORM COMPUTER NETWORKING

INTRODUCTION

 A network is a system of computers and other devices that are connected together. Networks
can range in size from a few computers connected by cables to millions of computers spread
across the world. The internet is an example of a very large network
 For a specific purpose if things are connected together, are referred to as a NETWORK.
 A network can be of many types, like a telephone network, television network, computer
network, or even a people network.
 Similarly, a COMPUTER NETWORK is also a kind of setup, where it connects two or
more devices to share a range of services and information in the form of e-mails and
messages, databases, documents, websites, audios and videos, telephone calls, and
video conferences, etc. among them.

Networking terminology fundamental for networking:

Network: A collection of interconnected devices, such as computers, printers, and servers, that
can communicate with each other.
Node: Any device connected to a network, such as a computer, printer, or router.
Protocol: A set of rules and standards that define how devices on a network communicate with
each other. To facilitates End to End communication, a number of protocols worked together
to form Protocol Suites or Stacks.
IP Address: A unique numerical identifier assigned to each device on a network, used to
identify and communicate with other devices.
Router: A networking device that connects multiple networks together and forwards data
packets between them.
Switch: A networking device that connects devices on a network and forwards data packets
between them.
Firewall: A security device or software that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing
network traffic, based on a set of predefined security rules.
DNS (Domain Name System): A system that translates domain names (such as
[Link]) into IP addresses, allowing devices to locate and connect to websites and
other network resources.
LAN (Local Area Network): A network that connects devices within a limited geographical
area, such as a home, office, or building.
WAN (Wide Area Network): A network that connects devices over a large geographical area,
such as multiple offices in different cities or countries.
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): A protocol that automatically assigns IP
addresses and network configuration settings to devices on a network.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): A set of protocols used to
communicate over the internet and other networks.
These are just a few basic networking terms, but understanding them is essential to building a
strong foundation in computer networking.

Some basic Protocols are:

 IP : Internet Protocol
 FTP : File Transfer Protocol
 SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
 HTTP : Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
The Network reference models were developed to allow products from different
manufacturers to interoperate on a network. A network reference model serves as a blueprint,
detailing standards for how protocol communication should occur.
The most widely recognized reference models are the Open Systems Interconnect ( OSI )
Model and Department of Defense ( DoD, also known as TCP/IP ) model.

 LANs (Local Area Networks)

 MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks)
 WANs (Wide Area Networks)
An Internetwork is a general term describing multiple networks connected together. The
Internet is the largest and most well-known internetwork.

 SAN (Storage Area Network): A SAN provides systems with high-speed, lossless access
to high-capacity storage devices.
 VPN (Virtual Private Network): A VPN allows for information to be securely sent across
a public or unsecured network, such as the Internet. Common uses of a VPN are to connect
branch offices or remote users to the main office.

 A host can act as a Client when he is requesting information.

 A host can act as a Server when he provides information.
 A host can also request and provide information, which is called Peer.
 A PROTOCOL is nothing but a set of defined rules, which has to be followed by every
connected device across a network to communicate and share information among them.
Network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways and Brouter)
Network devices are physical devices that allow hardware on a computer network to
communicate and interact with each other.
Network devices like hubs, repeaters, bridges, switches, routers, gateways, and brouters help
manage and direct data flow in a network.
They ensure efficient communication between connected devices by controlling data transfer,
boosting signals, and linking different networks.
Each device serves a specific role, from simple data forwarding to complex routing between
networks.
 Types of Network Devices

Functions of Network Devices

 Network devices help to send and receive data between different devices.
 Network devices allow devices to connect to the network efficiently and securely.
 Network devices Improve network speed and manage data flow better.
 It protect the network by controlling access and preventing threats.
 Expand the network range and solve signal problems.
Common Types of Networking Devices and Their Uses
Network devices work as a mediator between two devices for transmission of data, and thus play
a very important role in the functioning of a computer network. Below are some common
network devices used in modern networks:
 Access Point
 Modems
 Firewalls
 Repeater
 Hub
 Bridge
 Switch
 Routers
 Gateway
 Brouter
 NIC
Access Point
An access point in networking is a device that allows wireless devices, like smartphones and
laptops, to connect to a wired network. It creates a Wi-Fi network that lets wireless devices
communicate with the internet or other devices on the network. Access points are used to extend
the range of a network or provide Wi-Fi in areas that do not have it. They are commonly found in
homes, offices, and public places to provide wireless internet access.
Modems
Modems is also known as modulator/demodulator is a network device that is used to
convert digital signal into analog signal of different frequencies and transmits these signal to a
modem at the receiving location. These converted signals can be transmitted over the cable
systems, telephone lines, and other communication mediums. A modem is also used to convert
analog signal back into digital signal. Modems are generally used to access internet by customers
of an Internet Service Provider (ISP).
Types of Modems
There are four main types of modems:
 DSL Modem: Uses regular phone lines to connect to the internet but it is slower compared to
other types.
 Cable Modem: Sends data through TV cables, providing faster internet than DSL.
 Wireless Modem: Connects devices to the internet using Wi-Fi relying on nearby Wi-Fi
signals.
 Cellular Modem: Connects to the internet using mobile data from a cellular network not Wi-
Fi or fixed cables.
Firewalls
A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls the flow of data between your
computer or network and the internet. It acts as a barrier, blocking unauthorized access while
allowing trusted data to pass through. Firewalls help protect your network from hackers, viruses,
and other online threats by filtering traffic based on security rules. Firewalls can be physical
devices (hardware), programs (software), or even cloud-based services, which can be offered
as SaaS, through public clouds, or private virtual clouds.
Repeater
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its main function is to amplify (i.e., regenerate) the
signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the
length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. When the signal becomes
weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting
following the original strength. It is a 2-port device.
Hub
A hub is a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for
example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter
data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all
hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the
best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
Types of Hub
 Active Hub: These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost, and relay
the signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring center.
These are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub: These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from the
active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them
and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub: It works like an active hub and includes remote management capabilities.
They also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to
monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.
Bridge
A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of
filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and destination. It is also used for
interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It typically connects multiple network
segments and each port is connected to different segment. A bridge is not strictly limited to two
ports, it can have multiple ports to connect and manage multiple network segments. Modern
multi-port bridges are often called Layer 2 switches because they perform similar functions.
Types of Bridges
 Transparent Bridges: These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of
the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network,
reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e.
bridge forwarding and bridge learning.
 Source Routing Bridges: In these bridges, routing operation is performed by the source
station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover the frame by
sending a special frame called the discovery frame, which spreads through the entire network
using all possible paths to the destination.
Switch
A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(a large
number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The
switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it
does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the correct
port only. In other words, the switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast
domain remains the same.
Types of Switch
 Unmanaged Switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design and do not offer
advanced configuration options. They are suitable for small networks or for use as an
expansion to a larger network.
 Managed Switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options such
as VLANs, QoS, and link aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more complex networks
and allow for centralized management.
 Smart Switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches but are typically
easier to set up and manage. They are suitable for small- to medium-sized networks.
 Layer 2 Switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model and are
responsible for forwarding data between devices on the same network segment.
 Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI model and can
route data between different network segments. They are more advanced than Layer 2
switches and are often used in larger, more complex networks.
 PoE Switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet capabilities, which allows them to
supply power to network devices over the same cable that carries data.
 Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet speeds, which are faster than
traditional Ethernet speeds.
 Rack-Mounted Switches: These switches are designed to be mounted in a server rack and
are suitable for use in data centers or other large networks.
 Desktop Switches: These switches are designed for use on a desktop or in a small office
environment and are typically smaller in size than rack-mounted switches.
 Modular Switches: These switches have modular design, which allows for easy expansion
or customization. They are suitable for large networks and data centers.
Router
A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The router
is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a
dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data
packets. The router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.
Gateway
A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that may work upon
different networking models. They work as messenger agents that take data from one system,
interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and
can operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally more complex than switches or routers.
Brouter
It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of both bridge and
router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer. Working as a router, it is
capable of routing packets across networks and working as the bridge, it is capable of filtering
local area network traffic.
NIC
NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the computer to the
network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique id that is written on
the chip, and it has a connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an interface between
the computer and the router or modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device which means that it works
on both the physical and data link layers of the network model.
Conclusion
In conclusion, different types of network devices play essential roles in keeping a network
running smoothly and securely. Devices like routers, switches, modems, and access points help
connect devices, manage data traffic, and ensure efficient communication. Firewalls add a layer
of security, while other tools extend the network’s reach or make it easier to manage. Each
device has a specific function, but together they create a reliable and secure network
environment for both personal and business use.

Types of Network Topology

 Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements like nodes, links, or
devices in a computer network. Common types of network topology include bus, star,
ring, mesh, and tree topologies, each with its advantages and disadvantages.
What is Network Topology?
 Network topology is the way devices are connected in a network. It defines how these
components are connected and how data transfer between the network.
 Understanding the different types of network topologies can help in choosing the right
design for a specific network.
 There are two major categories of Network Topology i.e.
Physical Network topology and Logical Network Topology.
 Physical Network Topology refers to the actual structure of the physical medium for the
transmission of data.
 Logical network Topology refers to the transmission of data between devices present in
the network irrespective of the way devices are connected. The structure of the network is
important for the proper functioning of the network. one must choose the most suitable
topology as per their requirement.
Types of Network Topology
Below mentioned are the types of Network Topology
 Point to Point Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology
Point to Point Topology
Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender and
receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and the
other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

Point to Point Topology

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. Every
device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are known as links. In
Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration
Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.
 Mesh Topology

 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the
total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices
connected to each other, hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4. The
total number of ports required = N * (N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the
total number of dedicated links required to connect them is N C 2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1,
there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2
= 10.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices
through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of
devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet service
providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is also used in
military communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.
Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in
nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be
intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45
cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN
protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.
 Star Topology

Advantages of Star Topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will
crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all
computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks where
all devices are connected to a wireless access point.
Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a
single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because
if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access
Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha,
CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Bus Topology

Advantages of Bus Topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10
Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small
networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well
known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various
protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected to a
single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television networks.
Ring Topology
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices. A
number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the
data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring
Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

Ring Topology

The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.

 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one node to
another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
 One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for performing
the operations.
 To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the
token is to be released for other stations to use.
 When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
 There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just
after transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token after the
acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
 Less secure.
Tree Topology
Tree topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of
data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic
Configuration) are used.

Tree Topology

In tree topology, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the
repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to
the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It
is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology
crashes.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance that
is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the top of the
tree is the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or divisions (child nodes) of the
company. Each department has its own hierarchy, with managers overseeing different teams
(grandchild nodes). The team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy, connected
to their respective managers and departments.
Hybrid Topology
Hybrid Topology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied
above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these can be
individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies
seen above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Hybrid Topology

The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a combination
of all different types of networks.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 This topology is very flexible .
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and
network devices .
A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The network may have
a backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to the backbone through a switch or
router. Within each building, there may be a bus or ring topology connecting the different rooms
and offices. The wireless access points also create a mesh topology for wireless devices. This
hybrid topology allows for efficient communication between different buildings while providing
flexibility and redundancy within each building.
Why is Network Topology Important?
Network Topology is important because it defines how devices are connected and how they
communicate in the network. Here are some points that defines why network topology is
important.
 Network Performance: Upon choosing the appropriate topology as per requirement, it helps
in running the network easily and hence increases network performance.
 Network Reliability: Some topologies like Star, Mesh are reliable as if one connection fails,
they provide an alternative for that connection, hence it works as a backup.
 Network Expansion : Chosing correct topology helps in easier expansion of Network as it
helps in adding more devices to the network without disrupting the actual network.
 Network Security: Network Topology helps in understanding how devices are connected
and hence provides a better security to the network.

In conclusion, network topologies play a crucial role in determining the efficiency and reliability
of a computer network. Each topology, whether it’s bus, star, ring, mesh, or tree, offers unique
benefits and potential drawbacks. By understanding these different arrangements, network
designers can choose the most appropriate topology to meet the specific needs of their systems,
ensuring optimal performance and connectivity.
 Types of Computer Networks
A computer network is a cluster of computers over a shared communication path that works to
share resources from one computer to another, provided by or located on the network nodes. In
this article, we will discuss computer networks and their types.
What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a system that connects many independent computers to share information
(data) and resources. The integration of computers and other different devices allows users to
communicate more easily. A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems
that are linked together. A network connection can be established using either cable or wireless
media. Hardware and software are used to connect computers and tools in any network.
Uses of Computer Networks
 Communicating using email, video, instant messaging, etc.
 Sharing devices such as printers, scanners, etc.
 Sharing files.
 Sharing software and operating programs on remote systems.
 Allowing network users to easily access and maintain information.
Types of Computer Networks
There are mainly five types of Computer Networks
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Types of Computer Networks

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is the most basic type of computer network. It is a type of network designed to connect
devices within a short range, typically around one person. It allows your personal devices, like
smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearables, to communicate and share data with each other.
PAN offers a network range of 1 to 100 meters from person to device providing communication.
Its transmission speed is very high with very easy maintenance and very low cost. This
uses Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee as technology. Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone,
tablet, printer, PDA, etc.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

Types of PAN
 Wireless Personal Area Networks: Wireless Personal Area Networks are created by simply
utilising wireless technologies such as WiFi and Bluetooth. It is a low-range network.
 Wired Personal Area Network: A wired personal area network is constructed using a USB.
Advantages of PAN
 PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network ranges.
 It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.
 It does not require frequent installations and maintenance
 It is easy and portable.
 Needs fewer technical skills to use.
Disadvantages of PAN
 Low network coverage area/range.
 Limited to relatively low data rates.
 Devices are not compatible with each other.
 Inbuilt WPAN devices are a little bit costly.
Applications of PAN
 Home and Offices
 Organizations and the Business sector
 Medical and Hospital
 School and College Education
 Military and Defense
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that connects
computers through a common communication path, contained within a limited area, that is,
locally. A LAN encompasses two or more computers connected over a server. The two important
technologies involved in this network are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km &
transmission speed is very high with easy maintenance and low cost. Examples of LAN are
networking in a home, school, library, laboratory, college, office, etc.
 Local Area Network (LAN)

Advantages of a LAN
 Privacy: LAN is a private network, thus no outside regulatory body controls it, giving it a
privacy.
 High Speed: LAN offers a much higher speed(around 100 mbps) and data transfer rate
comparatively to WAN.
 Supports different transmission mediums: LAN support a variety of communications
transmission medium such as an Ethernet cable (thin cable, thick cable, and twisted pair),
fiber and wireless transmission.
 Inexpensive and Simple: A LAN usually has low cost, installation, expansion and
maintenance and LAN installation is relatively easy to use, good scalability.
Disadvantages of LAN
 The initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high because there is special
software required to make a server.
 Communication devices like an ethernet cable, switches, hubs, routers, cables are costly.
 LAN administrator can see and check personal data files as well as Internet history of each
and every LAN user. Hence, the privacy of the users are violated
 LANs are restricted in size and cover only a limited area
 Since all the data is stored in a single server computer, if it can be accessed by an
unauthorized user, can cause a serious data security threat.
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer network that is
usually used in places like a school or colleges. This network covers a limited geographical area
that is, it spreads across several buildings within the campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet
technology with a range from 1km to 5km. Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate
maintenance cost and moderate cost. Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools,
colleges, buildings, etc.

Campus Area Network (CAN)

Advantages of CAN
 Speed: Communication within a CAN takes place over Local Area Network (LAN) so data
transfer rate between systems is little bit fast than Internet.
 Security: Network administrators of campus take care of network by continuous monitoring,
tracking and limiting access. To protect network from unauthorized access firewall is placed
between network and internet.
 Cost effective: With a little effort and maintenance, network works well by providing fast
data transfer rate with multi-departmental network access. It can be enabled wirelessly,
where wiring and cabling costs can be managed. So to work with in a campus using CAN is
cost-effective in view of performance
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network that
connects computers over a geographical distance through a shared communication path over a
city, town, or metropolitan area. This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the
technology with a range from 5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average. It is difficult to
maintain and it comes with a high cost. Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a
single large city, a large area within multiple buildings, etc.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Advantages of MAN
 MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-100 Mbps.
 The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.
 It support to transmit data in both directions concurrently because of dual bus architecture.
 MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed internet to all the users.
 MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network, making it easier to
monitor and manage network resources and security.
Disadvantages of MAN
 The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to design and maintain.
 This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to set up fiber optics.
 It provides less fault tolerance.
 The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large geographical distance
through a shared communication path. It is not restrained to a single location but extends over
many locations. WAN can also be defined as a group of local area networks that communicate
with each other with a range above 50km. Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its
transmission speed is very low and it comes with very high maintenance and very high cost. The
most common example of WAN is the Internet.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Advantages of WAN
 It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of organisation to transmit data
quickly and cheaply.
 The data can be stored in centralised manner because of remote access to data provided by
WAN.
 The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area of work can be minimised.
 WAN enables a user or organisation to connect with the world very easily and allows to
exchange data and do business at global level.
Disadvantages of WAN
 Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.
 The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.
 Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple connection point.
 The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large distances and high
number of connected system within the network.
Comparison between Different Computer Networks

Paramete
rs PAN LAN CAN MAN WAN

Campus Metropolitan
Full Personal Area Local Area Wide Area
Area Area
Name Network Network Network
Network Network

Technol Bluetooth, Ethernet & FDDI, Leased Line,

Ethernet
ogy IrDA,Zigbee Wifi CDDi. ATM Dial-Up

Range 1-100 m Upto 2km 1 – 5 km 5-50 km Above 50 km

Transmi
ssion Very High Very High High Average Low
Speed

Owners Private or Private or

Private Private Private
hip Public Public

Mainten
Very Easy Easy Moderate Difficult Very Difficult
ance

Cost Very Low Low Moderate High Very High

Other Types of Computer Networks

 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
 Storage Area Network (SAN)
 System-Area Network (SAN)
 Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)
 Enterprise Private Network (EPN)
 Virtual Private Network (VPN)
 Home Area Network (HAN)
1. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
WLAN is a type of computer network that acts as a local area network but makes use of wireless
network technology like Wi-Fi. This network doesn’t allow devices to communicate over
physical cables like in LAN but allows devices to communicate wirelessly. The most common
example of WLAN is Wi-Fi.

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

There are several computer networks available; more information is provided below.
2. Storage Area Network (SAN)
SAN is a type of computer network that is high-speed and connects groups of storage devices to
several servers. This network does not depend on LAN or WAN. Instead, a SAN moves the
storage resources from the network to its high-powered network. A SAN provides access to
block-level data storage. Examples of SAN are a network of disks accessed by a network of
servers.
 Storage Area Network (SAN)

3. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

A POLAN is a type of computer network that is an alternative to a LAN. POLAN uses optical
splitters to split an optical signal from a single strand of single-mode optical fiber to multiple
signals to distribute users and devices. In short, POLAN is a point to multipoint LAN
architecture.

Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

4. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

EPN is a type of computer network mostly used by businesses that want a secure connection over
various locations to share computer resources.
 Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

5. Virtual Private Network (VPN)

A VPN is a type of computer network that extends a private network across the internet and lets
the user send and receive data as if they were connected to a private network even though they
are not. Through a virtual point-to-point connection users can access a private network remotely.
VPN protects you from malicious sources by operating as a medium that gives you a protected
network connection.

Virtual Private Network (VPN)

6. Home Area Network (HAN)

Many of the houses might have more than a computer. To interconnect those computers and with
other peripheral devices, a network should be established similar to the local area network
(LAN) within that home. Such a type of network that allows a user to interconnect multiple
computers and other digital devices within the home is referred to as Home Area Network
(HAN). HAN encourages sharing of resources, files, and programs within the network. It
supports both wired and wireless communication.
 Home Area Network (HAN)

Internetwork
An internet network is defined as two or more computer network LANs, WANs, or computer
network segments that are connected by devices and configured with a local addressing system.
The method is known as internetworking. There are two types of Internetwork.
 Intranet: An internal network within an organization that enables employees to share data,
collaborate, and access resources. Intranets are not accessible to the public and use private IP
addresses.
 Extranet: Extranets extend the intranet to authorized external users, such as business
partners or clients. They provide controlled access to specific resources while maintaining
security.
Advantages of Computer Network
 Central Storage of Data: Files are stored on a central storage database which helps to easily
access and available to everyone.
 Connectivity: A single connection can be routed to connect multiple computing devices.
 Sharing of Files: Files and data can be easily shared among multiple devices which helps in
easily communicating among the organization.
 Security through Authorization: Computer Networking provides additional security and
protection of information in the system.
Disadvantages of Computer Network
 Virus and Malware: A virus is a program that can infect other programs by modifying
them. Viruses and Malware can corrupt the whole network.
 High Cost of Setup: The initial setup of Computer Networking is expensive because it
consists of a lot of wires and cables along with the device.
 loss of Information: In case of a System Failure, might lead to some loss of data.
 Management of Network: Management of a Network is somehow complex for a person, it
requires training for its proper use.
Conclusion
In conclusion, computer networks are essential components that connect various computer
devices in order to efficiently share data and resources. PAN, LAN, CAN, MAN, and WAN
networks serve a wide range of applications and purposes, each with its own set of advantages
and drawbacks. Understanding these networks and their applications improves connectivity, data
exchange, and resource utilization in a variety of applications from personal use to global
communications.

Types of Network Topologies ( summary points to note)

1. Bus Topology

🔹 Structure: All devices are connected to a single central cable (backbone).

🔹 Data Flow: Travels in both directions along the backbone.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Simple and inexpensive setup
✔ Requires less cable

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ If the main cable fails, the entire network goes down
✖ Performance slows down with more devices

2. Star Topology

🔹 Structure: All devices connect to a central switch or hub.

🔹 Data Flow: Sent from one device to the central hub, then to the destination.
✅ Advantages:
✔ If one device fails, others remain unaffected
✔ Easy to troubleshoot and expand

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ If the hub/switch fails, the entire network stops
✖ Requires more cables than a bus topology

3. Ring Topology

🔹 Structure: Devices are connected in a closed loop (ring).

🔹 Data Flow: Moves in one or two directions in a circular manner.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Predictable data transmission
✔ Reduces data collisions

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ If one device fails, the entire network can be disrupted
✖ Adding new devices can be difficult

4. Mesh Topology

🔹 Structure: Every device connects to every other device directly.

🔹 Data Flow: Uses multiple paths for data transmission.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Very reliable (multiple paths prevent failure)
✔ High security and performance
❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Expensive to set up
✖ Requires a lot of cables and configuration

5. Tree (Hierarchical) Topology

🔹 Structure: A combination of star and bus topology, with a main backbone and branches.
🔹 Data Flow: Moves from top-level devices to lower levels.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Scalable (easy to expand)
✔ Structured and organized network

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ If the backbone fails, the entire network is affected
✖ More complex than star or bus topology

6. Hybrid Topology

🔹 Structure: A mix of two or more different topologies.

🔹 Data Flow: Depends on the combined structures.

✅ Advantages:
✔ Highly flexible and scalable
✔ Can be designed based on specific needs

❌ Disadvantages:
✖ Complex to set up and maintain
✖ Expensive compared to other topologies
Best Topology for Different Uses
Use Case Recommended Topology

Small office/home network Star Topology

Large organizations Hybrid or Tree Topology

High-security networks Mesh Topology

Simple, low-cost networks Bus Topology

Token Ring Networks Ring Topology

Categories of Computer Networks: Peer-to-Peer vs. Client-Server

Computer networks can be categorized based on how resources and services are managed and
accessed. The two main types are Peer-to-Peer (P2P) networks and Client-Server networks.
Each has distinct characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages.

1. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network

Definition

A Peer-to-Peer (P2P) network is a decentralized network where all computers (nodes) are
equal and share resources directly without relying on a central server. Each computer acts as both
a client and a server, meaning it can request and provide services.

Key Characteristics

 Decentralization: No central authority or dedicated server.

 Resource Sharing: Computers share files, printers, and internet connections directly.
 Scalability: Easy to expand by adding more devices.
 Equal Privileges: All devices have similar roles and permissions.

How It Works
  Each device (peer) connects to others and can share data or request services.
 Peers establish direct communication and manage connections dynamically.
 Files or data are distributed across multiple devices, reducing dependence on a single
source.

Advantages

✅ Cost-Effective – No need for expensive servers or network management tools.

✅ Easy to Set Up – Simple configuration with minimal technical knowledge.
✅ Redundancy – Data is distributed, reducing failure risks.
✅ Direct Communication – Peers exchange data without intermediaries.

Disadvantages

❌ Security Risks – No central security management; vulnerable to attacks.

❌ Performance Issues – As the number of devices increases, performance may degrade.
❌ Data Management – No centralized control, leading to inconsistency.
❌ Limited Scalability – Not suitable for large organizations.

Examples of P2P Networks

 File Sharing: BitTorrent, Napster, LimeWire

 Cryptocurrency: Bitcoin (Blockchain network)
 Messaging Services: Skype (earlier versions used P2P for voice calls)

2. Client-Server Network

Definition

A Client-Server network is a centralized network where one or more powerful computers

(servers) provide services, resources, or data to multiple client computers. The clients request
services, and the server responds accordingly.
Key Characteristics

 Centralized Management: A dedicated server controls network operations.

 Client-Server Relationship: Clients request services, and the server fulfills them.
 Efficient Resource Distribution: Centralized control ensures better performance.
 Security Control: Centralized security policies protect data.

How It Works

 Clients send requests (e.g., file access, internet browsing, application execution) to the
server.
 The server processes the request and sends the appropriate response.
 Data is stored centrally, making it easy to back up and manage.

Advantages

✅ Centralized Control – Easier management of resources, users, and security.

✅ Better Security – Servers handle authentication, encryption, and monitoring.
✅ Efficient Performance – Servers handle large amounts of data efficiently.
✅ Data Backup and Recovery – Centralized storage ensures data safety.

Disadvantages

❌ Expensive Setup – Requires investment in server hardware and software.

❌ Dependence on Server – If the server fails, the entire network may be affected.
❌ Complexity – Requires IT expertise for configuration and maintenance.
❌ Potential Bottlenecks – Heavy server load can slow down performance.

Examples of Client-Server Networks

 Web Browsing: Websites hosted on centralized servers.

 Email Services: Gmail, Outlook, Yahoo Mail.
 Cloud Computing: Google Drive, Dropbox.
 Banking Systems: Centralized databases storing customer information.
Comparison: Peer-to-Peer vs. Client-Server Networks
Feature Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network Client-Server Network

Structure Decentralized, all nodes are equal Centralized with dedicated servers

Less secure; individual devices manage

Security More secure with centralized control
security

Performance Can slow down with many peers More efficient for large-scale use

Higher cost due to servers and

Cost Lower setup cost
maintenance

Scalability Limited scalability Highly scalable for businesses

Data
No central control Centrally managed and organized
Management

Conclusion

Both Peer-to-Peer (P2P) and Client-Server networks serve different purposes based on user
needs. P2P networks are ideal for small-scale, low-cost, decentralized data sharing, while
Client-Server networks are better suited for organizations that require centralized control,
security, and scalability.

4o

Connect network devices

Definition of Network Devices

Network devices are hardware components used to connect computers, manage data traffic, and
ensure efficient communication within a network. These devices facilitate data transfer between
networked systems, ensuring security, performance, and connectivity.
Types of Network Devices and Their Functions

1. Router 🛜
o Definition: A router is a device that connects different networks and directs data
between them. It determines the best path for data packets to reach their
destination.
o Function:
✅ Connects multiple networks (e.g., home network to the internet).
✅ Directs traffic efficiently using IP addresses.
✅ Provides security features like firewalls and encryption.
o Example: Wi-Fi routers used in homes and offices.
2. Switch 🔄
o Definition: A switch is a network device that connects multiple devices within a
local area network (LAN) and efficiently forwards data only to the intended
recipient.
o Function:
✅ Filters and forwards data packets based on MAC addresses.
✅ Reduces data collision and increases network efficiency.
✅ Supports multiple devices in a wired network.
o Example: Ethernet switch used in offices for LAN connections.
3. Hub 🔗
o Definition: A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple computers
in a LAN and transmits data to all connected devices.
o Function:
✅ Broadcasts data to all devices regardless of the recipient.
✅ Simple and cost-effective, but less efficient than a switch.
✅ Used in small networks with minimal traffic.
o Example: Used in small office networks for basic connectivity.
4. Modem 🌐
 o Definition: A modem (modulator-demodulator) converts digital signals from a
computer into analog signals for transmission over telephone lines and vice versa.
o Function:
✅ Enables internet access by converting signal formats.
✅ Connects home or office networks to ISPs.
✅ Supports different types (DSL, cable, fiber optic).
o Example: ADSL or fiber-optic modem for home broadband.
5. Access Point (AP) 📶
o Definition: A wireless access point (WAP) extends a wired network by enabling
wireless connections for devices.
o Function:
✅ Expands Wi-Fi coverage in large areas.
✅ Connects wireless devices like smartphones and laptops to a wired network.
✅ Reduces network congestion by distributing connections.
o Example: Wi-Fi extenders in large office spaces.
6. Network Interface Card (NIC) 💻
o Definition: A NIC is a hardware component installed in computers and other
devices to enable network connectivity.
o Function:
✅ Provides wired or wireless network access.
✅ Uses MAC addresses for device identification.
✅ Supports different types (Ethernet, Wi-Fi).
o Example: Ethernet card in desktop computers.
7. Firewall 🔥
o Definition: A firewall is a security device (hardware or software) that monitors
and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based on security rules.
o Function:
✅ Protects networks from unauthorized access and cyber threats.
✅ Blocks malicious traffic and unauthorized data transmission.
✅ Used in both personal and enterprise networks.
o Example: Hardware firewalls in corporate security systems.
 8. Gateway 🌍
o Definition: A gateway is a device that connects different networks using different
communication protocols.
o Function:
✅ Acts as a bridge between two networks with different architectures.
✅ Converts data formats for compatibility.
✅ Used in cloud computing, VoIP, and enterprise networks.
o Example: Cloud service gateways connecting private and public clouds.

Conclusion

Network devices play crucial roles in data transmission, connectivity, security, and performance.
Choosing the right combination of these devices ensures an efficient, fast, and secure network
infrastructure. 🚀

Identification of Network Connection Media

Network connection media refer to the physical or wireless means through which data is
transmitted between devices in a network. These can be categorized into wired and wireless
media.

1. Wired Network Media 🔌

Wired network media use physical cables to establish connections between devices.

Types of Wired Media

A. Twisted Pair Cable

 Definition: Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce

electromagnetic interference.
  Types:
✅ Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) – Common in Ethernet networks (e.g., Cat5, Cat6
cables).
✅ Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) – Has additional shielding for protection against
interference.
 Usage: Used in LANs, telephone lines, and DSL connections.

B. Coaxial Cable

1. Introduction to Coaxial Cable

 Definition:
A coaxial cable (coax) is an electrical cable with an inner conductor surrounded by a
concentric insulating layer, shielded by a conductive layer (usually braided metal), and an
outer insulating jacket.

 Purpose:
Designed to transmit high-frequency electrical signals with minimal interference (e.g.,
TV, internet, radio signals).

2. Structure of Coaxial Cable

A coaxial cable consists of four layers:

1. Inner Conductor:
o Central copper or copper-clad steel wire for signal transmission.

2. Dielectric Insulator:
o Non-conductive material (e.g., polyethylene) separating the inner conductor from
the shield.

3. Metallic Shield:
o Braided copper or aluminum foil to block electromagnetic interference (EMI).
 4. Outer Jacket:
o Protective PVC or thermoplastic layer for durability and insulation.

(Diagram: Inner conductor, dielectric, shield, and jacket)

3. Types of Coaxial Cables

Type Use Case Impedance Example Applications

RG-6 High-frequency signals 75 Ω Cable TV, Satellite TV, Broadband

RG-59 Low-frequency signals 75 Ω CCTV, Analog Video

RG-11 Long-distance runs 75 Ω Cable TV trunk lines

Short-distance
RG-58 50 Ω Radio antennas, Wi-Fi boosters
networking

LMR-400 High-performance RF 50 Ω Ham radio, Cellular antennas

Triaxial Enhanced shielding 50/75 Ω Medical imaging, Aerospace

4. Key Technical Specifications

 Impedance:
o Standard values: 50 Ω (networking) and 75 Ω (video/audio).

o Mismatched impedance causes signal reflection and loss.

 Attenuation:
o Signal loss over distance (higher frequencies attenuate faster).

 Bandwidth:
o RG-6 supports up to 3 GHz (suitable for 4K/HDTV).
  Shielding Effectiveness:
o Measured in decibels (dB). Braided shields offer flexibility; foil shields provide
better EMI resistance.

5. Applications of Coaxial Cables

 Broadband Internet:
o Used in cable modems (DOCSIS standard).

 Television:
o Connects antennas, satellite dishes, and set-top boxes.

 Networking:
o Legacy Ethernet (10BASE2) and modern MoCA (Multimedia over Coax
Alliance).

 Radio Frequency (RF):

o Connects radios, antennas, and amplifiers.

 Medical/Scientific:
o MRI machines and laboratory equipment.

6. Connectors for Coaxial Cables

Connecto
Use Case Image
r

F-type Cable TV, satellite, and modems

BNC CCTV, RF equipment, test instruments

SMA Wi-Fi antennas, microwave systems

Connecto
Use Case Image
r

N-type High-power RF (e.g., cellular towers)

7. Advantages of Coaxial Cable

 Noise Immunity:
o Shielded design minimizes EMI and crosstalk.

 Durability:
o Robust construction for indoor/outdoor use.

 High Bandwidth:
o Supports high-frequency signals (e.g., 4K video).

 Long Distance:
o Lower signal loss compared to twisted-pair cables.

8. Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

 Bulkiness:
o Less flexible than Ethernet cables.

 Cost:
o More expensive than UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair).

 Installation Complexity:
o Requires specialized connectors (crimp or screw-on).

 Obsolescence:
o Gradually replaced by fiber optics for long-distance/high-speed needs.
9. Installation Best Practices
1. Avoid Sharp Bends:
o Prevents damage to the inner conductor.

2. Use Weatherproofing:
o Outdoor cables require UV-resistant jackets.

3. Terminate Properly:
o Ensure connectors are securely attached to avoid signal loss.

4. Grounding:
o Essential for outdoor installations to prevent electrical surges.

10. Future of Coaxial Cables

 Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial (HFC):
o Combines fiber optics and coax for high-speed internet (e.g., DOCSIS 4.0).

 MoCA Technology:
o Repurposes existing coax for home networking (up to 2.5 Gbps).

11. Key Terms

 dB Loss: Signal attenuation per unit length.

 Velocity Factor: Speed of signal propagation relative to light (e.g., ~66% for RG-6).

 Return Loss: Measure of reflected signals due to impedance mismatch.

  Definition: Has a central copper conductor surrounded by insulation and shielding to
prevent interference.
 Types:
✅ Thick Coaxial (RG-8) – Used for long-distance networking.
✅ Thin Coaxial (RG-58) – Used in small networks.
 Usage: Used in cable TV, broadband internet, and older Ethernet networks.

C. Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cables are advanced communication cables that use light signals to transmit data.
They are widely used for high-speed internet, telecommunications, and networking due to their
efficiency and reliability.

Fiber Optics or Optical Fiber is a technology that transmits data as a light pulse along a glass or
plastic fiber. An Optical Fiber is a cylindrical fiber of glass that is hair-thin in size or any
transparent dielectric medium. The fiber which is used for optical communication is waveguides
made of transparent dielectrics. In this article, we will discuss Optical Fiber/Fiber Optics in
detail.
What is Fiber Optics?
Fiber optics refers to the technology and method of transmitting data as light pulses along a
glass or plastic strand or fiber. Fiber optic cables are used for long-distance and high-
performance data networking. They are capable of transmitting data over longer distances and
at higher bandwidths (data rates) than electrical cables, making them a critical component
in modern telecommunications, internet, and computer networking.
Main Elements of Fiber Optics
 Core: It is the central tube of very thin size made of optically transparent dielectric medium
and carries the light transmitter to receiver and the core diameter may vary from about 5um
to 100 um.
 Cladding: It is an outer optical material surrounding the core having a reflecting index lower
than the core and cladding helps to keep the light within the core throughout the phenomena
of total internal reflection.
 Buffer Coating: It is a plastic coating that protects the fiber made of silicon rubber. The
typical diameter of the fiber after the coating is 250-300 um.

Types of Fiber Optics

There are different types of fiber optics based on several categories as mentioned below:
1. Based on the Number of Modes
 Single-mode fiber: In single-mode fiber, only one type of ray of light can propagate through
the fiber. This type of fiber has a small core diameter (5um) and high cladding diameter
(70um) and the difference between the refractive index of core and cladding is very small.
There is no dispersion i.e. no degradation of the signal during traveling through the fiber. The
light is passed through it through a laser diode.

 Multi-mode fiber: Multimode fiber allows many modes for the light rays traveling through
it. The core diameter is generally (40um) and that of cladding is (70um). The relative
refractive index difference is also greater than single-mode fiber. There is signal degradation
due to multimode dispersion. It is not suitable for long-distance communication due to the
large dispersion and attenuation of the signal. There are two categories based on Multi-mode
fiber i.e. Step Index Fiber and Graded Index Fiber. These are categories under the types of
optical fiber based on the Refractive Index
2. Based on Refractive Index
 Step-index optical fiber: The refractive index of the core is constant. The refractive index of
the cladding is also continuous. The rays of light propagate through it in the form of
meridional rays which cross the fiber axis during every reflection at the core-cladding
boundary.

 Graded index optical fiber: In this type of fiber, the core has a non-uniform refractive index
that gradually decreases from the center towards the core-cladding interface. The cladding
has a uniform refractive index. The light rays propagate through it in the form of skew rays
or helical rays. it does not cross the fiber axis at any time.
3. Based on the Material Used
 Plastic Optical Fibres: For transmission of light, polymethylmethacrylate is used as core
material
 Glass Fibres: These are extremely fine glass fibers, the core and cladding of the optical fiber
is made of plastic.
How Fiber Optic Works?
Fiber Optics has the work of transmission of light particles, or photons. Fiber optics transmit data
as light through thin sheets of glass or plastic. Each fiber consists of a core, where the light
travels through it, and a surrounding cladding that reflects the light back into the core part. Data
is converted into light using a laser or LED, and these light pulses travel through the core,
bouncing off the cladding to stay contained in it. At the receiving end, a photodetector converts
the light back into the electrical signals. This technology allows for fast, high-capacity data
transmission with minimal signal loss, immunity to electromagnetic interference, and therefore
the security is enhanced. Fiber optics are generally used for high-speed internet,
telecommunications, medical devices, and many more industrial applications.
Uses of Fiber Optics
 Fiber Optics can be used in Computer Broadcasting and Networking
 Fiber Optics are used on the Internet. They are also used in Television Cable.
 Fiber Optics are widely used in Military Activities. They are also used in Medical Purposes
like for precise illumination.
 They can also be used in Underwater environments as they don’t require to be replaced
frequently.
Advantages of Fiber Optics
 Fiber Optics supports bandwidth with higher capacities.
 Electromagnetic Interference is very little with Fiber Optics.
 Fiber Optics are stronger and lighter than copper cables.
 Very little Maintenance is required in Optical Fiber.
Disadvantages of Fiber Optics
 Fiber Optics is more costly than Copper Wire.
 Huge manual work is required to install new cables.
 Some optical fibers like glass fiber require more protection.
 Fiber Optics are more fragile i.e., can be easily broken, or signals can be lost easily.

1. Structure of Fiber Optic Cable

A fiber optic cable consists of multiple layers that ensure data transmission and durability:

a) Core

 The central part where light signals travel.

 Made of glass or plastic with a high refractive index.

b) Cladding

 Surrounds the core and reflects light back into it.

 Has a lower refractive index to enable total internal reflection.

c) Buffer Coating

 Protective layer to prevent damage and moisture.

d) Strengthening Material

 Provides structural support and prevents breakage.

e) Outer Jacket

 A durable covering that protects against environmental damage.

2. Types of Fiber Optic Cables

a) Single-Mode Fiber (SMF)

  Thin core (~8-10 µm diameter).
 Used for long-distance communication (up to 100 km).
 Transmits one light signal at a time → Higher bandwidth & speed.
 Used in telecom, submarine cables, and data centers.

b) Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF)

 Thicker core (~50-62.5 µm diameter).

 Supports multiple light signals at the same time.
 Best for short-distance communication (up to 2 km).
 Used in LANs, data centers, and security systems.

3. Advantages of Fiber Optic Cables

✅ High-Speed Data Transmission – Much faster than copper cables.

✅ Long-Distance Communication – Supports data transfer over large distances with minimal
signal loss.
✅ High Bandwidth – Can handle large amounts of data simultaneously.
✅ Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) – Unlike copper cables, fiber optics are
not affected by electrical noise.
✅ Security & Safety – Difficult to tap or intercept, enhancing cybersecurity.
✅ Durability & Reliability – Resistant to harsh weather, temperature changes, and corrosion.

4. Disadvantages of Fiber Optic Cables

❌ High Initial Cost – Expensive installation and infrastructure.

❌ Fragile – Glass fibers are more delicate than copper wires.
❌ Complex Installation & Maintenance – Requires skilled technicians for splicing and repairs.
❌ Limited Bend Radius – Excessive bending can cause signal loss.
5. Applications of Fiber Optic Cables

📡 Telecommunications – Used in phone networks, internet services, and cable TV.

🏢 Networking – Backbone for LANs, WANs, and high-speed data centers.
🏥 Medical Industry – Used in endoscopy, laser surgery, and imaging.
🚀 Military & Aerospace – Secure communication, radar, and guidance systems.
🏠 Smart Homes – High-speed internet for streaming, gaming, and IoT devices.
🚄 Transportation – Railway signaling, traffic control, and intelligent transport systems.

 Definition: Uses light signals instead of electrical signals for data transmission.
 Types:
✅ Single-Mode Fiber (SMF) – Transmits a single light signal over long distances.
✅ Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF) – Supports multiple signals for short-distance
communication.
 Usage: Used in high-speed internet, backbone networks, and data centers.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Wired Network Connection Media

Advantages:

1. Higher Speed & Bandwidth – Wired connections (e.g., Ethernet) typically offer higher
speeds and more bandwidth compared to wireless networks.
2. More Reliable Connection – Wired networks experience less interference and fewer
connectivity issues than wireless networks.
3. Lower Latency – Since wired networks have a direct physical connection, they have
lower latency, making them ideal for gaming and real-time applications.
4. Better Security – It is harder to intercept data on a wired network compared to a wireless
one, making it more secure.
5. Stable Performance – Wired networks are not affected by obstacles, interference, or
distance limitations as much as wireless networks.
Disadvantages:

1. Limited Mobility – Devices must remain connected by cables, restricting movement.

2. Difficult Installation – Setting up a wired network involves running cables through
walls, ceilings, or floors, which can be complex and costly.
3. Higher Cost – The cost of cables, switches, and installation can be higher compared to
setting up a wireless network.
4. Cable Management Issues – Managing multiple cables can be difficult, leading to
clutter and potential hazards.
5. Scalability Challenges – Expanding a wired network requires additional cabling and
hardware, which can be more time-consuming than adding wireless connections.

2. Wireless Network Media 📡

Wireless media use electromagnetic waves for data transmission, eliminating the need for
physical cables.

Features
 No physical medium is required for transmission.
 It can carry signals through air, water, or vacuum.
 It can travel large distances but it is also less secure

Wireless Communication

Wireless communication is also referred to as Unguided Media or Unbounded transmission

media. In this mode, no physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic
signals. In wireless communication, we can transfer our message through the air, water or
vacuum i.e. Infrared, Radio wave, Microwave wave. So, we don’t worry about the cables or
any material to transfer messages, as we can send out a message without and medium.

Wireless communication has advantages and also have disadvantages like it is less secure if we
talk about security.
Features
 No physical medium is required for transmission.
 It can carry signals through air, water, or vacuum.
 It can travel large distances but it is also less secure.
Let’s discuss some of its types:-

Infrared

Infrared is used for short-range communication like TV remotes, mobile phones, personal
computers etc. In science, the Infrared is part of a spectrum that is not visible to the human eye.
The limitation of infrared rays is that they cannot penetrate any obstacles and can only use for
short-range. Also, Infrared is used in night vision cameras as it has thermal properties. The
frequency range of infrared rays 300GHz – 400THz

Uses:
As we have already have discussed they are used in TV remotes, Pc devices like mice, and
keyboards.

Advantage and Disadvantage:

If we talk about the merit part of infrared then we can say Infrared is one of the secure wireless
communication mediums as it is used for short-range. Also, unlike other wireless mediums,
infrared is quite inexpensive, and this is some reason it is used in many electronic devices.

Now, let’s talk about the disadvantaged part of Infrared waves so they can only be used in
short-range communication. Also, they cannot penetrate any obstacles like walls or any
building.

Radio Waves

So we have seen the limitation of infrared waves, so here’s another wireless communication
that does not have limitations like infrared. Here we are discussing radio waves. that can travel
large distances as well as can penetrate any wall ( Omni-directional, these waves can move in
all directions). These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The
requirement of radio waves is antennas, sending antennas where one can transmit its message
and the other is receiving antennas. The frequency range of radio waves:3KHz – 1GHz. Also,
radio waves of frequency 300KHz-30MHz can travel long distances. Moreover, they are
Susceptible to interference meaning they can penetrate any walls.

Uses:
Radio waves are used in AM and FM radios, and cordless phones. Also, some private and
government organization reserves certain radio frequencies for direct communication.

Advantage and Disadvantage:

Radio waves have some advantages like they can travel long distances in all directions and can
pass through any obstacles, and since they are wireless communication mediums so there is no
need of digging and spreading wires. But, yes radio waves have some disadvantages too like
radio waves are not effective in bad weather conditions, and they are less secure as they can
travel large distances.

Microwaves

Microwaves are a line of sight transmission, meaning both the antennas sending and receiving
should be properly aligned. Also, the distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to
the height of the antenna. Microwaves have a frequency Range between 1GHz – 300GHz.
Basically, we used Microwaves in mobile phones communication and television distribution.

Unlike radio waves, they are unidirectional, as they can move in only one direction, and
therefore it is used in point-to-point communication or unicast communication such as radar
and satellite.

Uses:
Microwaves are used in mobile phones communication and television distribution.

Advantage and Disadvantage:

If we talk about the advantages of microwaves then we say that it is a very fast way of
communication, that can carry 25000 voice channels at the same time. Also, it is a wireless
communication medium so there is no need of digging and spreading wires.
Now demerits of microwaves are the first expense, their installation and maintenance are very
expensive. that turns this into a very expensive mode of communication. Moreover,
Microwaves are also not very effective in bad weather conditions.

Comparison of Infrared, Radio waves, Microwaves

S.n
o Infrared Radio Waves Microwaves

Infrared is used for short-

range communication like Radio waves are the type Microwaves are a line of
TV remotes, mobile of wireless sight transmission,
phones, personal communication that can meaning both the antennas
1
computers, etc. In science, travel large distances as sending and receiving
the Infrared is part of a well as can penetrate any should be properly
spectrum that is not visible wall aligned.
to the human eye

The frequency range of The frequency range of Microwaves have a

2 infrared rays 300GHz – radio waves:3KHz – frequency Range between
400THz 1GHz. 1GHz – 300GHz.

3 The limitation of infrared It can travel large They are unidirectional, as

rays is that they cannot distances as well as can they can move in only one
penetrate any obstacles and penetrate any wall direction, and therefore it is
can only use for short- ( Omni-directional, used in point-to-point
range. Also, Infrared is communication or unicast
used in night vision communication such as
cameras as it has thermal radar and satellite.
properties. The frequency
range of infrared rays
 S.n
o Infrared Radio Waves Microwaves

300GHz – 400THz

Infrared is one of the Advantages of microwaves

secure wireless then we say that it is a very
communication mediums Radio waves can travel to fast way of
as it is used for short- long distances so it is used communication, that can
range. Also, unlike other for long distance carry 25000 voice channels
4
wireless mediums, infrared communication and there at the same time. Also, it is
is quite inexpensive, and is no need of digging and a wireless communication
this is some reason it is spreading wires. medium so there is no need
used in many electronic of digging and spreading
devices. wires.

Infrared waves are used in Microwaves are used in

Radio waves are used in
TV remotes, mobile mobile phones
5 AM and FM radios, and
phones, personal communication and
cordless phones.
computers television distribution.

. List the differences between wired & wireless networks.

Answer:

S.N
Wired Network Wireless Network
o

A wired network employs wires “Wireless” means without wire, media that is
to link devices to the Internet or made up of electromagnetic waves (EM Waves)
1.
another network, such as laptops or infrared waves. Antennas or sensors will be
or desktop PCs. present on all wireless devices
 2. Faster transmission speed Slow transmission speed

3. Propagation delay is Low Propagation delay is high

4. More Secure & hence Reliable Less Secure & hence less Reliable

5. Devices must be hard-wired Installation is Quick

6. Less Expensive More Expensive

High installation & maintenance

7. Low installation & maintenance cost
cost

Hub, Switch, etc. devices are

8. Wireless routers, access points, etc. are used.
used

Types of Wireless Media (Summary)

A. Radio Waves (Wi-Fi wireless fidelity)

 Definition: Uses radio frequency (RF) signals for communication between devices.
 Usage: Wi-Fi networks in homes, offices, and public places.
 Frequency Bands:
✅ 2.4 GHz – Longer range but slower speed.
✅ 5 GHz – Faster speed but shorter range.

B. Microwave Transmission

 Definition: Uses high-frequency radio waves for long-distance communication.

 Usage: Satellite communications, cellular networks, and point-to-point links.
C. Infrared (IR) Communication

 Definition: Uses infrared light for short-distance data transmission.

 Usage: TV remotes, wireless keyboards, and IrDA-enabled devices.

D. Bluetooth

 Definition: A short-range wireless technology for device-to-device communication.

 Usage: Wireless headphones, keyboards, and file sharing between mobile devices.

E. Satellite Communication

 Definition: Uses satellites in space to provide global communication.

 Usage: GPS, satellite TV, and remote internet access.

Advantages of Wireless Networks

✅ Provides mobility and flexibility.

✅ Easy installation without cables.
✅ Supports multiple devices simultaneously.

Disadvantages of Wireless Networks

❌ Prone to interference and signal loss.

❌ Security risks due to open transmissions.
❌ Slower compared to wired networks.

Comparison: Wired vs. Wireless Networks

Feature Wired Network Wireless Network

Speed Faster (up to 100 Gbps with fiber) Slower (Wi-Fi speeds vary)

Mobility Limited (fixed connection) High (connect from anywhere)

Security More secure More vulnerable to hacking

 Feature Wired Network Wireless Network

Installation Complex (cabling required) Easy (no physical cables)

Interference Minimal Can be affected by obstacles and other signals

Conclusion

Both wired and wireless network media have their advantages and disadvantages. Wired
networks offer better speed, reliability, and security, making them ideal for businesses and data
centers. Wireless networks provide mobility and flexibility, making them suitable for homes,
offices, and public places. The choice depends on network needs, budget, and required
performance. 🚀

Characteristics of Connection Medium (Wired & Wireless)

A connection medium is the channel through which data is transmitted between devices in a
network. The choice of medium determines network performance, speed, security, and
reliability. Connection media can be categorized into wired (physical cables) and wireless
(electromagnetic signals) types, each with distinct characteristics.

1. Characteristics of Wired Connection Media 🔌

Wired networks use physical cables to transmit data, providing a stable and secure connection.

A. Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pair cables consist of two insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce
electromagnetic interference (EMI).
✅ Speed: Supports speeds ranging from 10 Mbps (Cat3) to 10 Gbps (Cat6/6a and higher).
✅ Interference: Moderately susceptible to electromagnetic interference but improved with
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP).
✅ Security: More secure than wireless, as data cannot be intercepted easily.
✅ Cost: Low-cost, widely used for Ethernet networks.
✅ Distance: Maximum cable length of 100 meters (328 feet) without signal loss.
✅ Durability: Can be easily damaged or degraded over time.
✅ Common Use: LAN (Local Area Networks), telephone lines, DSL connections.

B. Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cables consist of a central copper conductor surrounded by insulating layers and
shielding to prevent signal loss.

✅ Speed: Supports speeds up to 1 Gbps, commonly used in broadband internet.

✅ Interference: Less susceptible to interference than twisted pair cables due to better shielding.
✅ Security: More secure than wireless, but less secure than fiber optics.
✅ Cost: Moderate cost, cheaper than fiber but more expensive than twisted pair.
✅ Distance: Can transmit data up to 500 meters without needing a repeater.
✅ Durability: More durable than twisted pair cables, but bending can degrade performance.
✅ Common Use: Cable TV, broadband internet, CCTV cameras.

C. Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cables use light signals instead of electrical signals for data transmission, making
them extremely fast and resistant to interference.

✅ Speed: Extremely high (up to 100 Gbps and beyond).

✅ Interference: Not affected by electromagnetic interference, making it the most reliable
option.
✅ Security: Most secure connection medium; difficult to tap without detection.
✅ Cost: Expensive due to installation complexity and specialized equipment.
✅ Distance: Supports long-distance communication up to 40 km+ without signal degradation.
✅ Durability: Highly durable but can be fragile if bent sharply.
✅ Common Use: High-speed internet, data centers, submarine cables, backbone networks.

2. Characteristics of Wireless Connection Media 📡

Wireless networks use electromagnetic waves to transmit data, eliminating the need for physical
cables.

A. Radio Waves (Wi-Fi, Cellular Networks, Bluetooth)

Radio waves are the most common form of wireless communication, used in Wi-Fi, mobile
networks, and Bluetooth.

✅ Speed: Varies by technology:

 Wi-Fi: Up to 10 Gbps (Wi-Fi 6E and beyond).

 Bluetooth: Up to 3 Mbps (for short-range data exchange).
✅ Interference: Prone to interference from walls, other wireless devices, and electronic
appliances.
✅ Security: Moderate, requires encryption (e.g., WPA3 for Wi-Fi).
✅ Cost: Affordable, no cabling needed.
✅ Distance:
 Wi-Fi: 30-100 meters indoors.
 Bluetooth: 10-30 meters (short-range).
✅ Durability: No physical wear, but signal strength varies.
✅ Common Use: Home networks, mobile phones, smart devices.
B. Microwave Transmission (Terrestrial & Satellite Communication)

Microwaves use high-frequency radio signals to transmit data over long distances.

✅ Speed: Up to 10 Gbps for point-to-point communication.

✅ Interference: Affected by weather conditions (rain, fog, storms).
✅ Security: Can be intercepted if not encrypted properly.
✅ Cost: Expensive, requires specialized equipment.
✅ Distance: Can cover 50 km+ between towers.
✅ Durability: No physical cables, but environmental factors can impact performance.
✅ Common Use: Satellite communication, mobile networks (4G/5G), TV broadcasting.

C. Infrared (IR) Communication

Infrared technology uses light signals for short-range communication between devices.

✅ Speed: Low to moderate (up to 4 Mbps).

✅ Interference: Easily blocked by physical objects (walls, furniture).
✅ Security: Secure because it requires direct line-of-sight.
✅ Cost: Low-cost and energy-efficient.
✅ Distance: Effective within 1-5 meters.
✅ Durability: No physical wear, but signal can be disrupted.
✅ Common Use: TV remotes, wireless keyboards, IrDA-enabled devices.

D. Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication technology used for device-to-device

connections.
✅ Speed: Up to 3 Mbps (Bluetooth 5.0 supports higher speeds).
✅ Interference: Can be affected by Wi-Fi and other Bluetooth devices.
✅ Security: Moderate, requires pairing and encryption.
✅ Cost: Low-cost and widely available.
✅ Distance: Works within 10-30 meters.
✅ Durability: No physical wear, but signal can weaken over time.
✅ Common Use: Wireless headphones, smartwatches, IoT devices.

Comparison of Wired vs. Wireless Connection Medium

Feature Wired Network Wireless Network

Speed Faster (up to 100 Gbps with fiber) Slower (Wi-Fi speeds vary)

Interference Minimal (fiber immune to EMI) Prone to interference (walls, devices)

Security More secure (difficult to hack) Less secure (encryption required)

Mobility Limited (fixed connection) High (connect from anywhere)

Cost Expensive (cabling and installation) Cheaper (no physical cables)

Distance Longer (fiber up to 40 km) Shorter (Wi-Fi: 100m, Bluetooth: 30m)

Durability Cables wear out over time No physical damage, but signal loss possible

Conclusion

The choice of connection medium depends on network requirements, cost, and security
considerations.

 Wired networks (e.g., fiber optic, twisted pair, coaxial) are best for high-speed,
secure, and stable connections in businesses, data centers, and homes requiring reliable
connectivity.
  Wireless networks (e.g., Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, microwave, infrared) offer flexibility and
mobility but are more vulnerable to interference and security threats.

Understanding these characteristics helps in selecting the most suitable medium for networking
applications, ensuring optimal performance and security.

Configure network devices

Network configuration is the process of assigning network settings, policies, flows, and controls.
In networking, configuration refers to the process of setting up and managing network devices,
protocols, and settings to ensure proper communication and functionality within a network. This
includes defining parameters such as:

 IP addresses and subnet masks

 Routing tables and firewall rules
 DNS and DHCP settings
 Security policies and access controls
 Quality of Service (QoS) settings

Network configuration can be done manually or through automated tools and scripts to ensure
optimal performance, security, and reliability.

types of network configuration:

1. Device Configuration

Configuring individual network devices such as routers, switches, firewalls, and access points.
🔹 Examples:
  Setting up IP addresses and subnet masks
 Configuring firewall rules
 Enabling/disabling network interfaces

2. Network Topology Configuration

Defines how devices are connected and communicate in a network.

🔹 Examples:

 Star, Mesh, or Ring topology setup

 Configuring LAN, MAN, and WAN networks
 Implementing VLANs (Virtual LANs) for segmentation

3. Security Configuration

Setting up security policies and mechanisms to protect the network.

🔹 Examples:

 Firewall rules to block unauthorized traffic

 Encryption for data transmission (e.g., WPA3 for Wi-Fi)
 VPN setup for secure remote access

4. Wireless Configuration

Configuring and optimizing Wi-Fi networks for performance and security.

🔹 Examples:

 Setting SSID and password

 Enabling band steering for better performance
  Configuring guest networks

5. Protocol Configuration

Setting up network protocols that control communication between devices.

🔹 Examples:

 TCP/IP settings for internet connectivity

 Routing protocols like OSPF, BGP, or RIP
 DNS & DHCP configuration for name resolution and IP assignment

6. Cloud Network Configuration

Setting up and managing networks in cloud environments.

🔹 Examples:

 Configuring Virtual Private Cloud (VPC)

 Setting up load balancers
 Managing cloud firewalls and security groups

7. Automation & Orchestration Configuration

Using scripts and tools to automate network settings.

🔹 Examples:

 Using Ansible, Terraform, or Cisco DNA Center

 Automating IP assignments and VLANs
 Setting up self-healing networks
 Why is network configuration important?

The right network configuration is essential to supporting the flow of traffic through a network,
and it can also support and enhance network security and improve network stability. In addition,
the use of network configuration management manager and or configuration tools can provide a
number of benefits, including:

 Automated data tracking and reporting, allowing administrators to spot any configuration
changes and potential threats or issues
 An easy way to make bulk changes, such as a blanket password change in a situation where
passwords are compromised
 The means to swiftly roll back network settings to a previous configuration
 Reduced downtime, thanks to increased visibility and the ability to quickly identify changes
 Streamlined maintenance and repair of network devices (physical or virtual) and connections
 The ability to relaunch a device when it fails, thanks to centralized storage management of
device configurations

What is Network Architecture?

Network Architecture is the way network services and devices are structured together to serve
the connectivity needs of client devices and applications.

- **Purpose**: To ensure efficient, reliable, and secure data transmission between devices.
- Key Components:
- Nodes Devices like computers, servers, routers, switches, etc.
 - Links: Physical or wireless connections between nodes.
- Protocols: Rules and conventions for communication (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP).
- Topology: The arrangement of nodes and links in the network.

What are four basic Network Architectures principles?

The four basic Network Architectures are as follows:

1. Fault Tolerance. A fault-tolerant network is one that limits the number of devices that are
impacted by faults, as the Internet will fail at times. It’s built to recover quickly and utilize
multiple paths between the source and destination, so if one faults, another steps in.

2. Scalability. A scalable network can expand quickly to support its new clients and applications
without impacting the performance of the service being delivered to already existing users.

3. Quality of Service (QoS). The quality of service is a requirement of networks in the modern
multi-cloud era. Services need to be dependable, measurable, and at times, guaranteed without
fear of compromised quality, which includes the controls to manage congested network traffic
and network bandwidth.

4. Security. A high-level of security is a non-negotiable for an impactful network architecture as

it serves as one of the fundamentals. Security is addressed in the network infrastructure and in
information security, which means physically securing a network is necessary and the
information being transmitted, stored, and utilized in cloud-native environments.

Types of Network Architecture

Computer networks can be classified based on architecture into two primary types:
 Peer-to-Peer Architecture
 Client/Server Architecture
Types of Network Architecture

What is Peer-to-Peer Architecture?

In the P2P (Peer-to-Peer) network, “peers” generally represent computer system. These peers
are connected to each other with help of Internet. Files might be shared directly without
requirement of central server among these systems on the network. It can be said that each of
computers on P2P network usually becomes file server even as client also.
In this architecture, system is generally decomposed into various computational nodes that
contain the same and equivalent capabilities, abilities, and responsibilities. In this network,
tasks are allocated at each and every device available on network. This network is very
essential and important for small environments, usually up to at least 10 computers. There is
also no separate division as clients and servers. Each and every computer in this network are
treated same and equally and might send even receive message directly. This P2P network is
generally useful in various fields such as business, education, military, etc.

Peer-to-Peer Architecture

Advantages of Peer-to-Peer Architecture

 P2P network is less costly and cheaper. It is affordable.
 P2P is very simple and not complex. This is because all computers that are connected
in network communication in an efficient and well-mannered with each other.
 It is very easy and simple to set up and manage as installation and setup is less painless and
computer manages itself. This is because of built-in support in modern operating systems.
 Security is one of major issues in this type of network.
 If computer working with some of resources is down and sharing of resources might
become major problem.
 Performance, security, and access can also become major problem with an increase in
number of computers on this network.
Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer Architecture
 It is more difficult to manage security policies consistently.
 Each peer demands individual care and control.
 As the network expands in size, it may become inefficient.
What is Client/Server Architecture?
CSN (Client/Server Network) is type of computer network in which one of centralized and
powerful computers (commonly called as server) is hub to which many of personal computers
that are less powerful or workstations (commonly known as clients) are connected. It is type of
system where clients are connected to server to just share or use resources. These servers are
generally considered as heart of system. This type of network is more stable and scalable as
compared to P2P network. In this architecture, system is generally decomposed into client and
server processor or processes.

Client/Server Architecture

Advantages of Client/Server Architecture

 A special Network Operating System (NOS) is provided by server to provide resources to
many users that request them.
 It is also very easy and simple to set up and manage data updates. This is because data is
generally stored in centralized manner on server.
 The server usually controls resources and data security.
 This network also boosts speed of sharing resources.
 If anyhow server goes down or crashes, entire will be affected by this.
 It is very expensive as compared to P2P. This is due to need for server with
more memory as well as need for many networking devices such as hubs, routers, switches,
etc.
 Cost of NOS being provided is very high.
Disadvantages of Client/Server Architecture
 If the server fails, clients may lose access to services.
 Setting up servers requires a higher investment in hardware and software.
 Managing servers requires skilled personnel.
What Does a Computer Network Architect Do?
A computer network architect is responsible for designing and building communication
networks for organizations. Their main tasks include:
 Designing, Modeling, Testing, and Troubleshooting Networks: This involves creating
plans for networks, testing them out, and solving any problems that arise.
 Testing and Inspecting Existing Networks: You’ll need to examine current networks to
ensure they’re working correctly and identify any issues that need fixing.
 Upgrading Networks (Hardware and Software): Keeping networks up-to-date by
improving both the physical equipment and the software they run on.
 Analyzing and Fixing Security Weaknesses: Identifying and resolving any vulnerabilities
in networks to keep them safe from cyber threats.
 Developing Technical Documentation: Creating detailed guides and instructions for
building and maintaining networks.
 Installing and Maintaining Hardware Components: Setting up and looking after the
physical parts of networks, like routers, cables, and adapters.

What is Network Protocol?

A network protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication between different devices
in the network. It determines what is being communicated, how it is being communicated, and
when it is being communicated. It permits connected devices to communicate with each other,
irrespective of internal and structural differences.
How do Network Protocols Work?
It is essential to understand how devices communicate over a network by recognizing network
protocols. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), the most widely used model, illustrates
how computer systems interact with one another over a network. The communication
mechanism between two network devices is shown by seven different layers in the OSI model.
Every layer in the OSI model works based on different network protocols. At every layer, one
or more protocols are there for network communication. To enable network-to-network
connections, the Internet Protocol (IP), for instance, routes data by controlling information like
the source and destination addresses of data packets. It is known as a network layer protocol.
Types of Network Protocols
In most cases, communication across a network like the Internet uses the OSI model. The OSI
model has a total of seven layers. Secured connections, network management, and network
communication are the three main tasks that the network protocol performs. The purpose of
protocols is to link different devices.
The protocols can be broadly classified into three major categories:
 Network Communication
 Network Management
 Network Security
1. Network Communication
Communication protocols are really important for the functioning of a network. They are so
crucial that it is not possible to have computer networks without them. These protocols
formally set out the rules and formats through which data is transferred. These protocols
handle syntax, semantics, error detection, synchronization, and authentication. Below
mentioned are some network communication protocol:
Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP)
It is a layer 7 protocol that is designed for transferring a hypertext between two or more
systems. HTTP works on a client-server model, most of the data sharing over the web is done
through using HTTP.
Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)
TCP layouts a reliable stream delivery by using sequenced acknowledgment. It is a connection-
oriented protocol i.e., it establishes a connection between applications before sending any data.
It is used for communicating over a network. It has many applications such as emails, FTP,
streaming media, etc.
User Datagram Protocol(UDP)
It is a connectionless protocol that lay-out a basic but unreliable message service. It adds
no flow control, reliability, or error-recovery functions. UPD is functional in cases where
reliability is not required. It is used when we want faster transmission, for multicasting and
broadcasting connections, etc.
Border Gateway Protocol(BGP)
BGP is a routing protocol that controls how packets pass through the router in an independent
system one or more networks run by a single organization and connect to different networks. It
connects the endpoints of a LAN with other LANs and it also connects endpoints in different
LANs to one another.
Address Resolution Protocol(ARP)
ARP is a protocol that helps in mapping logical addresses to the physical addresses
acknowledged in a local network. For mapping and maintaining a correlation between these
logical and physical addresses a table known as ARP cache is used.
Internet Protocol(IP)
It is a protocol through which data is sent from one host to another over the internet. It is used
for addressing and routing data packets so that they can reach their destination.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol(DHCP)
it’s a protocol for network management and it’s used for the method of automating the process
of configuring devices on IP networks. A DHCP server automatically assigns an IP address and
various other configurational changes to devices on a network so they can communicate with
other IP networks. it also allows devices to use various services such as NTP, DNS, or any
other protocol based on TCP or UDP.
2. Network Management
These protocols assist in describing the procedures and policies that are used in monitoring,
maintaining, and managing the computer network. These protocols also help in communicating
these requirements across the network to ensure stable communication. Network management
protocols can also be used for troubleshooting connections between a host and a client.
Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP)
It is a layer 3 protocol that is used by network devices to forward operational information and
error messages. ICMP is used for reporting congestions, network errors, diagnostic purposes,
and timeouts.
Simple Network Management Protocol(SNMP)
It is a layer 7 protocol that is used for managing nodes on an IP network. There are three main
components in the SNMP protocol i.e., SNMP agent, SNMP manager, and managed device.
SNMP agent has the local knowledge of management details, it translates those details into a
form that is compatible with the SNMP manager. The manager presents data acquired from
SNMP agents, thus helping in monitoring network glitches, and network performance, and
troubleshooting them.
Gopher
It is a type of file retrieval protocol that provides downloadable files with some description for
easy management, retrieving, and searching of files. All the files are arranged on a remote
computer in a stratified manner. Gopher is an old protocol and it is not much used nowadays.
File Transfer Protocol(FTP)
FTP is a Client/server protocol that is used for moving files to or from a host computer, it
allows users to download files, programs, web pages, and other things that are available on
other services.
Post Office Protocol(POP3)
It is a protocol that a local mail client uses to get email messages from a remote email server
over a TCP/IP connection. Email servers hosted by ISPs also use the POP3 protocol to hold
and receive emails intended for their users. Eventually, these users will use email client
software to look at their mailbox on the remote server and to download their emails. After the
email client downloads the emails, they are generally deleted from the servers.
Telnet
It is a protocol that allows the user to connect to a remote computer program and to use it i.e.,
it is designed for remote connectivity. Telnet creates a connection between a host machine and
a remote endpoint to enable a remote session.
3. Network Security
These protocols secure the data in passage over a network. These protocols also determine how
the network secures data from any unauthorized attempts to extract or review data. These
protocols make sure that no unauthorized devices, users, or services can access the network
data. Primarily, these protocols depend on encryption to secure data.
Secure Socket Layer(SSL)
It is a network security protocol mainly used for protecting sensitive data and securing internet
connections. SSL allows both server-to-server and client-to-server communication. All the data
transferred through SSL is encrypted thus stopping any unauthorized person from accessing it.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTPS)
It is the secured version of HTTP. this protocol ensures secure communication between two
computers where one sends the request through the browser and the other fetches the data from
the web server.
Transport Layer Security(TLS)
It is a security protocol designed for data security and privacy over the internet, its
functionality is encryption, checking the integrity of data i.e., whether it has been tampered
with or not, and authentication. It is generally used for encrypted communication between
servers and web apps, like a web browser loading a website, it can also be used for encryption
of messages, emails, and VoIP.
Some Other Protocols
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)
 ICMP protocol is used to retrieve message from the mail server. By using ICMP mail user
can view and manage mails on his system.
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
 SIP is used in video, voice, and messaging application. This protocol is used to initiating,
Managing, Terminating the session between two users while they are communicating.
Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP)
 This protocol is used to forward audio, video over IP network. This protocol is used with
SIP protocol to send audio, video at real-time.
Rout Access Protocol (RAP)
 RAP is used in network management. It helps to user for accessing the nearest router for
communication. RAP is less efficient as compared to SNMP.
Point To Point Tunnelling Protocol (PPTP)
 It is used to implement VPN ( Virtual Private Network ). PPTP protocol append PPP frame
in IP datagram for transmission through IP based network.
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
 TFTP is the simplified version of FTP. TFTP is also used to transfer file over internet
Resource Location Protocol (RLP)
 RLP is used to assign the resource such as server, printer, or other devices over the internet
to the user. It is used to locate the resource to the client for broadcast query.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Network Architecture

Some of the advantages of Network Architecture include efficiency, scalability, reliability, and
automation. The automated management solution that comes with NA for security and network
devices helps perform various tasks to backup and preserve configurations, which is essential to
keep operations running.

Some of the disadvantages of Network Architecture are that purchasing the necessities for
network architecture can be costly and it can last robustness when it comes to individual,
physical servers. That means it also lacks independence in some scenarios. Lastly, viruses and
malware are constant threats as infections can spread quickly throughout the network if they’re
not contained.

NETWORK MODEL

1. OSI Model
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. OSI is a seven layered architecture. All these
seven layers work collaboratively to transmit data from one layer to another. Below are the
layers of OSI Model.
 Physical Layer: Physical layer is the lowest layer of OSI model and is responsible for the
physical connection between all the required devices. The information present in physical
 layer is in the form of bits. Physical layer performs various functions such as bit rate
control, bit synchronization, transmission mode etc.
 Data Link Layer: Data Link layer provides with successful delivery of message from one
node to the another. It checks whether this delivery of message is error free. Other
functions performed by data link layer are error control, framing, flow control etc.
 Network Layer: Network Layer is responsible for the transmission of data from one host
to another host that is connected in different network. It performs other tasks such routing
and logical addressing.
 Transport Layer: Transport Layer is defined as a layer that takes services from network
layer and provides services to application layer. Other tasks performed by transport
layer are service point addressing, segmentation and reassembling.
 Session Layer: Session layer is defined as a layer that is responsible for establishing a
connection, maintenance of session and to provide with security. Other functions of session
Layer are to establish session, termination and synchronization.
 Presentation Layer: The data from application layer is extracted at the presentation layer.
This layer is also known as translation layer. The functions of presentation layer are
encryption, decryption, compression and translation.
 Application Layer: Application layer is the topmost layer of OSI Model. Application layer
is also known as desktop layer. It provides with other functions such as directory services,
mail services, network virtual terminal etc.

OSI and TCP/IP

2. TCP/IP Model
1. Network Access Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible for
generating the data and requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network
Access layer on the behalf of the receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf
of the receiver.
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by network access layer.
Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by this layer. Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.
2. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols
residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the
source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP
has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently. But
IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when compared to
the number of users.
 ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP
datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
 ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address
of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP,
Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
3. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit
missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end
communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP Transmission Control Protocol): Applications can interact with one another
using TCP as though they were physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a
way that resembles character-by-character transmission rather than separate packets. A
starting point that establishes the connection, the whole transmission in byte order, and an
ending point that closes the connection make up this transmission.
 UDP: User Datagram Protocol. The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the
other transport layer protocol. Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not
verified by UDP. Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than
TCP because it eliminates the processes of establishing and validating connections.
4. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end
communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the
complexities of data. The three main protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World
Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands
for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is
efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry
out bank transactions.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet.
The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection.
It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
 NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our
computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions.
Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a
transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at
2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
Network Operating System
The basic definition of an operating system is that the operating system is the interface
between the computer hardware and the user. In daily life, we use the operating system on our
devices which provides a good GUI, and many more features. Similarly, a network operating
system(NOS) is software that connects multiple devices and computers on the network and
allows them to share resources on the network. Let’s see what are the functions of the network
operating system.
Functions of the NOS (Network Operating System)
The following are the main functions of NOS:
 Creating and managing user accounts on the network.
 Controlling access to resources on the network.
 Provide communication services between the devices on the network.
 Monitor and troubleshoot the network.
 Configuring and Managing the resources on the network.
Advantages of Network Operating Systems
 Highly stable due to central server.
 Provide good security.
 Upgradation of new technology and hardware can be easily implemented in the network.
 Provide remote access to servers from different locations.
Disadvantages of Network Operating Systems
 Depend on the central location to perform the operations.
 High cost to buying server.
 Regular updating and maintenance are required.
Examples of Network Operating Systems
Following are the examples of network operating systems.
 Microsoft Windows Server
 UNIX/Linux
 Artisoft’s LANtastic
 Banyan’s VINES

Features of Network OS

 The Network operating system includes a few security features, such as login restrictions
via the use of passwords.

 This operating system provides a variety of internet and backup services.

 It has a number of features, including a processor guide, computerised hardware

detection, and a multiprocessing guide.

 It also has graphical interfaces that assist various auditing equipment.

Types of Network OS

1. Peer-to-Peer
Peer-to-peer networks are network resources where each and every system has the same
responsibilities and capabilities, i.e. no system in this design is more functional than the others.

In a Peer-to-Peer Network operating system, there is no master-slave connection between the

systems, meaning that each node is equal. All nodes in the network have an equal relationship
with one another and use similar software to facilitate resource sharing.

It allows multiple computers to share resources, such as printers, scanners, CD-ROM drives, and
other peripherals. Smaller workplaces with 25 or fewer workstations are best served by these
networks.

To set up a Peer-to-Peer Network, you’ll need network adapter cards, network cabling that’s
been correctly installed, and or switch network or hub to connect the PCs.

Peer-to-Peer Networks is basically a collection of computers that may share resources and are
structured. Because each computer in a workstation keeps records of its own user accounts and
security settings, the workgroup is not managed by a single computer. There exists no central
login method for workgroups, and thus there is limited security. After logging into a peer on the
network, any user can make use of any shared resources, as there is no central security. Thus the
sharing resources can be managed using a password, or the user can make some files or folders
inaccessible by making them not shared.

Pros

 Setting up and maintaining this type of system is less expensive.

 Dedicated hardware isn’t required in this case.

  Some network policies can be put up without the help of a dedicated network
administrator.

 It’s fairly simple to set up because it uses a simple cabling strategy, commonly twisted-
pair wire.

Cons

 Peer-to-Peer networks is inherently insecure due to the prevalence of share-level security.

 Any node in a system that fails has an impact on the entire system.

 As the network increases, its performance suffers.

 Peer-to-Peer networks are unable to distinguish between network members accessing a

resource.

 Each shared resource you want to govern in a Peer-to-Peer Network must have its own
password. It may be challenging to remember all of these passwords.

 The network is not under central control.

2. Client-Server

There are two main types of client-server systems:

 The backend refers to the server

 Frontend refers to the client

Client-Server Network OS refers to a server-based network where clients and servers share
storage and processing effort. Clients request services such as printing and document storage,
which are fulfilled by servers. All community services, such as digital mail and printing, are
usually handled through the server.

Client computer systems are typically less effective than server computer systems. This
organisation requires software for both customers and servers. The Network OS refers to a
software application that runs on the server and provides a community of environments for the
server and client. The Client-Server Network was created to deal with the situation when a
network connects multiple PC printers and servers. The basic concept was altered to specify a
specialised server with distinct capabilities.

Example

A file server holds the files of client machines and is connected to a large number of customers.
Another system, such as a Print Server, could be used to fulfil printing requests by utilising
several consumers. Different types of specialised servers that can be used in a Client-Server
system include web servers and email servers.

A database that can be accessed by many computers on a network is a common Client-Server

application. The database is stored on a server, and the server processes database queries
provided by clients. The results of queries are subsequently delivered back to the clients through
the network. One server may be able to handle too many clients at once.
Pros

 Due to centralised data protection, this network is more secure than a Peer-to-Peer
network.

 The allocation of labour among clients and the server decreases network traffic.

 Because the region covered is relatively large, large and modern businesses benefit from
it because it distributes storage as well as processing.

 In the Client-Server Network system, the server can be remotely accessed from many
platforms.

Cons

 Performance and security are critical concerns in Client-Server Networks. As a result,

network administration requires qualified network administrators.

 Depending on the resources, security, and connectivity, implementing a Client-Server

Network might be pricey.

Perform Network Security

Definition of network security

Definition of Network Security:

Network security is the practice of protecting a computer network and its data from
unauthorized access, misuse, malfunction, modification, destruction, or improper disclosure. It
involves the use of hardware, software, policies, and procedures to safeguard the integrity,
confidentiality, and availability of networked resources.

✅ Key Objectives of Network Security (CIA Triad):

1. Confidentiality – Ensures that sensitive data is accessible only to authorized users.

2. Integrity – Protects data from being altered or tampered with by unauthorized
individuals.
 3. Availability – Ensures that network services and data are accessible when needed.

🧩 Common Components of Network Security:

 Firewalls – Block unauthorized access to the network.

 Antivirus/Antimalware Software – Protects against malicious programs.
 Intrusion Detection/Prevention Systems (IDS/IPS) – Monitor for suspicious activity.
 Encryption – Secures data during storage and transmission.
 Access Control – Restricts who can access or modify data.

🛡️Purpose:

The ultimate goal of network security is to prevent cyberattacks, ensure safe communication,
and maintain business continuity by protecting digital assets.

Network threats

Network threats are malicious activities or potential dangers that can compromise the integrity,
confidentiality, or availability of data within a network. These threats can be internal or
external, depending on the origin.

🔐 INTERNAL NETWORK THREATS

These originate within the organization—from employees, contractors, or even trusted partners.
They are often more dangerous because internal users typically have some level of access or
trust.

Characteristics:

 Come from authorized users.

 May be accidental or intentional.
 Often harder to detect.

🧩 Examples:

1. Disgruntled Employee
 o A staff member intentionally deletes critical data or shares sensitive information
after being passed over for a promotion.
2. Data Theft by Insider
o An employee copies confidential files (e.g., customer databases or trade secrets)
to a USB drive to sell them to competitors.
3. Accidental Data Leakage
o An employee accidentally emails sensitive financial data to the wrong recipient or
uploads it to a public cloud.
4. Privilege Misuse
o A junior IT staff member with admin rights installs unauthorized software that
creates security loopholes.
5. Unauthorized Access
o An employee accesses HR or payroll systems without authorization to view
others’ salaries or personal records.

🌍 EXTERNAL NETWORK THREATS

These come from outside the organization—such as hackers, cybercriminal groups, or foreign
governments.

Characteristics:

 Originates from unknown or untrusted sources.

 Can be highly sophisticated.
 Often target large-scale data breaches or disruptions.

🧩 Examples:

1. Phishing Attacks
o An attacker sends fake emails pretending to be a bank or internal IT asking for
login credentials.
2. Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS)
o Attackers flood a network or website with excessive traffic, causing it to crash
and go offline.
3. Malware Infections
o External actors send malicious software (like ransomware or spyware) to gain
control over systems or steal data.
4. Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) Attacks
o A hacker intercepts communication between two parties (e.g., during online
banking) to steal information.
5. SQL Injection
o An attacker inserts malicious code into a website’s input fields to access and
manipulate databases.
🔄 Summary Table
Aspect Internal Threats External Threats

Origin Inside the organization Outside the organization

Access Level Usually already has some access Must breach defenses to gain access

Intent Can be accidental or malicious Almost always malicious

Employee sabotage, data theft, privilege Phishing, malware, DDoS, MitM, SQL
Examples
abuse injection

Easier with perimeter defenses (firewalls

Detection Harder due to trust and access
etc)

1. Firewalls

📌 Definition:

A firewall is a security barrier that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on predetermined security rules.

🔍 How It Works:

 Acts as a filter between trusted internal networks and untrusted external ones (like the
internet).
 Can be hardware-based, software-based, or both.
 Rules can block traffic by IP address, port, protocol, or keywords.

🧠 Benefits:

 Blocks unauthorized access.

 Prevents malicious software from connecting to external servers.
 Protects against port scanning and known attack vectors.

💡 Example:

A firewall can block incoming traffic on port 21 (used for FTP) to prevent attackers from
accessing file transfer services.

👥 2. User Accounts & Access Control

📌 Definition:
This involves managing individual accounts for each user and assigning permissions based on
their role in the organization.

🔍 How It Works:

 Each user has a username and password (and possibly two-factor authentication).
 Access is restricted based on the principle of least privilege—users only get access to
the data they need.

🧠 Benefits:

 Prevents unauthorized users from accessing sensitive information.

 Helps track user actions for auditing and incident response.
 Reduces the risk of insider threats.

💡 Example:

An HR employee can access employee records, but cannot access financial or engineering
documents.

📄 3. Security Policies

📌 Definition:

A security policy is a set of formal guidelines and rules that govern how an organization protects
its IT infrastructure and data.

🔍 How It Works:

 Outlines acceptable use of systems.

 Details how passwords should be created and changed.
 Specifies how to handle data, manage incidents, and report breaches.

🧠 Benefits:

 Creates consistency in security practices.

 Educates users on their responsibilities.
 Ensures compliance with legal and regulatory standards.

💡 Example:

A policy may require all employees to lock their computer screens when away from their desks
and change their passwords every 60 days.
🛡️4. Anti-Viruses

📌 Definition:

Antivirus software is a program designed to detect, prevent, and remove malicious software
(malware), such as viruses, trojans, spyware, and ransomware.

🔍 How It Works:

 Scans files and programs using virus signatures and behavior analysis.
 Monitors system activity for suspicious behavior.
 Often includes features like email scanning and browser protection.

🧠 Benefits:

 Prevents infections that could lead to data breaches.

 Protects both individual devices and entire networks.
 Provides early detection of known and unknown threats.

💡 Example:

If a user downloads an infected email attachment, the antivirus blocks it before it runs on the
system.

🔐 5. Encryption

📌 Definition:

Encryption is the process of converting readable data into a coded format (ciphertext) that can
only be read by someone with the correct decryption key.

🔍 How It Works:

 Used in both data at rest (stored files, databases) and data in transit (emails, internet
communication).
 Algorithms like AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) and RSA are commonly used.

🧠 Benefits:

 Prevents unauthorized reading of sensitive information.

 Even if data is stolen, it remains useless without the key.
 Essential for secure communication (e.g., HTTPS websites).
💡 Example:

Banking apps use encryption so that account numbers and transaction data are unreadable to
hackers even if intercepted.

📊 Summary Table:

Measure Purpose Key Benefit

Filters traffic and blocks unauthorized

Firewalls Protects network perimeter
access

User Accounts Controls who can access what Prevents misuse and enforces accountability

Security
Guides secure behavior and practices Ensures consistency and legal compliance
Policies

Anti-Viruses Detects and removes malicious software Protects endpoints from malware

Secures data by converting it into Protects data privacy during storage and
Encryption
unreadable format transmission

Enforce network security measures

How to Enforce Network Security Measures

Enforcing network security means putting systems, rules, and tools into action to protect the
network from threats and ensure safe operations. Here’s a detailed guide on how to effectively
enforce key network security measures:
✅ 1. Enforce Firewalls

🔧 Actions:

 Install network firewalls at the perimeter and host-based firewalls on individual

computers.
 Configure rules to block unauthorized IP addresses, ports, and protocols.
 Regularly update firewall rules based on new threats.

📌 Enforced Example:

Block all incoming traffic on ports not used by internal services (e.g., block ports 21, 23, 445).

✅ 2. Enforce User Accounts & Access Control

🔧 Actions:

 Create unique user accounts for every employee or user.

 Implement role-based access control (RBAC) to limit data access based on job roles.
 Require strong passwords and enforce regular password changes.
 Enable multi-factor authentication (MFA).

📌 Enforced Example:

HR staff can access employee records, but not financial databases or server settings.

✅ 3. Enforce Security Policies

🔧 Actions:

 Develop clear, written IT security policies (e.g., password policy, internet usage policy).
 Train employees regularly on these policies.
 Use software to enforce rules (e.g., require screen locking after 5 minutes of inactivity).

📌 Enforced Example:

Automatically log out users after 10 minutes of inactivity to prevent unauthorized access.
✅ 4. Enforce Anti-virus Use

🔧 Actions:

 Install anti-virus and anti-malware software on all computers and servers.

 Configure automatic updates and real-time scanning.
 Perform regular full system scans.
 Prevent users from disabling antivirus software.

📌 Enforced Example:

All company laptops must run the latest version of Norton or Bitdefender, updated daily.

✅ 5. Enforce Encryption

🔧 Actions:

 Encrypt sensitive files and databases using standards like AES-256.

 Use SSL/TLS for websites and email communications.
 Encrypt all data on mobile devices and laptops (full-disk encryption).

📌 Enforced Example:

Customer credit card data is encrypted both in the database (at rest) and during transmission (in
transit).

✅ 6. Monitoring and Auditing

🔧 Actions:

 Use network monitoring tools (e.g., Wireshark, SolarWinds, Splunk) to detect

suspicious activity.
 Set up log management systems to track user and system activity.
 Conduct regular audits and penetration testing.

📌 Enforced Example:

Weekly log reviews detect login attempts outside of office hours, which are flagged for
investigation.
🧾 Summary of Enforcement Strategies

Security Measure Enforcement Strategy

Firewalls Configure strict rules, monitor traffic

User Accounts Apply RBAC, use MFA, enforce password policies

Security Policies Create policies, train users, use automation

Anti-Virus Software Install, update, monitor, prevent tampering

Encryption Use for storage and transmission, enforce standards

Monitoring & Auditing Track usage, detect anomalies, respond quickly

🛠️Tools Commonly Used:

 Firewalls: pfSense, Cisco ASA, FortiGate

 Anti-virus: Bitdefender, McAfee, Kaspersky
 Monitoring: Nagios, Splunk, Wireshark
 Encryption: VeraCrypt, BitLocker, OpenSSL
 Network Security Policy
Network Security Policy – In-Depth Explanation

A Network Security Policy is a formal document that outlines the rules, procedures, and
guidelines for protecting a computer network from unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or
destruction. It defines how an organization safeguards the confidentiality, integrity, and
availability of its data and network infrastructure.

🧱 1. Purpose of a Network Security Policy

The primary goals are to:

 Prevent unauthorized access to network resources.

 Ensure safe and responsible use of network systems.
 Minimize security risks from internal and external threats.
 Define responsibilities for staff, IT admins, and third parties.
 Ensure compliance with laws, regulations, and standards (e.g., GDPR, HIPAA).
📚 2. Key Components of a Network Security Policy

🔐 A. Access Control Policy

Defines who can access what on the network, and under what conditions.

 User roles and privileges

 Use of unique IDs and strong passwords
 Multi-factor authentication (MFA)
 Access revocation when an employee leaves

🧠 Example: Only system admins can access server configurations.

🧪 B. Acceptable Use Policy (AUP)

Guidelines for how users can use network systems and resources responsibly.

 No access to inappropriate websites or content

 No installation of unauthorized software
 No sharing of confidential information

🧠 Example: Employees must not use work networks to stream movies or download pirated
content.

🛡️C. Antivirus and Malware Policy

Rules for the use, updating, and enforcement of antivirus software.

 Mandatory installation of approved antivirus software

 Automatic updates enabled
 Real-time scanning enforced

🧠 Example: All devices must run real-time malware protection and be scanned weekly.

🔥 D. Firewall & Network Protection Policy

Defines how network perimeter security is managed.

  Use of firewalls to filter traffic
 Blocking unused ports and protocols
 Segmentation of internal and external networks

🧠 Example: Internet-facing servers must be isolated in a DMZ (demilitarized zone).

🔐 E. Encryption Policy

Specifies where and how encryption should be used to protect data.

 Encryption for sensitive data in transit and at rest

 Use of SSL/TLS for web and email
 Full-disk encryption on laptops and portable drives

🧠 Example: All company emails with client data must be encrypted using TLS.

🧍 F. Remote Access Policy

Controls access to the network from off-site locations.

 Use of VPNs for remote connections

 Strong authentication required
 Monitoring of remote sessions

🧠 Example: Employees working from home must connect via VPN using company-issued
laptops.

📄 G. Incident Response Policy

Outlines how to detect, report, and respond to network security incidents.

 Steps for isolating affected systems

 Notification procedures (internal and external)
 Forensic investigation and recovery plan

🧠 Example: If a breach is suspected, the incident must be reported within 15 minutes to IT

security.
📑 H. Policy Enforcement and Sanctions

Details how the policy is enforced and what happens when it is violated.

 Monitoring tools to ensure compliance

 Disciplinary actions for violations
 Regular audits and reviews

🧠 Example: Repeated violations may result in suspension of network access.

🔄 3. Policy Lifecycle

1. Development – Created by IT and legal departments.

2. Approval – Reviewed and approved by management.
3. Implementation – Enforced through technical controls and staff training.
4. Monitoring – Regular compliance checks and audits.
5. Review & Update – Updated periodically to reflect new risks or technologies.

🧾 4. Example Summary of a Network Security Policy

Section Policy Summary

Access Control Use unique credentials; MFA required; access based on role.

Acceptable Use No personal or illegal use of network resources.

Antivirus Approved antivirus must be installed and updated.

Firewalls All internet traffic is filtered through secure firewalls.

Encryption All sensitive data must be encrypted in transit and at rest.

Remote Access Must use VPN and company-approved devices.

Incident Response Security events must be reported immediately to IT.

Enforcement Violators may face access revocation or legal action.

📌 Final Thoughts

A good network security policy is:

 Clear and easy to understand.

 Comprehensive in covering all possible threats and behaviors.
  Enforceable with real tools and monitoring.
 Flexible enough to evolve with technology.

Monitor Network connectivity and Performance

Monitoring Tools and Software (In-Depth)

📶 1. Ping

📌 Definition:

Pingis a basic network utility used to test connectivity between two devices (typically your
computer and another device/server on the network or internet).

⚙️How It Works:

 Sends ICMP Echo Request packets to a target IP address or hostname.

 Waits for Echo Reply.
 Measures round-trip time and reports packet loss if any.

📈 Used For:

 Testing if a host is reachable.

 Measuring latency (delay).
 Checking packet loss on a network.

🧠 Example:
bash
CopyEdit
ping [Link]

Shows how long it takes to send and receive data from Google's server.

✅ Benefits:

 Easy and quick to use.

 Useful for checking if a device/server is online.

🛰️2. Tracert (Windows) / Traceroute (Linux/Mac)

📌 Definition:

Tracert shows the path that a packet takes from your computer to a destination server,
including all intermediate routers (hops).

⚙️How It Works:

 Sends packets with increasing Time-To-Live (TTL) values.

 Each hop that receives the packet responds until it reaches the destination.

📈 Used For:

 Diagnosing where delays or failures occur along the path.

 Identifying routing issues or network bottlenecks.

🧠 Example:
bash
CopyEdit
tracert [Link]

Shows all the routers between your PC and Facebook’s servers.

✅ Benefits:

 Pinpoints where network issues are occurring.

 Helps analyze slow or failed connections.

🌐 3. NSLookup (Name Server Lookup)

📌 Definition:

NSLookup is a tool for querying the Domain Name System (DNS) to get domain name or IP
address mapping.

⚙️How It Works:

 Sends a DNS query to a server and returns information about domain names, IP
addresses, and DNS records.

📈 Used For:

 Checking DNS resolution problems.

 Identifying if a domain is pointing to the correct IP.
 Investigating email issues (MX records).
🧠 Example:
bash
CopyEdit
nslookup [Link]

Returns the IP address(es) for OpenAI’s website.

✅ Benefits:

 Helps detect incorrect DNS settings.

 Can be used to check multiple DNS records (A, MX, CNAME).

🖧 4. IPConfig (Internet Protocol Configuration)

📌 Definition:

ipconfig is a Windows command-line tool that displays the current IP configuration of a

computer.

⚙️How It Works:

 Shows IP address, subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS servers.

 Can also be used to release/renew IP addresses (for DHCP users).

📈 Used For:

 Troubleshooting IP address or connection issues.

 Viewing network adapter configurations.

🧠 Examples:
bash
CopyEdit
ipconfig

Displays network settings.

bash
CopyEdit
ipconfig /release
ipconfig /renew

Releases and renews IP from the DHCP server.

✅ Benefits:

 Quickly shows network status and settings.

  Helps solve IP conflicts or misconfigurations.

📡 5. Speed Test

📌 Definition:

A speed test measures the bandwidth (download and upload speeds) and latency of an internet
connection.

⚙️How It Works:

 Sends and receives data from a test server to determine:

o Download speed (data to your device)
o Upload speed (data from your device)
o Ping (latency)

📈 Used For:

 Checking network performance.

 Verifying ISP speed claims.
 Diagnosing slow internet issues.

🧠 Popular Tools:

 [Link]
 Google: just type “internet speed test”
 Command-line: speedtest-cli (Linux/Python tool)

bash
CopyEdit
speedtest-cli
✅ Benefits:

 Provides accurate measurement of internet quality.

 Helps determine if slowness is from the ISP or local network.

🧾 Summary Table

Tool Purpose Key Use

Ping Test connectivity and delay Checks if a host is online

Tracert Trace packet path through network Identifies where delays or drops occur
 Tool Purpose Key Use

NSLookup Check DNS resolution Diagnoses domain name issues

IPConfig View and manage IP configuration Troubleshoots local network settings

Speed Test Measure download/upload/ping speeds Tests real-time internet performance