ANALYSING LITERATURE: SHORT STORIES AND NOVELS

Short stories and literary analysis in general

A short story is a work of short, narrative prose that is usually centred around one single event. It is
limited in scope and has an introduction, body and conclusion. Although a short story has much in
common with a novel, it is written with much greater precision. You are required to do a literary analysis,
which requires a basic knowledge of literary elements which you find below. These elements also
provide the basis for an analysis of a longer story, like a novel.
Your literary analysis may be in the form of specific questions or in the form of an essay in which you
may be asked to give your opinion of the story at the end. Always support your analysis with examples
from the story.

Setting
Setting is a description of where and when and the social environment in which the story takes place. In
a short story there are fewer settings compared to a novel. The time is more limited.

 How is the setting created? Consider geography, weather, time of day, social conditions, etc.
 What role does setting play in the story? Is it an important part of the plot or theme? Or is it just a
backdrop against which the action takes place?

Study the time period which is also part of the setting.

 When was the story written?
 Does it take place in the present, the past, or the future?
 How does the time period affect the language, atmosphere or social circumstances of the short
story?

Characterization
Characterization deals with how the characters in the story are described. In short stories there are
usually fewer characters compared to a novel. They usually focus on one central character or
protagonist.

 Who is the main character?

 Are the main character and other characters described through dialogue – by the way they speak
(dialect or slang for instance)?
 Has the author described the characters by physical appearance, thoughts and feelings, and
interaction (the way they act towards others)?
 Are they static/flat characters who do not change?
 Are they dynamic/round characters who DO change?
 What type of characters are they? What qualities stand out? Are they stereotypes?
 Are the characters believable?
 Are there antagonists, enemies to the main character?

Plot and structure

The plot is the main sequence of events that make up the story. In short stories the plot is usually
centred around one experience or significant moment.

 What is the most important event?

 How is the plot structured? Is it linear, chronological or does it move around with e.g.
flashbacks?
 Is the plot believable?
Narrator and Point of View
The narrator is the person telling the story.
By point of view we mean from whose eyes the story is being told. Short stories tend to be told through
one character’s point of view.

 Who is the narrator or speaker in the story?

 Does the author speak through the main character?
 Is the story written in the first person “I” point of view? How reliable is he/she/it?
 Is the story written in a detached third person “he/she” point of view?
 Is there an “all-knowing” person who can reveal what all the characters are thinking and doing at
all times and in all places or is the point of view limited?

Conflict
Conflict or tension is usually the heart of the short story and is related to the main character. In a short
story there is usually one main struggle.

 How would you describe the main conflict?

 Is it an internal conflict within the character?
 Is it an external conflict caused by the surroundings or environment the main character finds
himself/herself in?

Climax
The climax is the point of greatest tension or intensity in the short story. It is the turning point where
events take a major turn as the story races towards its conclusion.

 Is there a turning point in the story?

 When does the climax take place?

Theme
The theme is the main idea, lesson or message in the (short) story. It is usually an abstract idea about
the human condition, society or life.

 How is the theme expressed?

 Are any elements repeated that may suggest a theme?
 Is there more than one theme?

Style
Style in writing is not what is said but how it is said. The author’s style has to do with the author’s
vocabulary and sentences, use of imagery, use of dialogue, tone or feeling of the story. It has to do with
their attitude towards the subject. In some stories the tone can be cold, dramatic, humorous, ironic
and/or lyrical or poetic.

 What images are used?

 Is the language full of figurative language? Does the author use a lot of Symbolism, Metaphors
(comparisons which do not use “as” or “like”) and/or Similes (comparisons which use “as” or
“like”)?
 Is the language formal or informal?
Novels
The analysis of novels is usually more complex, because the story is longer. In addition to the terms
above, the following terms will help you to elaborate on your analysis of a novel in more detail.

Dramatic Structure: Plot

The exposition
The exposition is the portion of a story that
introduces important background information
to the audience; for example, information
about the setting, events occurring before
the main plot, characters' back stories, etc.
Exposition can be conveyed through
dialogues, flashbacks, character's thoughts,
background details, in-universe media or the
narrator telling a back-story.

Rising action
In the rising action, a series of related incidents build toward the point of greatest interest. The rising
action of a story is the series of events that begin immediately after the exposition (introduction) of the
story and builds up to the climax.
These events are generally the most important parts of the story since the entire plot depends on them
to set up the climax, and ultimately the satisfactory resolution of the story itself.

Climax or crisis
The climax is the turning point, which changes the protagonist’s fate. If the story is a comedy, things will
have gone badly for the protagonist up to this point; now, the plot will begin to unfold in his or her favor,
often requiring the protagonist to draw on hidden inner strengths. If the story is a tragedy, the opposite
state of affairs will ensue, with things going from good to bad for the protagonist, often revealing the
protagonist's hidden weaknesses.

Falling action
During the falling action, the conflict between the protagonist and the antagonist unravels, with the
protagonist winning or losing against the antagonist. The falling action may contain a moment of final
suspense, in which the final outcome of the conflict is in doubt.

Dénouement, resolution, revelation or catastrophe

The dénouement comprises events from the end of the falling action to the actual ending scene of the
drama or narrative. Conflicts are resolved, creating normality for the characters and a sense of catharsis,
or release of tension and anxiety, for the reader. It is the unraveling or untying of the complexities of a
plot. The comedy ends with a dénouement (a conclusion), in which the protagonist is better off than at
the story's outset. The tragedy ends with a catastrophe, in which the protagonist is worse off than at the
beginning of the narrative.
Literary Devices

Various literary devices help convey meaning or create a mood. Look for these in a story to identify key
points and their contribution to the author’s overall meaning. The following are a few common literary
devices.

Allusion. An indirect reference to another artistic work or person, event, or place (real or fictitious). The
author makes the allusion with the intention that the well-known object will create an association with the
new object in the reader’s mind. For example, the title of William Faulkner’s novel The Sound and the
Fury is an allusion to a line in Shakespeare’s Macbeth—a futile speech made by an embittered man who
has ruined his life. Alluding to that speech in the title helps Faulkner set the tone for his story of a family
in ruins.

Foil. A character used to contrast a second, usually more prominent character in order to highlight
certain qualities of the more prominent character. In Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Fortinbras is a foil for
Hamlet in that he is unhesitating in action and war-like in nature; in contrast, Hamlet is thoughtful,
analytical, and careful.

Foreshadowing. The use of hints or clues to suggest what will happen later in a literary work. For
example, in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, Juliet tells her nurse to find Romeo’s name: “Go ask his
name. If he be married, my grave is like to be my wedding-bed.” This foreshadows the danger of
Romeo’s name being Montague and of Juliet’s death because of their marriage.

Irony. An implied discrepancy between what is said and what is meant. There are three kinds of irony:

 verbal irony is when an author says one thing and means something else;
 dramatic irony is when an audience perceives something that the characters don’t know;
 situational irony is a discrepancy between the expected result and the actual result.

For example, in Macbeth, the three witches recount the prophecies that must be fulfilled for Macbeth to
fall. He therefore believes he is invincible—ironic because these prophecies cause his downfall.

Symbolism. The use of an object or action to mean something more than its literal meaning. For
example, in Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury, one of the principle characters, Caddy, falls and stains
her white dress when she’s a child. The stained dress symbolizes (and foreshadows) her later loss of
purity. A character can also be equated with an object throughout a work, another form of symbolism. In
Eudora Welty’s Delta Wedding, an aunt is repeatedly seen carrying an empty bag, which symbolizes her
childlessness.

Motif. In narrative, a motif is any recurring element that has symbolic significance in a story. Through its
repetition, a motif can help produce other narrative (or literary) aspects such as theme or mood. A
narrative motif can be created through the use of imagery, structural components, language, and other
narrative elements. The flute in Arthur Miller's play Death of a Salesman is a recurrent sound motif that
conveys rural and idyllic notions.