1.

Explain the working principle of the chosen energy storage device with a neat diagram(6M, CO-
2,PO-1,3, BL-3)
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy by means of an
electrochemical reduction and oxidation reaction (redox reaction). Batteries are used on a large
scale in various industries.
The three major components of a battery are
o Anode: It is the negative electrode and always releases electrons in the circuit. It is
oxidized during a chemical reaction.
o Cathode: It is the positive electrode and always acquires the released electrons from
the anode in a circuit. It is reduced during a chemical reaction.
o Electrolyte: It is the medium through which ions are transferred from anode to cathode.
An electrolyte is generally an aqueous solution but many dry cells also contain a solid
electrolyte too.

2. Justify the need for energy storage in achieving energy security and cost efficiency. (6M, , CO-
2,PO-1,3, BL-4)
1. Balancing Intermittent Supply & Demand
Renewables like solar and wind generate electricity irregularly—sometimes overproducing,
other times providing none.
Storage captures surplus energy when production exceeds usage and dispatches it during
defiits, ensuring a stable, 24/7 power supply
2. Grid Support & Stability
Storage supports ancillary functions: frequency control, peak shaving, black start capability,
and grid congestion mitigation
It acts as insurance during grid disturbances, offering backup and smoothing demand spikes
3. Enabling Renewable Integration
As renewables grow, especially past 80–90% grid penetration, storage becomes vital to absorb
variable outputs and avoid fossil fuel backups
 It ensures renewables can be relied upon beyond daytime sunshine or windy periods.
4. Reducing Costs & Increasing Resilience
By storing energy during off-peak periods (when electricity is cheap) and using or selling it
during peak (when prices are high), storage enables arbitrage savings
It enhances resilience for critical services (data centers, hospitals) by providing backup during
outages
5. Accelerating the Clean Energy Transition
Storage allows us to decouple electricity generation and usage, reducing reliance on fossil-
fueled “peaker” plants
enelgreenpower.com
It enables deeper deployment of clean energy and facilitates demand-side flexibility
3. Describe and draw the Leclanché structure of a storage dry cell (8M , CO-2,PO-1,3, BL-3)

Carl Gassner patented a variant of a Leclanche cell, which came to be known as the dry cell
because it does not have a free liquid electrolyte.
Let us take an overview of the dry cell battery:
o The outermost part is a Zinc cylinder which acts as the anode.
o This anode is filled inside with a moist paste of NH4Cl & ZnCl2
o The graphite rod inside acts as a cathode.
o A paste of manganese dioxide and carbon powder surrounds the cathode.
o The voltage range of a dry cell is between 1.2V to 1.5V.These are generally used in hearing
aid applications, watches, calculators, etc.

4. Explain the differences between rechargeable (reusable) and non-rechargeable (non-

reusable) batteries in terms of working principle, applications, cost, and environmental
impact (8M, CO-2,PO-1,3, BL-3)
Difference between Primary and Secondary Battery
The differences between primary and secondary batteries are given below.

 Primary Battery  Secondary Battery

 Non-rechargeable  Rechargeable
 Designed for single use  Can be recharged and reused multiple times
 Once depleted, needs to  Can be recharged to regain energy
be replaced

 Typically has higher  Initial capacity may be lower than primary battery, but can
initial capacity be restored through recharging

 Chemical reactions are  Chemical reactions are reversible, allowing for recharging
irreversible

 Lower upfront cost  Higher upfront cost due to reusability

 lithium, etc.)  Available in various chemistries (alkaline, Available in
various chemistries (lead-acid, lithium-
 ion, nickel-metal hydride, etc.)

Suitable for applications where frequent Ideal for applications where battery can be recharged
battery replacement is feasible or desired
and reused, reducing long-term costs and waste

5. Explain the working principle of a Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery with the help of a neat
diagram. (10M, CO-2,PO-1,3, BL-3)

A Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery works based on the movement of lithium ions between the
anode and cathode through an electrolyte, during charging and discharging processes.
 Anode (Negative Electrode): Usually made of graphite.
 Cathode (Positive Electrode): Made of a lithium metal oxide (e.g., LiCoO₂, LiFePO₄).
 Electrolyte: A lithium salt (like LiPF₆) dissolved in an organic solvent.
 Separator: A porous membrane that prevents direct contact between anode and cathode
but allows ion flow.
 External Circuit: Provides the path for electron flow.
Working
 Lithium ions move from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte.
 Electrons flow from anode to cathode via the external circuit, powering the device.
 Reaction at anode:
LiC₆ → Li⁺ + e⁻ + C₆
 Reaction at cathode:
 Li⁺ + e⁻ + CoO₂ → LiCoO₂
 Charging (Battery is Charged) Lithium ions move from the cathode to the anode.
 Electrons flow from cathode to anode through an external power source.
6. Describe the structure and working of a Lead-Acid battery with a neat labelled diagram. (10
Marks, CO-2,PO-1,3, BL-2)
Lead Acid
Lead acid batteries can be bought at a reasonable cost and are used in some heavy-duty
appliances.
They generally are larger in size and heavy. They are used in devices like huge solar panels,
cars or for backup power stations.
 It is one of the oldest types of rechargeable batteries.
 Low energy-to-volume and energy-to-weight ratios.
 Has the ability to supply huge currents when needed.
 It consists of plate support, separator (insulating material) and electrolyte.
 The positive terminal consists of lead dioxide and the negative terminal
 consists of sponge lead.
 The electrolyte is generally made up of water and sulfuric acid, which splits up later into
positive hydrogen ions and negative sulphuric ions for
 charging and discharging.

7. Illustrate the working of a Nickel–Metal Hydride (NiMH) battery by drawing and labelling its
internal structure.(10M, CO-2,PO-1,3, BL-2)
 Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries
 It is another type of rechargeable battery. The chemical reaction at the positive
 electrode is very similar to the nickel-cadmium cell.
 Presently the nickel-cadmium batteries resemble a jelly roll with a porous anode and
cathode
 plates, with a separator in between.
 The nickel-cadmium battery uses an active material – nickel hydroxide as a cathode.
 Metallic cadmium (hydroxide) is used as an anode.
 The electrolyte solution inside is an aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide.
 The nickel-cadmium batteries are rechargeable and provide a constant current range
 between 1.2V to 2V and generally last longer.

8. Draw the construction of a Nickel–Iron battery (using potassium hydroxide electrolyte) and
explain its working principle in detail. (10 Marks, CO-2,PO-1,3, BL-2)
Nickel Iron batteries were initially used for the first electric car. It is also known as
the Edison battery. The nickel hydroxide acts as a cathode.
 The iron present acts as an anode.
 The electrolyte solution present in the nickel-iron battery is made up of potassium
hydroxide.
 The active elements are held in perforated pockets.
 These batteries are durable and have a long-lasting life.
 These are generally used in railway vehicles, subways, fuel-cell cars etc
 9. List and elaborate the battery that uses solid electricity mention advantage and uses ? (10
marks, CO-2,PO-1,3, BL-1)
Solid-state batteries are a type of battery that uses a solid electrolyte instead of the
liquid or gel electrolytes found in conventional lithium-ion batteries. This fundamental
difference offers several potential advantages, including higher energy density, improved
safety, faster charging times, and a longer lifespan
 Like other batteries, solid-state batteries have an anode and a cathode, which are
connected by the electrolyte.
 Separator:
In conventional lithium-ion batteries, the separator prevents direct contact between the
anode
and cathode while allowing ion flow. In solid-state batteries, the solid electrolyte often
acts as
both the electrolyte and the separator.
Advantages of Solid-State Batteries: Higher Energy Density:
Solid-state batteries can potentially store more energy for a given size or weight, leading
to
longer ranges in electric vehicles and more compact devices.
 Improved Safety:
Solid electrolytes are typically non-flammable and less prone to leakage or thermal
runaway
compared to liquid electrolytes, enhancing safety.
 Faster Charging:
Solid-state batteries may offer faster charging capabilities, potentially reducing charging
times
significantly.
 Longer Lifespan:
Solid-state batteries can potentially endure more charge cycles than traditional lithium-
ion
batteries, extending their overall lifespan.
 Greater Design Flexibility:
The solid electrolyte allows for more flexibility in battery shape and design, enabling
innovative form factors.
Applications:
Solid-state batteries are being explored for a wide range of applications, including:
 Electric Vehicles:
They are considered a promising technology for electric vehicles, potentially offering
longer
driving ranges and faster charging times.
 Consumer Electronics:
Solid-state batteries could lead to smaller, lighter, and longer-lasting portable devices.
 Energy Storage:
They can be used in large-scale energy storage systems for renewable energy sources.
 Aerospace and Defense:
The robustness and performance of solid-state batteries make them suitable for harsh
environments
10. Draw a neat labelled diagram of a Lithium–Sulfur (Li–S) battery and explain its working along
with the overall chemical reaction.(8M, CO-2,PO-1,3, BL-1)
 ➤ Working Principle
 Lithium reacts with sulfur to form lithium sulfide during discharge.
 High theoretical energy density (~2600 Wh/kg).
S8+16Li→8Li2S

Materials
 Anode: Lithium metal
 Cathode: Sulfur composite
 Electrolyte: Liquid or solid with lithium salt

Advantages
 Extremely high energy density
 Lower material cost (sulfur is abundant and cheap)

➤ Drawbacks
 Poor cycle life (due to polysulfide shuttle effect)
 Volume expansion issues
 Low conductivity of sulfur and Li₂S

11. List the key components of a solid electrolyte used in batteries (10M, CO-2,PO-1,3, BL-1)
Solid Electrolyte:
The defining feature of solid-state batteries is the use of a solid material as the
electrolyte,
which conducts ions between the electrodes. This contrasts with traditional lithium-ion
batteries that use a liquid or gel electrolyte. Anode and Cathode: Like other batteries,
solid-state batteries have an anode and a
cathode, which are connected by the electrolyte.
 Separator:
 In conventional lithium-ion batteries, the separator prevents direct contact between the
anode and cathode while allowing ion flow. In solid-state batteries, the solid electrolyte
often acts as both the electrolyte and the separator.
 Advantages of Solid-State Batteries:
 Higher Energy Density:
  Solid-state batteries can potentially store more energy for a given size or weight,
leading
to longer ranges in electric vehicles and more compact devices.
 Improved Safety:
 Solid electrolytes are typically non-flammable and less prone to leakage or thermal
runaway compared to liquid electrolytes, enhancing safety.
 Faster Charging:
 Solid-state batteries may offer faster charging capabilities, potentially reducing
charging times significantly.
 Longer Lifespan:
 Solid-state batteries can potentially endure more charge cycles than traditional lithium-
ion batteries, extending their overall lifespan.
 Greater Design Flexibility:
 The solid electrolyte allows for more flexibility in battery shape and design, enabling
innovative form factors.
 Applications:
 Solid-state batteries are being explored for a wide range of applications, including:
 Electric Vehicles:
 They are considered a promising technology for electric vehicles, potentially offering
longer driving ranges and faster charging times.
 Consumer Electronics:
 Solid-state batteries could lead to smaller, lighter, and longer-lasting portable devices.
 Energy Storage:
 They can be used in large-scale energy storage systems for renewable energy sources.
 Aerospace and Defense:
 The robustness and performance of solid-state batteries make them suitable for harsh
environments.
12. Draw the labelled diagrams of Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) and Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) batteries and
indicate the flow of ions during charging and discharging.(10M, , CO-2,PO-1,3, BL-1)

Feature Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) Battery Lithium-ion (Li-ion) Battery

Anode Material Cadmium Graphite
Cathode Material Nickel oxide hydroxide Lithium cobalt oxide or other lithium
metal oxides

Electrolyte Potassium hydroxide (aqueous) Lithium salt in organic solvent

Voltage per Approximately 1.2 V Approximately 3.6-3.7 V
Cell

Energy Density Low (~50 Wh/kg) High (~150-250 Wh/kg)

Cycle Life Long (over 1000 charge-discharge cycles) Moderate to long (500-1500 cycles)
Memory Effect Significant Minimal to none
Environmental High (cadmium is toxic and hazardous) Moderate (less toxic, but electrolyte is
Impact flammable)

Cost Lower Higher

Applications Emergency lighting, aviation, medica Mobile phones, laptops, electric vehicles,
 levices, power tool solar storage
Charging Time Short Moderate
Maintenance Requires full discharge to avoid memory Minimal maintenance required
effect

13. Compare and contrast the structure and working of a traditional Lithium-Ion battery and a Solid-
State battery. (8 Marks, CO-2,PO-1,3, BL-2)

Structure and Working of Traditional Lithium-Ion Battery:

 Contains a graphite anode and a lithium metal oxide cathode.
 Uses a liquid electrolyte (lithium salt in organic solvent) to transport lithium ions
between
electrodes.
 Includes a porous separator to prevent direct contact between anode and cathode.
 Lithium ions move from anode to cathode during discharge and reverse during charging.

Structure and Working of Solid-State Battery:

 Uses similar electrodes but replaces the liquid electrolyte with a solid electrolyte
(ceramic or
polymer-based).
 No separator is needed, as the solid electrolyte itself separates the electrodes.
 Supports lithium metal anodes, increasing energy density.
 Operates similarly by allowing lithium ions to migrate between electrodes during charge
and
discharge.

14. Differentiate between traditional Lithium-Ion batteries and Solid-State batteries in terms of
design features and safety considerations (8 Marks , CO-2,PO-1,3, BL-4)

 Feature  Traditional Lithium-ion  Solid-State Battery

Battery
 Electrolyte Type  Liquid (flammable  Solid (non-flammable
organic solvent) ceramic/polymer)
 Separator  Required  Not required

 Fire Risk  High (due to thermal  Low (more thermally stable)

runaway)
 Dendrite Formation  Possible, can cause  Reduced due to solid barrier
short-circuit
 Energy Density  Moderate  Higher (with lithium metal
anode)
 Mechanical Strength   Higher
Lower

15. Define energy density and state its significance in batteries. (5 Marks, CO-2,PO-1,3, BL-1)
Energy Density
  Definition: The amount of energy a battery can store per unit mass or volume.
 Types:
o Gravimetric Energy Density (Wh/kg): Energy per unit weight.
o Volumetric Energy Density (Wh/L): Energy per unit volume.
 Significance:
o Determines how long a battery-powered device can operate.
o Higher energy density = longer runtime or smaller, lighter batteries.
 Typical Values:
o Lithium-ion: ~150–250 Wh/kg.

16. Define power density and explain its importance in battery performance. Include a brief note on
its practical applications. (5 Marks, CO-2,PO-1,3, BL-1)
Power Density
 Definition: The rate at which energy can be delivered per unit mass or volume.
 Units: W/kg or W/L.
 Significance:o Indicates how fast a battery can deliver energy.
o Critical in high-drain applications like electric vehicles and power tools.
 Trade-off: Batteries with high power density may have lower energy density.

17. Define the term 'C-rate' in the context of battery charging and discharging, and explain its
significance." (5 Marks, CO-2,PO-1,3, BL-1)
. C-Rate (Charge/Discharge Rate)
 Definition: A measure of the rate at which a battery is charged or discharged relative
to its maximum capacity.
 Notation:
o 1C = Full charge/discharge in 1 hour.
o 0.5C = 2 hours; 2C = 0.5 hours.
 Significance:
o Higher C-rates indicate faster charging or discharging.
o Extreme C-rates can degrade battery life and cause overheating.

18. Define and explain the concepts of Cycle Life and Depth of Discharge (DoD) in batteries,
highlighting their significance in battery performance. (10 Marks, ,CO-2, PO-1,3, BL-3)

Cycle Life
 Definition: The number of complete charge-discharge cycles a battery can undergo
before its capacity drops below a specified level (usually 80% of initial capacity).
 Units: Number of cycles.
 Factors Affecting Cycle Life:
o Operating temperature.
o Charge/discharge rates.
o Depth of discharge.
 Typical Values:
o Li-ion: ~500 to 2000+ cycles.
5. Depth of Discharge (DoD)

Definition: The percentage of a battery’s capacity that has been used relative to its full (5M)
capacity.
 Example:
 o 100% DoD = full discharge.
o 20% DoD = only 20% of the battery was used.
 Significance:
o Shallower DoD improves cycle life.
o Deep discharges (high DoD) reduce battery lifespan.
 Best Practice: Operate between 20–80% charge for longevity in Li-ion battery
19. Describe the construction and working of a solar photovoltaic (PV) cell with diagram. (8M,
CO-2,PO-1,3, BL-4)

Construction
A solar PV cell is made of semiconductor materials (commonly silicon) and consists of:
1. Front Contact – Transparent material (e.g., glass) allowing sunlight to enter while
protecting the cell.
2. Anti-reflective Coating – Minimizes loss of sunlight due to reflection.
3. n-type Layer – Silicon doped with phosphorus; has excess electrons.
4. p-type Layer – Silicon doped with boron; has holes (positive charge carriers).
5. p–n Junction – Boundary where electric field is created.
6. Metallic Contacts – Conduct electricity to external circuit.
7. Back Contact – Completes the electrical circuit and reflects unused light back.
Working Principle
 Photovoltaic Effect: When sunlight hits the PV cell, photons are absorbed by the
semiconductor.
 This excites electrons, creating electron–hole pairs.
 The built-in electric field at the p–n junction drives electrons towards the n-side and
holes towards the p-side.
 Current Flow: Electrons move through the external circuit → produces DC electricity.
 Multiple cells are connected to form solar panels for higher output.

20. Compare mechanical, electrical, chemical, and thermal energy in terms of source, storage, and
conversion efficiency.(8M, , CO-2,PO-1,3, BL-2)
21. Type 22. Source 23. Storage Method 24. Efficiency Range

25. Mechanical26. Wind, moving water 27. Flywheels 28. 70–90%

29. Electrical 30. Solar, hydro, thermal 31. Batteries, capacitors32. 85–95%

33. Chemical 34. Fuels, batteries 35. Chemical bonds 36. 60–80%
21. Type 22. Source 23. Storage Method 24. Efficiency Range

37. Thermal 38. Sun, geothermal, waste39. Heat reservoirs 40. 30–50%