TELECOMMUNICATION ENG.
I (EEE 211)
LECTURE NOTES 1: Signals
and Their Properties
1
Kumasi Technical
University
www.kstu.edu.gh
Achiaa Osei-Donkor
Department of
January 25, 2023
Electrical/Electronic Engineering
Outline
Signals
Definition
Properties of
Signals
Radians and
Degrees
A Cycle in Time
Domain
Properties of
Signals
Signals
Frequency
Wavelength
Properties of Signals
Amplitude
Phase
Simple
Mathematical
Expression of
signals
Speed of a wave
Sample
Questions:
20
Signals
Signals
Definition 3
▶ A signal is a function
Properties of
Signals representing a physical quantity
Radians and
Degrees
or variable.
A Cycle in Time
Domain ▶ Typically it contains information
Properties of
Signals about the behavior or nature of
Frequency the phenomenon.
Wavelength
Amplitude ▶ A signal can be denoted by x(t),
Phase
(b) Sinusoidal signal
Simple
f (x), etc.
Mathematical
Expression of
signals
Speed of a wave
Sample
Questions:
(c) ECG Signal
Figure 1: Examples of Signals
20 (a) Speech Signal
Sinusoidal Signals/Waves
Signals
Definition 4 ▶ A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.
Properties of
Signals
Radians and
Degrees
A Cycle in Time
Domain
Properties of
Signals
Frequency
Wavelength
Amplitude
Phase
Simple
Mathematical
Expression of
signals
Speed of a wave
Figure 2: Sinusoidal wave
Sample
Questions:
▶ A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current (ac)
▶ Sinusoidal waves/signals will be considered in this course for ease of
analysis.
▶ Voltage, current or power signals will be treated as simple sinusoids.
20
Radians and Degrees
Signals
Definition
Properties of
Signals ▶ One complete cycle = 360° = 2π radians.
Radians and 5
Degrees
A Cycle in Time
▶ Both the radian and the degree are units for measuring angles.
Domain
Properties of ▶ However, the standard unit (SI unit) for measuring angles is the
Signals
Frequency radian.
Wavelength
Amplitude ▶ The radian is denoted by r and the degree is denoted by o .
Phase
Simple
Mathematical
1 rad = 57.296o (1)
Expression of
signals
Speed of a wave
1π rad = 1 × π × 57.296o
Sample
Questions:
1π rad = 1 × 3.142 × 57.296o
1π rad = 180o (2)
20
Example/Assignment - Radians and Degrees
Signals
Definition
Properties of ▶ Example:
Signals
Radians and 180o π
Degrees
6
▶ 90o = = rad
A Cycle in Time 2 2
Domain
180 o
π
Properties of ▶ 30o = = rad
Signals 6 6
Frequency
Wavelength
▶ 360o = 180o × 2 = 2π rad
Amplitude
Phase ▶ Assignment:
Simple
Mathematical 1. Find the radian values for the following angles.
Expression of
signals a. 75°
Speed of a wave b. 158°
Sample
Questions: c. 450°
2. Find the degree values for the following angles:
a. 3π rad
b. 5
7
π rad
20
Cycle in Time Domain
Signals
Definition
Properties of
Signals
Radians and
Degrees
A Cycle in Time 7
Domain
Properties of
Signals
Frequency
π
!
Wavelength (a) Wave at 45° rad .
4
Amplitude
Phase
Simple
Mathematical
Expression of
signals
Speed of a wave
Sample
Questions:
π
!
(b) Wave at 90° rad .
2
Figure 3: 90° and 45° in the time domain.
20
Cycle in Time Domain Cnt’d
Signals
Definition
Properties of
Signals
Radians and
Degrees
A Cycle in Time 8
Domain
Properties of
Signals
Frequency
Wavelength (a) wave at 180° (π rad)
Amplitude
Phase
Simple
Mathematical
Expression of
signals
Speed of a wave
Sample
Questions:
!
3π
(b) wave at 270° rad
4
20
Figure 4: 180° and 270° in the time domain.
Cycle in Time Domain Cnt’d
Signals
Definition
Properties of
Signals
Radians and
Degrees
A Cycle in Time 9
Domain
Properties of
Signals
Frequency
Wavelength
Amplitude
Phase
Simple
Mathematical
Expression of
signals
Speed of a wave
Figure 5: One complete revolution 360° (2π rad) in the time domain.
Sample
Questions:
20
Properties of Signals
Signals
Definition ▶ Signals can be described by their
Properties of
Signals
1. wavelength
Radians and 2. frequency
Degrees
A Cycle in Time
3. amplitude
Domain
4. phase
Properties of 10
Signals
Frequency
Wavelength
Amplitude
Phase
Simple
Mathematical
Expression of
signals
Speed of a wave
Sample
Questions:
Figure 6
20
Frequency of a Signal (f ) I
Signals
Definition
Properties of
Signals
Radians and ▶ The frequency (f ) of a wave is its (a)
Degrees
A Cycle in Time
number of oscillations / cycles /
Domain
revolutions per unit time.
Properties of
Signals
oscillations
Frequency 11 f =
Wavelength time
Amplitude
Phase
▶ The time frame - seconds, minutes,
Simple hrs, years, etc. (b)
Mathematical
Expression of
signals ▶ Frequency f is generally resolved per
Speed of a wave
Sample
second (s−1 ) and measured in Hertz
Questions: (H).
▶ From Figure 7 we see that higher
frequencies have more contraction and (c)
lower frequencies are expanded.
Figure 7: How frequencies are represented in
the time domain.
20
Frequency of a Signal (f ) II
Signals
Definition
Properties of
Signals
Radians and
Degrees
A Cycle in Time
Domain
Properties of ▶ Another way of depicting signal frequency is the angular frequency
Signals
Frequency
or angular speed (ω)
12
Wavelength ▶ Angular frequency or angular speed (ω)is the rate of change of the
Amplitude
Phase
angular displacement of a signal.
Simple
Mathematical
▶ ω = 2πf
Expression of
signals ▶ Angular frequency is measured in rad/s.
Speed of a wave
Sample
Questions:
20
Wavelength of a Signal (λ)
Signals
Definition ▶ Wavelength (λ) is the
Properties of distance the wave has
Signals
Radians and traveled during one
Degrees
A Cycle in Time
complete cycle.
Domain
Properties of ▶ Also defined as the distance
Signals
Frequency
between two points along
Wavelength 13 the line of a signal that differ
Amplitude
in phase by 2π radians.
Phase
Simple
Mathematical
▶ frequency of a signal is
Expression of
signals
inversely proportional to
Speed of a wave
1
its wavelength. i.e. f ∝
Sample λ
Questions:
▶ As the frequency of signals
increase, the wavelength
become shorter.
▶ Wavelength (λ) is measured Figure 8: Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength
in meters (m)
20
Amplitude of a Signal
Signals
Definition
▶ Amplitude is the magnitude of change
Properties of
Signals in a wave with each oscillation within
Radians and
Degrees
the wave.
A Cycle in Time
Domain ▶ Peak amplitude 1 : Maximum absolute
Properties of
Signals value of the signal.
Frequency
Wavelength ▶ Peak-to-peak amplitude 2 : change
Amplitude 14 between the highest amplitude value
Phase
Simple
and the the lowest amplitude value,
Mathematical which may or may not be negative.
Expression of
signals
Speed of a wave ▶ Root-mean-square peak 3 : Square
Sample
Questions:
root of the mean over the time of the
square of the vertical distance of the
graph from the rest state.
▶ Amplitude may be voltage, current or
power. Figure 9: (1) is peak amplitude, (2) is
peak-to-peak amplitude and (3) is
root-mean-square amplitude.
20
Phase of a Signal (ϕ)
Signals
Definition
Properties of
Signals ▶ The phase of a waveform is a definition of the position of a point in
Radians and
Degrees time (instant) on a waveform cycle.
A Cycle in Time
Domain
▶ Phase can also be an expression of relative displacement between
Properties of
Signals or among waves having the same frequency.
Frequency
Wavelength ▶ The phase of a waveform is expressed as an angle (ϕ or θ).
Amplitude
Phase 15
▶ It is measured in radians (rad) or degrees (° ).
Simple
Mathematical
Expression of
signals
▶ The signal waveform that is ahead in its revolution is said to be
Speed of a wave leading and the one behind is said to be lagging.
Sample
Questions:
▶ The phase shift is always a measured relative a reference phase.
▶ Figure 10 shows signals in phase with each other (d) and signals out
of phase or out of step with each other (a to c).
20
Phase of a Signal Cont’d
Signals
Definition
Properties of
Signals
Radians and
Degrees (a)
A Cycle in Time
Domain
Properties of
Signals
Frequency
Wavelength
Amplitude
Phase 16
Figure 10: Examples
Simple
(b) of signals in phase
Mathematical and out of phase
Expression of
signals with each other.
Speed of a wave
Sample
Questions:
(c)
20
Simple Mathematical Expression of signals in Time
Domain
Signals
Definition
Properties of
Signals
Radians and
Degrees
▶ In the time domain, the sinusoidal ▶ Power signal
A Cycle in Time voltage, current or power signal can be p(t) = Pm sin(2πft + ϕ)
Domain
Properties of
expressed mathemtically as:
Signals ▶ Voltage signal Pm = amplitude of the
Frequency
power signal
Wavelength v(t) = Vm sin(2πft + ϕ) f = frequency of the
Amplitude power signal
Vm = amplitude of the voltage signal
Phase
f = frequency of the voltage signal ϕ = is the phase of the
ϕ = is the phase of the voltage signal
Simple
Mathematical
17 power signal
Expression of
signals ▶ Current signal ▶ Note that though the
Speed of a wave
Sample
i(t) = Im sin(2πft + ϕ) wavelength is inherent, it
Questions:
Im = amplitude of the current signal can be determined only
f = frequency of the current signal when the speed of the
ϕ = is the phase of the current signal wave is known.
20
Speed of a Wave in Vacuum (c)
Signals
Definition
Properties of ▶ Ideally, vacuum describes an empty space or a space devoid of
Signals
Radians and
matter.
Degrees
A Cycle in Time ▶ Practically, vacuum refers to a given space which is filled with air or
Domain
Properties of gas lower than standard atmospheric pressure (101325 Pa,
Signals
equivalent to 760 mmHg (torr), or 14.696 psi).
Frequency
Wavelength
Amplitude
▶ In vacuum, EM waves travel at the same speed, i.e. speed of light
Phase (c)
Simple
Mathematical
▶ c ≃ 3 × 108 m/s.
Expression of
signals
▶ The speed of light or EM wave in vacuum (c) can be defined as the
Speed of a wave 18
Sample maximum speed at which all energy, matter, and information in the
Questions:
universe travel.
▶ The speed of light (c) relates frequency (f ) to wavelength (λ) by the
equation:
c=fλ
20
Speed of a Wave in Other Media (ν)
Signals
Definition
Properties of
Signals ▶ In a medium with dielectric constant εr the velocity of the EM waves is
Radians and
Degrees
1
A Cycle in Time
ν= √
Domain
µo εr εo
Properties of
Signals 1
But, √ =c
µo εo
Frequency
Wavelength
c c
Amplitude
∴ ν= √ = (3)
Phase εr n
Simple
Mathematical
Expression of c = speed of light
√
n = εr = the refractive index of the medium.
signals
Speed of a wave 19
Sample
Questions: ▶ Like the speed, the velocity of any wave motion in free space is
related to the wavelength and frequency as
ν = fλ
20
Sample Questions
Signals
Definition
Properties of
Signals
Radians and
Degrees
A Cycle in Time
▶ A signal is defined as x(t) = 10 sin 6283 × 103 t. Find its
Domain
Properties of
a. amplitude
Signals b. frequency
Frequency
Wavelength
Amplitude ▶ A 100 kHz signal travels at a speed of 2.7×108 m/s in a medium.
Phase Determine
Simple
Mathematical a. the refractive index of the medium,
Expression of
signals b. the dielectric constant of the medium,
Speed of a wave c. its wavelength in the medium and compare with its wavelength
Sample
Questions:
20
in vacuum,
d. its angular frequency
20
